1.
Pfizer
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/ˈfaɪzər/ is an American global pharmaceutical corporation headquartered in New York City, with its research headquarters in Groton, Connecticut. It is among the worlds largest pharmaceutical companies and it is listed on the New York Stock Exchange, and its shares have been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since 2004. Pfizer develops and produces medicines and vaccines for a range of medical disciplines, including immunology, oncology, cardiology, diabetology/endocrinology. Pfizer was founded in 1849 by cousins Charles Pfizer and Charles F. Erhart in New York City as a manufacturer of fine chemicals and its discovery of Terramycin in 1950 put it on a path towards becoming a research-based pharmaceutical company. It has made numerous acquisitions, including Warner–Lambert in 2000, Pharmacia in 2003, in 2016, Pfizer Inc. was expected to merge with Allergan plc, in a deal that would have been worth $160 billion, to create the Ireland-based Pfizer plc. The merger was called off in April 2016 due to recent new rules from the United States Treasury against inversions, Pfizer is named after German-American Charles Pfizer who co-founded the company with his cousin Charles F. Erhart. There, they produced an antiparasitic called santonin and this was an immediate success, although it was the production of citric acid that really kick-started Pfizers growth in the 1880s. Pfizer continued to buy property to expand its lab and factory on the bounded by Bartlett Street, Harrison Avenue, Gerry Street. Pfizers original administrative headquarters was at 81 Maiden Lane in Manhattan, by 1906, sales totaled $3.4 million. World War I caused a shortage of calcium citrate that Pfizer imported from Italy for the manufacture of citric acid, Pfizer chemists learned of a fungus that ferments sugar to citric acid and were able to commercialize production of citric acid from this source in 1919. As a result, Pfizer developed expertise in fermentation technology, in the 1940s, penicillin became very inexpensive. As a result, Pfizer searched for new antibiotics with greater profit potential, Pfizers discovery and commercialization of Terramycin in 1950 changed the company from a manufacturer of fine chemicals to a research-based pharmaceutical company. To augment its research in technology, Pfizer developed a drug discovery program focusing on in vitro synthesis. Pfizer also established a health division in 1959 with an 700-acre farm and research facility in Terre Haute. By the 1950s, Pfizer had established offices in Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, in 1960, the company moved its medical research laboratory operations out of New York City to a new facility in Groton, Connecticut. In 1980 Pfizer launched Feldene, a prescription medication that became Pfizers first product to reach one billion United States dollars in total sales. During the 1980s and 1990s, Pfizer Corporation growth was sustained by the discovery and marketing of Zoloft, Lipitor, Norvasc, Zithromax, Aricept, Diflucan, in this decade, Pfizer grew by mergers, including those with Warner–Lambert, Pharmacia, and Wyeth. In 2003, the company acquired Esperion Therapeutics for $1.3 billion, in 2004, Pfizer announced it would acquire Meridica for $125 million
2.
Opioid
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Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. Opioids are most often used medically to relieve pain, and by people addicted to opioids, opioids include opiates, an older term that refers to such drugs derived from opium, including morphine itself. Other opioids are semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs such as hydrocodone, oxycodone and fentanyl, antagonist drugs such as naloxone, the terms opiate and narcotic are sometimes encountered as synonyms for opioid. Opiate is properly limited to the alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy although some include semi-synthetic derivatives. In some jurisdictions all controlled drugs are classified as narcotics. The term can have pejorative connotations and its use is discouraged where that is the case. Primarily used for relief, including anesthesia they are also used to suppress cough, suppress diarrhea, treat addiction, reverse opioid overdose. Extremely strong opioids are approved only for use such as immobilizing large mammals. Opioids act by binding to receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system. These receptors mediate both the psychoactive and the effects of opioids. The side effects of opioids may include itchiness, sedation, nausea, respiratory depression, constipation, Tolerance and dependence will develop with continuous use, requiring increasing doses and leading to a withdrawal syndrome upon abrupt discontinuation. The euphoria attracts recreational use, and frequent, escalating recreational use of opioids typically results in addiction, accidental overdose or concurrent use with other depressant drugs commonly results in death from respiratory depression. Because of opioid drugs reputation for addiction and fatal overdose, most are controlled substances, illicit production, smuggling, and addiction to opioids prompted treaties, laws and policing which have realized limited success. In 2013 between 28 and 38 million people used opioids illicitly, in 2011 an estimated 4 million people in the United States used opioids recreationally or were dependent on them. Current increased rates of use and addiction are attributed to over-prescription of opioid medications. Conversely, fears about over-prescribing, exaggerated side effects and addiction from opioids are similarly blamed for under-treatment of pain, the term opioid originated in the 1950s. It combines opium + -oid meaning opiate-like, by the late 1960s, research found that opiate effects are mediated by activation of specific molecular receptors in the nervous system, which were termed opioid receptors. The definition of opioid was later refined to refer to substances that have activities that are mediated by the activation of opioid receptors
3.
Opium
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Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy. The latex also contains the closely related opiates codeine and thebaine, the word meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies. The production of opium has not changed since ancient times, through selective breeding of the Papaver somniferum plant, the content of the phenanthrene alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. For the illegal trade, the morphine is extracted from the opium. It is then converted to heroin which is two to four times as potent, and increases the value by two to four times, the reduced weight and bulk make it easier to smuggle. Evidence from ancient Greece indicate that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, medical poultices, Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, Opium has been actively collected since prehistoric times. Though western scholars typically estimate this to be around 1500 BCE, Indian scholars maintain that the verses and the history contained in them have been orally transmitted thousands of years before. A common name for males in Afghanistan is Redey, which in Pashto means poppy and this term may be derived from the Sanskrit words rddhi and hrdya, which mean magical, a type of medicinal plant, and heart-pleasing, respectively. The upper Asian belt of Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, numerous finds of P. somniferum or P. setigerum from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The first known cultivation of poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil. Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of juice in the morning. Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians, Opium was used with poison hemlock to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. The Ebers Papyrus, c. 1500 BCE, describes a way to stop a child using grains of the poppy plant strained to a pulp. Spongia somnifera, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery, the Egyptians cultivated opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields around 1300 BCE. Opium was traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. By 1100 BCE, opium was cultivated on Cyprus, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of Assyria and Babylonian lands in the 6th century BCE. From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power
4.
Fentanyl
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Fentanyl is a potent, synthetic opioid pain medication with a rapid onset and short duration of action. It is a potent agonist at receptors in the brain. Fentanyl was first made by Paul Janssen in 1960, following the inception of pethidine several years earlier. Janssen developed fentanyl by assaying analogues of the related drug pethidine for opioid activity. The widespread use of fentanyl triggered the production of fentanyl citrate, following this, many other fentanyl analogues were developed and introduced into medical practice, including sufentanil, alfentanil, remifentanil, and lofentanil. As of 2012, fentanyl was the most widely used synthetic opioid in medicine, in 2013,1700 kilograms were used globally. Fentanyl is also used as a drug, leading to thousands of overdose deaths from 2000 to 2017. Deaths have also resulted from improper medical use, intravenous fentanyl is often used for anesthesia and analgesia. During anaesthesia it is used along with a hypnotic agent like propofol. Fentanyl may be included in a solution along with local anesthetic for neuraxial administration and it is also administered in combination with a benzodiazepine, such as midazolam, to produce sedation for procedures such as endoscopy, cardiac catheterization, and oral surgery. It is often used in the management of pain including cancer pain. Fentanyl transdermal patches are used in pain management. The patches work by slowly releasing fentanyl through the skin into the bloodstream over 48 to 72 hours, dosage is based on the size of the patch, since, in general, the transdermal absorption rate is constant at a constant skin temperature. Rate of absorption is dependent on a number of factors, body temperature, skin type, amount of body fat, and placement of the patch can have major effects. The different delivery systems used by different makers will also affect rates of absorption. Under normal circumstances, the patch will reach its full effect within 12 to 24 hours, thus and it is unclear if fentanyl gives pain relief to people with neuropathic pain. People with moderate to severe renal failure, troublesome side effects of oral morphine, hydromorphone, or oxycodone. Care must be taken to guard against the application of heat sources which in certain circumstances can trigger the release of too much medication
5.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
6.
Opiate
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Opiate is a term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a modern term, is used to designate all substances. Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the poppy plant Papaver somniferum. The psychoactive compounds found in the plant include morphine, codeine. All opioids, like opiates, are considered drugs of abuse potential and are listed on various Substance-Control Schedules under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States. In 2013 between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally, opiates belong to the large biosynthetic group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, and are so named because they are naturally occurring alkaloids found in the opium poppy. The major psychoactive opiates are morphine, codeine, and thebaine, papaverine, noscapine, and approximately 24 other alkaloids are also present in opium but have little to no effect on the human central nervous system, and as such are not considered to be opiates. Dihydrocodeine, oxymorphol, oxycodone, oxymorphone, metopon and possibly other derivatives of morphine and/or hydromorphone also are found in trace amounts in opium, despite morphine being the most medically significant opiate, larger quantities of codeine are consumed medically, most of it synthesized from morphine. Codeine has greater and more predictable oral bioavailability, making it easier to titrate the dose, codeine also has less abuse potential than morphine, and because it is milder, larger doses of codeine are required. Opiate withdrawal syndrome effects are associated with the abrupt cessation or reduction of prolonged opiate usage, while the full synthesis of opioids from naphthoquinone or other simple organic starting materials is possible, they are tedious and uneconomical processes. Therefore, most of the opiate-type analgesics in use today are either extracted from Papaver somniferum or synthesized from those opiates, in 2015 researches reported successful biosynthesis of thebaine and hydrocodone using genetically modified yeast. Once scaled for use the process would cut production time from a year to several days. Heroin is one of several semi-synthetic opioids derived from the morphine, although sometimes not considered opiates, as they are not directly derived from natural opium, they are commonly referred to as opiates. Heroin is a prodrug, it is metabolized by the liver into morphine after administration. One of the metabolites of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, is also a morphine prodrug. Nicomorphine, dipropanoylmorphine, desomorphine, methyldesorphine, acetylpropionylmorphine, dibenzoylmorphine, diacetyldihydromorphine, opiate comparison World Health Organization guidelines for the availability and accessibility of controlled substances
7.
Laudanum
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Laudanum is a tincture of opium containing approximately 10% powdered opium by weight. Reddish-brown and extremely bitter, laudanum contains almost all of the alkaloids, including morphine and codeine. Laudanum was historically used to treat a variety of ailments, but its use was as an analgesic. Until the early 20th century, laudanum was sold without a prescription and was a constituent of many patent medicines, today, laudanum is recognized as addictive and is strictly regulated and controlled as such throughout most of the world. The United States Uniform Controlled Substances Act, for one example, Laudanum is known as a whole opium preparation since it historically contained all the opium alkaloids. Recent enforcement action by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration against manufacturers of paregoric, the terms laudanum and tincture of opium are generally interchangeable, but in contemporary medical practice the latter is used almost exclusively. Paracelsus, a 16th-century Swiss-German alchemist, discovered that the alkaloids in opium are far more soluble in alcohol than water, having experimented with various opium concoctions, Paracelsus came across a specific tincture of opium that was of considerable use in reducing pain. He called this preparation laudanum, derived from the Latin verb laudare, initially, the term laudanum referred to any combination of opium and alcohol. Indeed, Paracelsus laudanum was strikingly different from the standard laudanum of the 17th century and his preparation contained opium, crushed pearls, musk, amber, and other substances. One researcher has documented that Laudanum, as listed in the London Pharmacoepoeia, was a made from opium, saffron, castor, ambergris, musk. By the 18th century, the properties of opium and laudanum were well known. Opium, and after 1820, morphine, was mixed with everything imaginable, mercury, hashish, cayenne pepper, ether, chloroform, belladonna, whiskey, wine and brandy. In the 1850s, cholera and dysentery regularly ripped through communities, its victims often dying from debilitating diarrhoea, by the 19th century, laudanum was used in many patent medicines to relieve pain. To check excessive secretions. to support the system, Laudanum was used during the yellow fever epidemic. Innumerable Victorian women were prescribed the drug for relief of menstrual cramps, nurses also spoon-fed laudanum to infants. The Romantic and Victorian eras were marked by the use of laudanum in Europe. Initially a working class drug, laudanum was cheaper than a bottle of gin or wine, because it was treated as a medication for legal purposes, Laudanum was used in home remedies and prescriptions, as well as a single medication. Diarrhoea, Aqueous extract of ergot,20 grains, Extract of nux vomica,5 grains, Extract of Opium,10 grains, take one pill every three or four hours
8.
Paregoric
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Paregoric, or camphorated tincture of opium, also known as tinctura opii camphorata, is a medication known for its antidiarrheal, antitussive, and analgesic properties. In the very early 18th century, Jakob Le Mort, a professor of chemistry at Leiden University, prepared an elixir for asthma and its ingredients were assembled out of the obsolete humoral philosophy and quasi-scientific reasoning of the Renaissance. Paregoric was used in formulations for hundreds of years. Dose--For children,5 to 20 drops, adults,1 to 2 teaspoons. The other, for Batemans Pectoral Drops, is, Opium in powder, catechu in powder, camphor gum, red saunders, rasped, the opium strength of this is about equal to paregoric, and it is used for similar purposes, and doses. During the 20th century its use declined as governments regulated its ingredients Beginning in late 2011, as of August 2012, however, the manufacture of paregoric has resumed. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels, cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated, in 1906 in Britain and in 1908 in Canada laws requiring disclosure of ingredients and limitation of narcotic content were instituted. Paregoric was classified as an Exempt Narcotic, as were other medical products containing small amounts of opium or their derivatives, Tincture, Liquid No.338 was exactly 8 times the strength of Tincture Opium Camphorated, U. S. P. Designed for preparing the tincture by direct dilution, and cost $7 per pint, similarly, at a cost of $36 per pint, Opium Concentrated, for U. S. P. 336, was four times the strength of the official tincture, the catalog also noted, For quarter-pint bottles add 80c. per pint to the price given for pints. Until 1970, paregoric could be purchased in the United States at a pharmacy without a medical prescription, federal law dictated that no more than 2 ounces of paregoric be dispensed by any pharmacy to the same purchaser within a 48-hour period. Purchasers were also required to sign a register or logbook, some states further limited the sale of paregoric, or banned over-the-counter sales entirely. Even where legally permissible by law, OTC sale of paregoric was subject to the discretion of individual pharmacists and they were available over-the-counter without a prescription in many states until the early 1990s, at which time the FDA banned the sale of anti-diarrheal drugs containing kaolin and pectin. Paregoric is currently listed in the United States Pharmacopeia, in France, paregoric was available without prescription until 1986, nowadays, it is used to wean infants born to opiate-addicted women. The principal active ingredient in Paregoric is powdered opium, the average adult dose is 4 ml by mouth which corresponds to 16 mg of opium, or 1.6 mg of anhydrous morphine. It is unclear when the current formula for Paregoric, U. S. P. was developed in the United States, a slightly different formula is given in the 1926 pharmacoepia. The current formula for Paregoric, U. S. P. should not be assumed to be universal, Paregoric is sometimes confused with Laudanum, because their chemical names are similar, Camphorated Tincture of Opium vs. Tincture of Opium
9.
Co-codamol
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Codeine/acetaminophen or co-codamol is a compound analgesic consisting of a combination of codeine phosphate and paracetamol. Co-codamol is marketed under brand names in addition to the generic name. 60 mg of codeine phosphate per tablet (e. g. Tylenol 4 in US/Canada, in Australia the 30/500 tablets are available only with a prescription, and the 10/500 and 15/500 tablets are Schedule 3. Manufacturer directions state not to exceed more than the recommended dosage of two tablets every four hours with a maximum of eight over a 24-hour period and no more than two at any one time. Other drugs containing paracetamol must be avoided unless otherwise directed by a physician or pharmacist, excessive amounts of paracetamol can lead to liver damage. Co-codamol is marketed in Canada and the United States also under the generic name Atasol Codeine, in the UK it is marketed as Solpadeine Plus and Solpadeine Max, as well as Solpadol. In Australia it is marketed as Panadeine, Panadeine Extra and Panadeine Forte, co-codamol is sold as Paralgin Minor, Paralgin Forte, Paralgin Major, Pinex Forte and Pinex Major in Norway. Genetic differences between people give rise to differing rates of metabolism of codeine to morphine
10.
Dihydrocodeine
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Dihydrocodeine is a semi-synthetic opioid analgesic prescribed for pain or severe dyspnea, or as an antitussive, either alone or compounded with paracetamol or aspirin. It was developed in Germany in 1908 and first marketed in 1911, as with codeine, intravenous administration should be avoided, as it could result in anaphylaxis and life-threatening pulmonary edema. In the past, dihydrocodeine suppositories were used, Dihydrocodeine is available in suppository form on prescription. Dihydrocodeine is used as an alternative or adjunct to codeine for the aforementioned indications, the salt to free base conversion factors are 0.67 for the bitartrate,0.73 for the phosphate, and 0.89 for the hydrochloride. a. It is similar in structure to codeine. Dihydrocodeine is twice as strong as codeine, approved indication for dihydrocodeine is the management of moderate to moderately severe pain as well as coughing and shortness of breath. Controlled-release dihydrocodeine is available for pain and coughing, as indicated below, as waxy tablets containing 60 to 120 mg of the drug. Some formulations, intended for use against coughing and the like, have other ingredients such as antihistamines, decongestants. Other oral formulations, such as packets of effervescent powder, sublingual drops, elixirs, injectable dihydrocodeine is most often given as a deep subcutaneous shot. In the United States, the most common analgesic brands with dihydrocodeine are, DHC Plus, Panlor SS, ZerLor, Panlor DC and these combination products also include paracetamol and caffeine. Aspirin is used in the case of Synalgos DC, Dihydrocodeine is sometimes marketed in combination preparations with paracetamol as co-dydramol to provide greater pain relief than either agent used singly. In the UK and other countries, 30-mg tablets containing only dihydrocodeine as the active ingredient are available, the original dihydrocodeine product, Paracodin, is an elixir of dihydrocodeine hydroiodide also available as a Tussionex-style suspension in many European countries. The usual strengths are 60,90, and 120 mg and these tablets are used in some countries, such as Austria, as an alternative to methadone for management of opiate addiction. Common trade names for the tablets are Didor Continus, Codidol, Codi-Contin, Dicodin, Contugesic, DHC. These two formulations may have once contained phenyltoloxamine citrate as the antihistamine component, elsewhere in the Pacific Rim, Dicogesic in analogous to Glaxo/Smith-Klines DF-118. The manufacturer of New Bron Solution-ACE, SS Pharmaceutical Co, ltd, also markets an ibuprofen with dihydrocodeine product called S. Tac EVE, which also includes d, l-methylephedrine HCl, chlorpheniramine, anhydrous caffeine, and vitamins B1 and C. The Panlor series is manufactured by Pan-American Laboratories of Covington, Louisiana, as with other opioids, tolerance and physical and psychological dependence develop with repeated dihydrocodeine use. All opioids can impair the mental and/or physical abilities required for the performance of potentially hazardous tasks such as driving or operating machinery if taken in large doses, the antihistamine promethazine may also have a positive effect on hepatic metabolism of dihydrocodeine as it does with codeine
11.
Hydrocodone/paracetamol
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It is used as a prescription drug to relieve moderate to severe pain. It exists in tablet, elixir and solution in various strengths for oral administration and it can be addictive and is easy to overdose on. Hydrocodone/acetaminophen is a two-ingredient combination formula consisting of the opioid hydrocodone and it is indicated for relief of moderate to severe pain of acute, chronic or postoperative types. Hydrocodone/acetaminophen comes in oral solution and tablet formulations, however strength of each component may vary, in October 2014, the Drug Enforcement Administration rescheduled hydrocodone combination drugs from schedule III to schedule II due to its risk for misuse, abuse, and diversions. Hydrocodone diversion and recreational use has escalated in recent years due to its opioid effects, pregnancy category C, Risk in pregnancy cannot be ruled out. Animal controlled studies have not been conducted with this medication, low concentrations of acetaminophen is excreted through breast milk, however, hydrocodones excretion is unknown. Use with caution due to risk of toxicity. Most of the cases of injury are associated with the use of acetaminophen at doses that exceed 4000 milligrams per day. Do not take hydrocodone bitartrate and acetaminophen tablets if you are allergic to any of its ingredients, if you develop signs of allergy such as a rash or difficulty breathing stop taking hydrocodone bitartrate and acetaminophen tablets and contact your healthcare provider immediately. Acetaminophen, Liver and kidney failure, low blood sugar coma may occur, concurrent use with alcohol products may increase the risk of acute liver failure. Laboratory function tests should be used to monitor therapy in people with liver or renal disease. Mechanism of action, Hydrocodone acts primarily at the mu-opioid receptors, absorption/distribution, The oral formulation can be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and remain 20-50% bound to plasma proteins. The onset of analgesia is about 20 to 30 minutes with duration of 4 to 8 hours, metabolism/excretion, It is metabolized to norhydrocodone by cytochrome P450 3A4 and to hydromorphone, also biologically active, by cytochrome P450 2D6. Mechanism of action, Acetaminophen acts to inhibit COX enzyme, which is responsible for prostaglandin synthesis, prostaglandins increase the perception of pain. Inhibition of prostaglandin helps to alleviate pain. Absorption/distribution, The half-life of oral acetaminophen is 1.25 to 3 hours, 85% of the oral dose is excreted renally. At high doses, the supply of glutathione cannot meet its demand, the panel also cited concerns of liver damage from their acetaminophen component, which is also the main ingredient in commonly used nonprescription drugs such as Tylenol. Each year, acetaminophen overdose is linked to about 400 deaths and 42,000 hospitalizations, in 2010, more than 16,000 deaths were attributed to abuse of opioid drugs
12.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
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The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES
