1.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
2.
History of Iran
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Iran is home to one of the worlds oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 7000 BC. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel names the Persians as the first Historical People, the Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. It was the largest empire yet seen and the first world empire and they were succeeded by the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Empires, who successively governed Iran for almost 1000 years and made Iran once again as a leading power in the world. Persias arch-rival was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire proper begins in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples. Iranian people gave rise to the Medes, the Achaemenid, Parthian, once a major empire of superpower proportions, having conquered far and wide, Iran has endured invasions too, by the Greeks, Arabs, Turks, and the Mongols. Iran has continually reasserted its national identity throughout the centuries and has developed as a political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia ended the Sasanian Empire and was a point in Iranian history. Islamization of Iran took place during the eighth to tenth centuries, however, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and civilization. Iran, with its history of early cultures and empires, had suffered particularly hard during the late Middle Ages. Many invasions of nomadic tribes, whose leaders became rulers in this country, the earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that are thought to date back to 100,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian stone tools made by Neandertals have also been found, in 1949, a Neanderthal radius was discovered by Carleton S. Coon in Bisitun Cave. Early agricultural communities such as Chogha Golan in 10,000 BC along with such as Chogha Bonut in 8000 BC, began to flourish in. Around about the time, the earliest-known clay vessels and modeled human and animal terracotta figurines were produced at Ganj Dareh. There are also 10, 000-year-old human and animal figurines from Tepe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among many ancient artifacts. The two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the Zayandeh River Culture and Ganj Dareh, parts of what is modern-day northwestern Iran was part of the Kura–Araxes culture, that stretched up into the neighboring regions of the Caucasus and Anatolia. Susa is one of the settlements of Iran and the world. Based on C14 dating, the time of foundation of the city is as early as 4395 BC, the general perception among archeologists is that Susa was an extension of the Sumerian city state of Uruk. In its later history, Susa became the capital of Elam and it is one of the most artifact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East
3.
Reza Shah
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Reza Shah Pahlavi, was the Shah of Iran from 15 December 1925 until he was forced to abdicate by the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran on 16 September 1941. Four years after conducting a coup against the government, the 1921 Persian coup détat. In 1925 Rezā Pahlavi was appointed as the monarch of Iran by decision of Irans constituent assembly. The assembly deposed Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last Shah of the Qajar dynasty, Reza Shah was the first democratically elected monarch of Iran. He established a monarchy that lasted until overthrown in 1979 during the Iranian Revolution. Reza Shah introduced many social, economic, and political reforms during his reign and his legacy remains controversial to this day. Moreover, his insistence on ethnic nationalism and cultural unitarism along with forced detribalization and sedentarization resulted in suppression of several ethnic, Rezā Shah Pahlavi was born in the village of Alasht in Savadkuh County, Māzandarān Province, in 1878, to Major Abbas Ali Khan and Noushafarin Ayromlou. His father was commissioned in the 7th Savadkuh Regiment, and served in the Anglo-Persian War in 1856, Abbas Ali Khan died suddenly on 26 November 1878. Reza was barely 8 months old, upon his fathers death, Rezās mother moved with Reza to her brothers house in Tehran. She remarried in 1879 and left Rezā to the care of his uncle, in 1882, his uncle in turn sent Reza to a family friend, Vartan Gorguekoohi, an officer in the Persian army. When Rezā was sixteen years old, he joined the Persian Cossack Brigade, in 1903, he is reported to have been guard and servant to the Dutch consul general Frits Knobel. Reza was 25 years old then and he also served in the Iranian Army, where he gained the rank of gunnery sergeant under Qajar Prince Abdol Hossein Mirza Farmanfarmas command. In 1911, he gave an account of himself in later campaigns and was promoted to First Lieutenant. His proficiency in handling machine guns elevated him to the equivalent to Captain in 1912. By 1915 he was promoted to the rank of Colonel and his record of military service eventually led him to a commission as a Brigadier General in the Persian Cossack Brigade. He was also one of the last individuals to become an officer of the Neshan-e Aqdas prior to the collapse of the Qajar dynasty in 1925, throughout his lifetime, and even after his death, he was addressed with variety of titles. In his youth, based on his place of origin, he was addressed as Reza Savadkuhi, upon joining the military, he earned the name, Reza Maxim, due to his proficiency with using the Maxim gun. Yet, the most common name his comrades used to addressed him with was Reza Khan, in 1911, after rising to higher ranks within the hierarchy of Irans military, he earned the title of Reza Mirpanj, which was the equivalent of Arteshbod
4.
Westernization
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To assume, however, Western societies are not affected or changed by this process and interaction with non-Western groups is misleading. Westernization traces it back to Ancient Greece, the birthplace of Western culture. As Ancient Greece flourished, a new Empire was emerging namely Roman, the Roman Empire would take on the first process of Westernization as it was heavy influenced by Greece and created a new culture based on the principles and values of the Ancient Greek society. The Romans emerged with a culture that would lay the new foundations of Europe, Westernization can also be related to acculturation and enculturation. Acculturation is the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between groups and their individual members. After contact, changes in patterns are evident within one or both cultures. Westernization can include Americanisation and Europeanisation, with historical versions including Romanisation, Hellenisation, Francisation, other trends include Islamisation, Japanisation, Africanisation, and Sinicisation. Specifically, the extent to which domination, destruction, resistance, survival, the West was originally defined as the Western world. Ancient Romans distinguished between Oriental cultures that inhabited present-day Egypt and Occidental cultures that lived in the West, a thousand years later, the East-West Schism separated the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church from each other. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by, islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the Western canon when their stores of Greek and Roman literature jump-started the Renaissance. Western civilisation is commonly said to include United States, Canada, European Union, Australia, some countries in Latin America are considered Western countries, largely because most of its peoples are descended from Europeans. And thus their society operates in a highly Westernized way, indeed, most countries in Latin America use their official language, either in Spanish or Portuguese. According to the CIA World Factbook, there has also been immigration to Latin America from European nations other than Spain. The following countries experienced a significant influence by the process of Westernization and it is usually a member of European organisations for sports and cultural events such as UEFA and the Eurovision Song Contest. It is a member of the OECD and it is usually a member of European organisations for sports and cultural events such as UEFA and the Eurovision Song Contest. According to Sammy Smooha, an emeritus of sociology at Haifa University, Israel is described as a “hybrid, ” a modern. With the passage of time, he acknowledged, Israel will become ”more and more Western. ”But as a result of the ongoing Arab-Israeli dispute, full Westernization will be a slow process in Israel. Although geographically Lebanon is located in the Middle East north of Israel, Western influence brought in by the countrys Christians spread to the rest of its population, making todays Lebanon a unique blend of East and West
5.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
6.
Kepi
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The kepi is a cap with a flat circular top and a peak, or visor. Etymologically, the term is a loanword of the French képi, itself a version of the Alemannic Käppi. In Europe, this headgear is most commonly associated with French military, in North America, it is usually associated with the American Civil War, as it was worn by soldiers on both sides of the conflict. The kepi was formerly the most common headgear in the French Army and these were intended as alternatives to the heavier, cloth-covered leather French Army shako. As a light and comfortable headdress, it was adopted by the infantry regiments for service and daily wear. In 1852, a new soft cloth cap was introduced for campaign, called bonnet de police à visière, this was the first proper model of the kepi. The visor was generally squarish in shape and oversized and was referred to as bec de canard, subsequent designs reduced the size of the cap and introduced chinstraps and buttons. The kepi became well known outside France during the Crimean War and was adopted in various forms by a number of other armies during the 1860s and 1870s. In 1870 when troops were mobilized for the Franco-Prussian War large numbers of French soldiers either refused to wear the issued shakos or threw them away, emperor Napoléon III abolished the infantry shako for active service and replaced it with the kepi on 30 July 1870. In 1876, a new model appeared with a visor, as the squared visor drooped when wet. The model used in World War I was the 1886 pattern, by 1900, the kepi had become the standard headdress of most French army units and a symbol of the French soldier. It appeared in dress and service versions. Officers ranks were shown by gold or silver braiding on the kepi, the different branches were distinguished by the colours of the cap - see the table. Cavalry normally wore shakos or plumed helmets, reserving red kepis with light or dark blue bands for wear in barracks, general officers wore kepis with gold oak leaves embroidered around the band. In 1914 most French soldiers wore their kepis to war, Officers, however, still wore kepis behind the lines. Following the war the kepi was gradually reintroduced in the peacetime French Army, the Foreign Legion resumed wearing it in 1926, initially in red and blue and then in 1939 with white covers on all occasions. The bulk of the French army readopted the kepi in the traditional branch colours for off-duty wear during the 1930s. It had now become a straight sided and higher headdress than the soft cap
7.
Beige
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Beige is variously described as a pale sandy fawn color, a grayish tan, a light-grayish yellowish brown, or a pale to grayish yellow. It takes its name from French, where the word originally meant natural wool that has been neither bleached nor dyed and it has come to be used to describe a variety of light tints chosen for their neutral or pale warm appearance. Beige was used as a term in the modern sense in France beginning approximately 1855-60. The first recorded use of beige as a name in English was in 1887. Beginning in the 1920s, the meaning of beige expanded so that it is now used not only for pale yellowish-brown colors. Some of more notable of these tints and shades are shown below, Beige is notoriously difficult to produce in traditional offset CMYK printing due to the low levels of inks used on each plate, often it will print in purple or green and vary within a print run. Cosmic latte is a name assigned in 2002 to the color of the universe. The first recorded use of cream as a name in English was in 1590. Unbleached silk is one of the Japanese traditional colors in use beginning in 660 CE in the form of various dyes that are used in designing kimonos. The name of this color in Japanese is shironeri, the first recorded use of Tuscan as a color name in English was in 1887. Buff is a pale yellow-brown color that got its name from the color of buffed leather. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, buff as a descriptor of a color was first used in the London Gazette of 1686, the color desert sand may be regarded as a deep shade of beige. It is a tint of a color called desert. The color name desert was first used in 1920, in the 1960s the American Telephone & Telegraph Company marketed desert sand colored telephones for offices and homes. However, they described the color as beige and it is therefore common for many people to refer to the color desert sand as beige. Ecru comes from the French word écru, which means raw or unbleached. Since at least the 1950s, however, the color ecru has been regarded as a different color from beige, khaki was designated in the 1930 book A Dictionary of Color, the standard for color nomenclature before the introduction of computers. The first recorded use of khaki as a name in English was in 1848
8.
Armenians
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Armenians are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands. Armenians constitute the population of Armenia and the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. There is a diaspora of around 5 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry living outside of modern Armenia. The largest Armenian populations today exist in Russia, the United States, France, Georgia, Iran, Germany, Ukraine, Lebanon, Brazil and Syria. With the exceptions of Iran and the former Soviet states, the present-day Armenian diaspora was formed mainly as a result of the Armenian Genocide, most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the worlds oldest national church. Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew, in the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as a state religion. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people. It was first used by neighbouring countries of ancient Armenia, the earliest attestations of the exonym Armenia date around the 6th century BC. In his trilingual Behistun Inscription dated to 517 BC, Darius I the Great of Persia refers to Urashtu as Armina (in Old Persian, Armina and Harminuya. In Greek, Αρμένιοι Armenians is attested from about the same time, xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians and it is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. Movses Khorenatsi, the important early medieval Armenian historian, wrote that the word Armenian originated from the name Armenak or Aram, the Armenian Highland lies in the highlands surrounding Mount Ararat, the highest peak of the region. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, soon after Hayasa-Azzi were Arme-Shupria, the Nairi and the Kingdom of Urartu, who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire reached the Caucasus Mountains, yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov proposed the Indo-European homeland around the Armenian Highland, eric P. Hamp in his 2012 Indo-European family tree, groups the Armenian language along with Greek and Ancient Macedonian in the Pontic Indo-European subgroup. In Hamps view the homeland of this subgroup is the northeast coast of the Black Sea and he assumes that they migrated from there southeast through the Caucasus with the Armenians remaining after Batumi while the pre-Greeks proceeded westwards along the southern coast of the Black Sea. However, fresh genetics studies explain Armenian diversity by several mixtures of Eurasian populations that occurred between ~3,000 and ~2,000 b. c
9.
Robert Byron
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Robert Byron was a British travel writer, best known for his travelogue The Road to Oxiana. He was also a writer, art critic and historian. Byron was born in 1905, and educated at Eton and Merton College, Oxford, from which he was expelled for his hedonistic and he was best known at Oxford for his impersonation of Queen Victoria. He died in 1941, during the Second World War, when the ship on which he was travelling was torpedoed by a U-Boat off Cape Wrath, Scotland, Byron travelled to widely different places, Mount Athos, India, the Soviet Union, and Tibet. In his day, Byrons travel books were outsold by those of writers Peter Fleming, an appreciation of architecture is a strong element in Byrons writings. He was an advocate for the preservation of historic buildings. A philhellene, he pioneered, in the English speaking world. Byron has been described as one of the first and most brilliant of twentieth century philhellenes and he attended the last Nuremberg Rally, in 1938, with Nazi sympathiser Unity Mitford. Byron knew her through his friendship with her sister Nancy Mitford, Byrons great, though unreciprocated, passion was for Desmond Parsons, younger brother of the 6th Earl of Rosse, who was regarded as one of the most magnetic men of his generation. They lived together in Peking, in 1934, where Desmond developed Hodgkins Disease, of which he died in Zurich, in 1937, when only 26 years old. Byron died aged 35 in 1941 after his ship, the SS Jonathan Holt, was torpedoed by U-97 a Type VIIC submarine in the North Atlantic, an acquaintance from early days, Evelyn Waugh noted Byrons gumption. In 1928 he wrote to Henry Yorke I hear Robert has beaten us all by going to India in an aeroplane which is the sort of success which I call tangible. Prince Charles read Byrons prose All These I Learnt on BBC Radio 4 on National Poetry Day,5 October 2006, in February 2012, his book Europe in the Looking Glass was serialised by BBCs Radio 4 Book of the Week. The program included detailed passages of Germany and a report of the 1922 Greek refugee exodus. Reflections of a Motor Drive from Grimsby to Athens The Station – visiting the Greek monasteries of Mount Athos The Byzantine Achievement Birth of Western Painting, a History of colour, form, and iconography. London, London Passenger Transport Board, Letters home edited by Lucy Butler, abroad, British Literary Traveling Between the Wars. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, works by Robert Byron at Faded Page http, //www. artandarchitecture. org. uk/search/results. html. _photographer=%22ULAN33812%22&display=+Robert+Byron Photographs of buildings taken by Byron. Http, //www. courtauldimages. com Photographs of Central Asia by Byron, http, //www. blinkx. com/burl. blinkxreferrer=resultTitle&v=A9_zDoNdp4no_dJPgwQV1w His biographer James Knox talking briefly of Robert Byron
10.
Islamic Consultative Assembly
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The Islamic Consultative Assembly, also called the Iranian Parliament, the Iranian Majlis, is the national legislative body of Iran. The Parliament currently has 290 representatives, changed from the previous 272 seats since the 18 February 2000 election, the most recent election took place on 26 February 2016 and the new parliament was opened on 28 May 2016. Before the Islamic Revolution, Majlis was also the name of the house of the Iranian Legislature from 1906 to 1979. It was created by the Iran Constitution of 1906 and first convened on 7 October 1906, women were not allowed to vote or be elected to the Parliament until 1963, as part of reforms under the Shahs White Revolution. The twenty-first National Consultative Assembly, which included female representatives, opened on 6 October 1963, the last session of the Pre-Revolution Parliament was held on 7 February 1979. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Senate of Iran was abolished and was replaced by the Guardian Council thus the Iranian legislature remained bicameral. In the 1989 revision of the constitution, the National Consultative Assembly became the Islamic Consultative Assembly, the Parliament of Iran has had six chairmen since the Iranian Revolution. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani was the first chairman, from 1980 to 1989, then came Mehdi Karroubi, Ali Akbar Nategh-Nouri, Mehdi Karroubi, Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel and Ali Larijani since 2008. The Islamic Consultative Assembly can legislate laws on all issues within the limits of the Constitution, the Assembly cannot, for instance, enact laws contrary to the canons and principles of the official religion of the country or to the Constitution. Government bills are presented to the Islamic Consultative Assembly after receiving the approval of the Council of Ministers, the Islamic Consultative Assembly has the right to investigate and examine all the affairs of the country. International treaties, protocols, contracts, and agreements must be approved by the Islamic Consultative Assembly, receiving and issuing national or international loans or grants by the government must be ratified by the Islamic Consultative Assembly. The President must obtain, for the Council of Ministers, after being formed and before all other business, all legislation passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly must be sent to the Guardian Council. The Guardian Council must review it within a maximum of ten days from its receipt with a view to ensuring its compatibility with the criteria of Islam, if it finds the legislation incompatible, it will return it to the Assembly for review. Otherwise the legislation will be deemed enforceable, currently, there are 290 members of Parliament, fourteen of whom represent non-Muslim religious minorities, and are popularly elected for four-year terms. About 8% of the Parliament are women, while the average is 13%. The Parliament can force the dismissal of cabinet ministers through no-confidence votes, although the executive proposes most new laws, individual deputies of the Parliament also may introduce legislation. Deputies also may propose amendments to bills being debated, the Parliament also drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Peoples House of Iran candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council, candidates must pledge in writing that they are committed, in theory and in practice, to the Iranian constitution
11.
Fedora
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A fedora /fɪˈdɔːrə/ is a felt hat with a soft brim and indented crown. It is typically creased lengthwise down the crown and pinched near the front on both sides, Fedoras can also be creased with teardrop crowns, diamond crowns, center dents, and others, and the positioning of pinches can vary. The typical crown height is 4.5 inches, the brim is usually approximately 2.5 inches wide, but may be wider, can be left raw edged, finished with a sewn overwelt or underwelt, or bound with a trim-ribbon. Stitched edge means that there is one, two or more rows of stitching radiating inward toward the crown, the Cavanagh Edge is a welted edge with invisible stitching to hold it in place and is a very expensive treatment that can no longer be performed by modern hat factories. The term fedora was in use as early as 1891 and its popularity soared, and eventually it eclipsed the similar-looking homburg. Fedoras can be made of wool, cashmere, rabbit or beaver felt and these felts can also be blended to each other with mink or chinchilla and rarely with vicuña, guanaco, cervelt, or mohair. They can also be made of straw, cotton, waxed or oiled cotton, hemp, many fedoras have a wide brim. Those with small brims are often called trilbies, a special variation is the rollable, foldaway or crushable Fedora with a certain or open crown. Special Fedoras have a crown with grommets, meshinlets or with penetrations for a better air circulation. Fedoras can be lined or unlined and have a leather or cloth or ribbon sweatband, small feathers are sometimes added as decoration. Fedoras can be equipped with a chinstrap, but this is rare, the term fedora was in use as early as 1891. Its popularity soared, and eventually it eclipsed the similar-looking homburg, the word fedora comes from the title of an 1882 play by dramatist Victorien Sardou, Fédora, which was written for Sarah Bernhardt. The play was first performed in the United States in 1889, Bernhardt played Princess Fédora Romanoff, the heroine of the play. During the play, Bernhardt – a notorious cross-dresser – wore a center-creased, the hat was fashionable for women, and the womens rights movement adopted it as a symbol. After Edward, Prince of Wales started wearing them in 1924, it became popular among men for its stylishness and its ability to protect the head from the wind. Since the early part of the 20th century, many Haredi, Fedoras became widely associated with gangsters and Prohibition, a connection coinciding with the height of the hats popularity between the 1920s and the early 1950s. In the second half of the 1950s, the fedora fell out of favor in a shift towards more informal clothing styles, though Greasers wore the hats with their leather jackets, by the early 21st century, the fedora had become a symbol of hipsters. Indiana Jones re-popularized the fedora in the Indiana Jones franchise, johnny Depp is known to often wear a fedora
12.
Mashhad
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Mashhad is the second most populous city in Iran and capital of Razavi Khorasan Province. It is located in the northeast of the country, close to the borders of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan and its population was 2,749,374 at the 2011 census and its built-up area was home to 2,782,976 inhabitants including Mashhad Taman and Torqabeh cities. It was a major oasis along the ancient Silk Road connecting with Merv in the East, the city is most famous and revered for housing the tomb of Imam Reza, the eighth Shia Imam. Every year, millions of pilgrims visit the Imam Reza shrine, the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid is also buried within the shrine. Mashhad has experienced the rise and fall of many governments over the course of history, many Arab, Turkish, and especially Mongolian and Afghan tribes have brought great changes in the language, ethnicity and culture of the people each in their own time. Surprisingly, Mashhad enjoyed relative prosperity in its economy in the Mongol period, Mashhad is mistakenly known as the city of Ferdowsi, the Iranian poet of Shahnameh, which is considered to be the national epic of Iran. Ferdowsi and Akhavan Sales are both buried in Tus, an ancient city that is considered to be the origin of the current city of Mashhad. On 30 October 2009, Irans then-President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad declared Mashhad as Irans spiritual capital, the name Mashhad comes from Arabic, meaning the place of martyrdom the place where Ali ar-Ridha, the eighth Imam of Shia Muslims, suddenly died and so his shrine was placed there. At the beginning of the 9th century, Mashhad was a village called Sanabad. There was a palace of Humayd ibn Qahtaba, the governor of Khurasan. In 808, when Harun al-Rashid, Abbasid caliph, was passing through there to quell the insurrection of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Transoxania, he became ill and he was buried under the palace of Humayd ibn Qahtaba. Due to this event, the Dar al-Imarah was known as the Mausoleum of Haruniyyeh. Several years later in 818 Ali al-Ridha was martyred by al-Mamun and was buried beside the grave of Harun. Although some believe that after this event, the city was called Mashhad al-Ridha, it seems that Mashhad, as a place-name, first appears in al-Maqdisi, about the middle of the 14th century, the traveller Ibn Battuta uses the expression town of Mashhad al-Rida. Shias started visiting there for pilgrimage of his grave, by the end of the 9th century, a dome was built on the grave and many buildings and bazaars sprang up around it. During more than a millennium it has been devastated and reconstructed several times, in 1161 however, the Ghuzz Turks succeeded in taking the place, but they spared the sacred area in their pillaging. Thus the survivors of the migrated to Mashhad. The only well-known food in Mashhad, sholeh Mashhadi or Sholeh, dates back to the era of the Mongolian invasion when it is thought to be cooked with any food available and be a Mongolian word
13.
Fez
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The tarboosh and the modern fez, which is similar, owe much of their development and popularity to the Ottoman era. Geography affects culture and Fez is situated in the Berber lands between the Atlas mountains and the Western Sahara desert which experiences both high wind, and strong sunlight, the traditional local headgear is a light turban that can be pulled over the neck and face to protect the skin. Because the area is defensible it has occupied since Roman times. The fez is a part of the clothing of Cyprus. Traditionally, women wore a red fez over their heads, instead of a headscarf, the fez was sometimes worn by men with material around the base. In his 1811 journey to Cyprus, John Pinkerton describes the fez, in the Karpass Peninsula, white caps are worn, a style considered to be based on ancient Cypriot Hellenic-Phoenician attire, thus preserving mens head-wear from 2,700 years earlier. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire suppressed the Janissaries and his modernized military adopted Western style uniforms and, as headdresses, the fez with a cloth wrapped around it. In 1829 the Sultan ordered his officials to wear the plain fez. The intention was to coerce the populace at large to update to the fez, although tradesmen and artisans generally rejected the fez, it became a symbol of modernity throughout the Near East, inspiring similar decrees in other nations. To meet escalating demand, skilled fez makers were induced to immigrate from North Africa to Constantinople, styles soon multiplied, with nuances of shape, height, material, and hue competing in the market. The striking scarlet and merlot colors of the fez were initially achieved through an extract of cornel, however, the invention of low-cost synthetic dyes soon shifted production of the hat to the factories of Strakonice, Czech Republic. Although the headdress survived, the year-long boycott brought the end of its universality in the Ottoman Empire as other styles became socially acceptable, the fez was initially a brimless bonnet of red, white, or black with a turban woven around. Later the turban was eliminated, the shortened, and the color fixed to red. Praying while wearing a fez—instead of a headdress with brim—was easier because Muslims put their foreheads on the many times during the prayer sessions. Initially a symbol of Ottoman modernity, the fez over time came to be seen as part of an Oriental cultural identity. Seen as exotic and romantic in the west, it enjoyed a vogue as part of mens luxury smoking outfit in the United States, the fez had become traditional to the point that Mustafa Kemal Atatürk banned it in Turkey in 1925 as part of his modernizing reforms. A version of the fez was used as a cap for the 1400–1700s version of the mail armour head protector. The red fez with blue tassel was the headdress of the Turkish Army from the 1840s until the introduction of a khaki service dress and peakless sun helmet in 1910
14.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
