1.
Kinship
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Anthropologist Robin Fox states that the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are working with the raw material as exists in the animal world. These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of economic, political. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of relationships in one or more human cultures. Further, even within two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i. e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called affinity in contrast to the relationships that arise in ones group of origin, in some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors and this may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into groups, roles, categories. Family relations can be represented concretely or abstractly by degrees of relationship, a relationship may be relative or reflect an absolute. Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession, many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety. In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared origin, a shared historical or cultural connection. For example, a person studying the roots of human languages might ask whether there is kinship between the English word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, in biology, kinship typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of relationship between individual members of a species. It may also be used in this sense when applied to human relationships. Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, in most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. Kin terminologies can be descriptive or classificatory
2.
Consanguinity
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Consanguinity is the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that aspect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person, the laws of many jurisdictions set out degrees of consanguinity in relation to prohibited sexual relations and marriage parties. Rules of Consanguinity are also used to determine heirs of an estate according to statutes that govern intestate succession, the Knot System is a numerical notation that defines consanguinity. Issues of consanguinity arise in several aspects of the law, Laws prohibiting incest govern the degree of kinship within which marriage or sexual intercourse is permitted. These are almost universally prohibited within the degree of consanguinity. Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between first cousins, while others do not, marriage with aunts and uncles is legal in several countries. Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to intestate succession, in general, the law favors inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions bar citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity with persons involved in the case, in many countries, laws prohibiting nepotism bar employment of, or certain kinds of contracts with, the near relations of public officers or employees. Under Roman civil law, which early canon law of the Catholic Church followed, in the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated. Eventually the nobility became too interrelated to marry as the pool of non-related prospective spouses became smaller and they had to either defy the churchs position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates. In 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council made what they believed was a change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four. The method of calculating prohibited degrees was changed also, instead of the former practice of counting up to the common ancestor then down to the proposed spouse, the new law computed consanguinity by counting back to the common ancestor. After 1215 the general rule was that while fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, in fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity were relatively few. The connotations of degree of consanguinity varies by context, most cultures define a degree of consanguinity within which sexual interrelationships are regarded as incestuous. The rule is strict on the mothers side, where the limit is about four generations back. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups, islamThe category includes those one is forbidden to marry due to relationship of blood as well as some who are forbidden due to marital relations. And do not marry women whom your fathers married except what has already passed and it was indeed obscene, hateful and an evil way. And those already married except those whom your right hand possesses, and allowed for you are all besides these if you seek them with your property seeking chastity not fornication
3.
Marriage
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The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest, prescriptive marriage rules, parental choice and individual desire. In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, child marriage, polygamy, conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for womens rights and because of international law. These trends coincide with the human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, an authority, a tribal group. It is often viewed as a contract, Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce, some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of laws against the practice. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005 and these changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. The word marriage derives from Middle English mariage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE and this in turn is derived from Old French, marier, and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married. The adjective marīt-us -a, -um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the form as a noun for husband. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures, even within Western culture, definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between. The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as a union between a man and a such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners. In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to a woman, none of these men had legal rights to the womans child. Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that a definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. In 1955 article in Man, Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures and he offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures
4.
Monogamy
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Monogamy is a form of relationship in which an individual has only one partner during his or her lifetime or at any one time, as compared to polygyny, polyandry, or polyamory. The term is applied to the social behavior of some animals. It is important to have an understanding of the nomenclature of monogamy because scientists use the term monogamy for different relationships. Biologists, biological anthropologists, and behavioral ecologists often use the term monogamy in the sense of sexual, if not genetic, modern biological researchers, using the theory of evolution, approach human monogamy as the same in human and non-human animal species. They postulate the following four aspects of monogamy, Marital monogamy refers to marriages of two people. Social monogamy refers to two living together, having sex with each other, and cooperating in acquiring basic resources such as shelter, food. Sexual monogamy refers to two partners remaining sexually exclusive with other and having no outside sex partners. Genetic monogamy refers to sexually monogamous relationships with genetic evidence of paternity, when cultural or social anthropologists and other social scientists use the term monogamy, the meaning is social or marital monogamy. There are also philosophical aspects in the field of interest of e. g. philosophical anthropology and philosophy of religion, the word monogamy comes from the Greek μονός, monos which means alone, and γάμος, gamos which means marriage. According to the Ethnographic Atlas, of 1,231 societies from around the noted,186 were monogamous,453 had occasional polygyny,588 had more frequent polygyny. Many societies that we consider monogamous in fact allow easy divorce, in many western countries divorce rates approach 50%. Those who remarry do so on average 3 times, divorce and remarriage can thus result in serial monogamy, i. e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time. In all, these account for 16 to 24% of the monogamous category, the prevalence of sexual monogamy can be roughly estimated as the percentage of married people who do not engage in extramarital sex. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample describes the amount of sex by men and women in over 50 pre-industrial cultures. The amount of sex by men is described as universal in 6 cultures, moderate in 29 cultures, occasional in 6 cultures. The amount of sex by women is described as universal in 6 cultures, moderate in 23 cultures, occasional in 9 cultures. These findings support the claim that the amount of extramarital sex differs across cultures. Recent surveys conducted in non-Western nations have found cultural and gender differences in extramarital sex
5.
Polygyny
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Polygyny is the most common and accepted form of polygamy, entailing the marriage of a man with several women. Most countries that permit polygamy are Muslim-majority countries in which polygyny is the only form permitted, polyandry is illegal in virtually every state of the world. In some countries where polygamy is illegal, and sometimes even when legal, at times it is known for men to have one or more mistresses, whom they do not marry. The status of a mistress is not that of a wife, throughout the polygyny belt stretching from Senegal in the west to Tanzania in the east, as many as a third to a half of married women are in polygynous unions. Historically, polygyny was partly accepted in ancient Hebrew society, in classical China, in India it was known to have been practiced during ancient times. It was accepted in ancient Greece, until the Roman Empire, Boserup was the first to propose that the high incidence of polygyny in sub-Saharan Africa is rooted in the sexual division of labor in hoe-farming and the large economic contribution of women. In the regions of shifting cultivation where polygyny is most frequently recorded, the task of felling trees in preparation of new plots is usually done by older boys and very young men. An elderly cultivator, with wives and likely several young male children. By the combined efforts of his sons and young wives, he may gradually expand his cultivation. A man with a wife has less help in cultivation and is likely to have little or no help for felling trees. According to Boserups historical data, women living in such a structure also welcome one or more co-wives to share them the burden of daily labor. However, the wife will usually do the most tiresome work, almost as if she were a servant to the first wife. Polygyny is considered an advantage in many rural areas. In some cases, the role of the additional wife enables the husband to enjoy more leisure. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that in some of the populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa. This favoured polygamous marriages in which men sought to monopolize the production of women who are valued both as workers and as child bearers, Goody, however, observes that the correlation is imperfect. Most research into the determinants of polygyny has focused on macro-level factors, widespread polygyny is linked to the kinship groups that share descent from a common ancestor. Scholars have argued that in farming systems where men do most of the agriculture work, in order to feed an additional wife, the husband must either work harder himself or he must hire laborers to do part of the work
6.
Polygamy
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Polygamy involves marriage with more than one spouse. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called a group marriage, in contrast, monogamy is marriage consisting of only two parties. Like monogamy, the term polygamy is often used in a de facto sense, in sociobiology and zoology, researchers use polygamy in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple mating. Polygamy is widely accepted among different societies worldwide, according to the Ethnographic Atlas, of 1,231 societies noted,588 had frequent polygyny,453 had occasional polygyny,186 were monogamous and 4 had polyandry. Polygamy is also common among animals, such as the common fruit-fly. Polygyny is the practice wherein a man has more than one wife at the same time, the vast majority of polygamous marriages are polygynous. Polygyny is legally accepted in many Muslim majority countries and some countries with a sizeable Muslim minority, in some of the sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, women do much of the work. This favours polygamous marriages in which men sought to monopolize the production of women who are valued both as workers and as child bearers, goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect and varied. Senior wives can benefit as well when their work load is lightened by the addition of junior wives to the family. Wives, especially wives, status in the community can be increased by the addition of other wives. For such reasons, senior wives sometimes work hard or contribute from their own resources to enable their husbands to accumulate the bride price for a second wife, Polygyny may also result from the practice of levirate marriage. In such cases, the deceased mans heir may inherit his assets and wife, or, more usually and this provides support for the widow and her children and maintains the tie between the husband and wives kin groups. The sororate is like the levirate, in that a widower must marry the sister of his dead wife, the wifes family, in other words, must provide a replacement for her thus maintaining the ties between them. Both levirate and sororate may result in a man having multiple wives and this is a form of de facto polygyny that is referred to as concubinage. In many polygynous marriages the husbands wives may live in separate households often at a great distance and they can thus be described as a series of linked nuclear families with a father in common. Polyandry is the practice wherein a woman has more than one husband at the same time, polyandry is much less popular than polygyny and is illegal in virtually every state in the world. It occurs only in remote communities, polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival
7.
Concubinage
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The woman in such a relationship is referred to as a concubine. The prevalence of concubinage and the status of rights and expectations of a concubine have varied between cultures as well as the rights of children of a concubine. Whatever the status and rights of the concubine, they were inferior to those of the wife. Historically, concubinage was frequently entered into voluntarily as it provided a measure of security for the woman involved. Involuntary or servile concubinage sometimes involved sexual slavery of one member of the relationship, nevertheless, sexual relations outside marriage were not uncommon, especially among royalty and nobility, and the woman in such relationships was commonly described as a mistress. However, the children of such relationships were counted as illegitimate and were barred from inheriting the title or estates. While various forms of sexual relationships and co-habitation short of marriage have become increasingly common in the Western world. The terms concubinage and concubine are used primarily when referring to non-marital partnerships of earlier eras. In modern usage, a domestic relationship is commonly referred to as co-habitation. Concubinage was highly popular before early 20th century all over Asia, the main function of concubinage was producing additional heirs, as well as bring males pleasure. Children of concubines had lower rights in account to inheritance, which was regulated by Dishu system, after that, even concubinage has been legally banned, the relationship between mistresses and their men are highly affected by it. In China, successful men often had concubines until the practice was outlawed after the Communist Party of China came to power in 1949, the standard Chinese term translated as concubine was qiè 妾, a term used since ancient times, which means female slave. Concubines resembled wives in that they were recognized sexual partners of a family member and were expected to bear children from him. Unofficial concubines, are of lower status, and children of her are considered illegitimate, in English the term concubine is also used for what the Chinese refer to as pínfēi consorts of emperors, some of very high rank. In premodern China, it was illegal and socially disreputable for a man to have more than one wife at a time, but he could have concubines. At first a man could have as many concubines as he could afford, however, from the Eastern Han onward, the higher ranking and the more noble an identity a man possessed, the more concubines he was permitted to have. A concubines treatment and situation were highly variable and were influenced by the status of the male to whom she was engaged. In the Book of Rites chapter on “The Pattern of the Family” it says, “If there were betrothal rites, she became a wife, and if she went without these, Concubines could be taken without any of the ceremonies used in marriages
8.
Polyandry
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Polyandry involves marriage that includes more than two partners and can fall under the broader category of polyamory. More specifically, it is a form of polygamy, where a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time, Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a number of husbands and wives participants of each gender, then it can be called polyamory. In its broadest use, polyandry refers to relations with multiple males within or without marriage. Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas,186 were found to be monogamous,453 had occasional polygyny,588 had more frequent polygyny, Polyandry is less rare than this figure which listed only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains. More recent studies have more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry. It is associated with partible paternity, the belief that a child can have more than one father. Polyandry is believed to be likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit population growth and enhance child survival. It is a form of marriage that exists not only among peasant families. For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land, the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into small plots. In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh. In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the practice of impartible inheritance. For example, disinheriting most siblings where many of whom then became celibate monks, polyandrous mating systems are also a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom. In the Indian Himalayas, polyandry may be combined with polygyny to produce a system termed polygynandry, the system results in less land fragmentation, a diversification of domestic economic activities, and lower population growth. Fraternal polyandry, also called adelphic polyandry, is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are one anothers brothers. Fraternal polyandry was found in areas of Tibet, Nepal, and Northern India
9.
Bride price
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Some cultures may practice both dowry and bride price simultaneously. Many cultures practiced bride pricing prior to existing records, bridewealth is commonly paid in a currency that is not generally used for other types of exchange. According to French anthropologist Philippe Rospabé, its payment does not entail the purchase of a woman. Instead, it is a symbolic gesture acknowledging the husbands permanent debt to the wifes parents. Dowry exists in societies where capital is more important than manual work, for instance, in Middle Age Europe, a wife had to bring a dowry - land, cattle and money. Bridewealth exists in societies where manual work is more important than capital, in South-Saharan Africa, land was abundant, there were few or no domesticated animals, manual work was therefore important, and therefore bridewealth dominated. An evolutionary psychology explanation for dowry and bride price is that price is common in polygynous societies which have a relative scarcity of available women. In monogamous societies where women have little personal wealth, dowry is common since there is a relative scarcity of wealthy men who can choose from many potential women when marrying. The Code of Hammurabi mentions bride price in various laws as an established custom, exodus 22, 16–17 says, If a man entices a virgin who isnt pledged to be married, and lies with her, he shall surely pay a dowry for her to be his wife. 17 If her father refuses to give her to him. This is inconsistent with Deuteronomy 22, 25-26, which states that a rapist is to be stoned to death, in the Jewish tradition, the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couples entering into a marriage contract, called a ketubah. The ketubah provided for an amount to be paid by the husband in the event of a divorce or by his estate in the event of his death. This amount was a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price, so, to enable these young men to marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be more likely to have the sum. It may also be noted both the dower and the ketubah amounts served the same purpose, the protection for the wife should her support cease. The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment, however, the husband could refuse to pay the ketubah amount if a divorce was on account of adultery of the wife. In traditional Jewish weddings, to day, the groom gives the bride an object of value. The ring must have a minimal value, and it is considered to be a way to fulfill the halachic legal requirement of the husband making a payment to or for the bride. Some of the settlements mentioned in the Iliad and Odyssey suggest that bride price was a custom of Homeric society
10.
Dowry
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A dowry is a transfer of parental property at the marriage of a daughter. Dowry contrasts with the concepts of bride price and dower. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, Dowry is an ancient custom, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected, and demanded as a condition to accept a proposal, in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia, Northern Africa. In some parts of the world, disputes related to dowry sometimes result in acts of violence against women, including killings, the custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that expect women to reside with or near their husbands family. Dowries have a history in Europe, South Asia, Africa. A dowry is the transfer of property to a daughter at her marriage rather than at the owners death. A dowry establishes a type of fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of security in widowhood or against a negligent husband. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include such as linens. This practice differs from the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice homogenous inheritance in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the bride price, drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of the work is done by women and these are the societies that give brideprice. Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy, in plough agriculture farming is largely mens work, this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with property and marriage tends to be monogamous. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to property within the group. There is a debate on Goodys theory. She notes that Goodys is a model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today
11.
Parallel and cross cousins
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In discussing consanguineal kinship in anthropology, a parallel cousin or ortho-cousin is a cousin from a parents same-sex sibling, while a cross cousin is from a parents opposite-sex sibling. So a parallel cousin is the child of the brother or of the mothers sister. Where there are unilineal descent groups in a society, ones parallel cousins on one or both sides will belong to ones own descent group, while cross cousins will not, the role of cross cousins is especially important in some cultures. For example, marriage is promoted between them in the Iroquois system, parallel cousins are occasionally the subject of promoted marriage, such as the preferential marriage of a male to his fathers brothers daughter, common among some pastoral peoples. Such a marriage helps keep property within a lineage, on the other hand, parallel cousin unions in some cultures would fall under an incest taboo, since parallel cousins are part of the subjects unilineage whereas cross cousins are not. In many classificatory systems of terminology, relatives far beyond genealogical first cousins are referred to using the terms for parallel. And in many societies, parallel cousins are referred to by the same terms that are used for siblings. The remaining types of kinship terminology do not group parallel cousins together in opposition to cross cousins, note that there is no possibility of any classificatory cousins sharing the same mother. Because maternal identity is never in question, they would be classified as siblings. Only mistaken paternity leads to such errors and this possibility is much less likely for cross cousins, because in the absence of full-sibling incest, it is unlikely that cross cousins can share a father by overt or covert sexual relationships. Andrey Korotayev claimed that Islamization was a strong and significant predictor of parallel cousin marriage, according to Korotayev, a systematic acceptance of parallel-cousin marriage took place when Islamization occurred together with Arabization. Kinship and descent Family Genealogy Cultural anthropology Cousin marriage List of coupled cousins Mahram Kin Naming Systems part 1, matrilineal and Patrilineal Kin at the University of Manitoba
12.
Cousin marriage
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Cousin marriage is marriage between cousins. Opinions and practice vary widely across the world, in some cultures and communities, cousin marriage is considered ideal and actively encouraged, in others, it is subject to social stigma. Cousin marriage is common in the Middle East, for instance, in some countries outside that region, it is uncommon but still legal. In others, it is seen as incestuous and is prohibited, it is banned in China and Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea. Supporters of cousin marriage where it is banned may view the prohibition as discrimination, worldwide, more than 10% of marriages are between first or second cousins. In the past, cousin marriage was practiced within indigenous cultures in Australia, North America, South America, various religions have ranged from prohibiting sixth cousins or closer from marrying, to freely allowing first-cousin marriage. Cousin marriage is an important topic in anthropology and alliance theory, children of more distantly related cousins have less risk of harmful genetic mutations. In fact, a study of Icelandic records indicated that marriages between third or fourth cousins may be optimal, at least from the perspective of producing the most children and grandchildren. According to Professor Robin Fox of Rutgers University, 80% of all marriages in history may have been second cousins or closer. The founding population of Homo sapiens was small,700 to 10,000 individuals, therefore, proportions of first-cousin marriage in Western countries have declined since the 19th century. In the Middle East, cousin marriage is strongly favored. Cousin marriage was legal in all states before the Civil War, anthropologist Martin Ottenheimer argues that marriage prohibitions were introduced to maintain the social order, uphold religious morality, and safeguard the creation of fit offspring. Writers such as Noah Webster and ministers like Philip Milledoler and Joshua McIlvaine helped lay the groundwork for such viewpoints well before 1860 and this led to a gradual shift in concern from affinal unions, like those between a man and his deceased wifes sister, to consanguineous unions. To many, Morgan included, cousin marriage, and more specifically parallel-cousin marriage, was a remnant of a primitive stage of human social organization. Morgan himself had married his cousin in 1853, in 1846, Massachusetts Governor George N. Briggs appointed a commission to study idiots in the state, and this study implicated cousin marriage as responsible for idiocy. Within the next two decades, numerous reports appeared with similar conclusions, that cousin marriage sometimes resulted in deafness, blindness, and idiocy. Despite being contradicted by other studies like those of George Darwin and Alan Huth in England and Robert Newman in New York and these developments led to 13 states and territories passing cousin marriage prohibitions by the 1880s. Though contemporaneous, the movement did not play much of a direct role in the bans
13.
Family
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Family is the second album released by May J. and her first under the label Rhythm Zone. No singles were released form the album and it entered the daily Oricon chart at #5 and climbed to #3. DJ Kaori, Diggy-Mo, Clench and Blistah もし君と. with Kimaguren 旅立つ君に Family, Clench and Blistah Unity Crescent Moon, Daishi Dance Remix もし君と… with キマグレン, Music Video Garden feat. DJ Kaori, Diggy-Mo’, クレンチ＆ブリスタ, Music Video 旅立つ君に, Music Video Making of music videos and private movie in Okinawa
14.
Cohabitation
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Cohabitation is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together. Such arrangements have become common in Western countries during the past few decades, being led by changing social views, especially regarding marriage, gender roles. They often involve a romantic relationship and/or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis, more broadly, the term cohabitation can mean any number of people living together. To cohabit, in a sense, means to coexist. The origin of the term comes from the mid 16th century, from the Latin cohabitare, today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world. In Europe, the Scandinavian countries have been the first to start this leading trend, mediterranean Europe has traditionally been very conservative, with religion playing a strong role. Until the mid-1990s, cohabitation levels remained low in this region, during the past decades, in Western countries, there has been an increase in unmarried couples cohabiting. Historically, many Western countries have been influenced by Christian doctrines on sex, as social mores have changed, such beliefs have become less widely held by the population and some Christian denominations today view cohabitation as a precursor to marriage. Pope Francis has married a couple who had children, while former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams. All these changes favored living arrangement alternatives to marriage, in Central and Eastern Europe, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, there were major political changes, such as the fall of Communist governments. These societies entered a new era of increased social freedom, less rigid rules and they interacted with Western Europe and some became members of the European Union. As a result, the patterns of life have started to change, marriage rates have declined. Cohabitation and births to unmarried mothers increased, and in countries the increase was very quick. The deinstitutionalization of marriage refers to the weakening of the social and legal norms that regulate behavior in regard to marriage. The rise in cohabitation is part of major social changes such as, higher divorce rate, older age at first marriage and childbearing. There have been objections against the legal and social regulation of female sexuality, in addition, some individuals may feel that marriage is unnecessary or outdated, leading to couples not formalizing their relation. The fact that many choose to live together without formalizing their relation is also recognized by the European Union. A2004 directive forbids EU members from denying entry or residence of partners with whom the Union citizen has a durable relationship, a reason for the more permissive and less traditional views on cohabiting would be a low sex ratio
15.
Bilateral descent
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Bilateral descent is a system of family lineage in which the relatives on the mothers side and fathers side are equally important for emotional ties or for transfer of property or wealth. It is an arrangement where descent and inheritance are passed equally through both parents. Families who use this system trace descent through both parents simultaneously and recognize multiple ancestors, but unlike with cognatic descent it is not used to form descent groups, under bilateral descent, every tribe member belongs to two clans, one through the father and another through the mother. For example, among the Himba, clans are led by the eldest male in the clan, sons live with their fathers clan and when daughters marry they go to live with the clan of their husband. However inheritance of wealth does not follow the patriclan but is determined by the matriclan i. e. a son does not inherit his fathers cattle, javanese people, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia, also adopt a bilateral kinship system. The Urapmin people, a tribe in Papua New Guinea, have a system of kinship classes known as tanum miit. The classes are inherited bilaterally from both parents, since they also practice strict endogamy, most Urapmin belong to all of the major classes, creating great fluidity and doing little to differentiate individuals
16.
House society
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The concept was originally proposed by Claude Lévi-Strauss who called them sociétés à maison. The concept has been applied to understand the organization of societies from Mesoamerica, the House society is a hybrid, transitional form between kin-based and class-based social orders, and is not one of Lévi-Strauss elementary structures of kinship. Lévi-Strauss introduced the concept as an alternative to corporate kinship group among the cognatic kinship groups of the Pacific region, the socially significant groupings within these societies have variable membership because kinship is reckoned bilaterally and come together for only short periods. Property, genealogy and residence are not the basis for the groups existence, there are three elements to this definition, The House is a corporate body holding an estate made up of both material and immaterial goods. As a moral person, it is an alternate metaphor replacing blood in defining the identity of the group. As a symbol of the group, the House persists over generations, only the core group will inhabit the House as a residence. The other House members will come together on special ritual occasions. Other House members have multiple overlapping ties to other Houses as well, successful claims of membership may bring special benefits, such as the right to utilize House resources with the consent of the core members. Most of the examples of ‘sociétés à maison’ cited by Lévi-Strauss and this has led some to ask if feudalism was an essential feature of House societies, and answering in the negative. Schrauwers, in contrast, has argued that House societies are organized around a system of social ranks. Schrauwers gives, as an example, societies organized around slavery where a noble groups property are its slaves. These two forms of engagement may be connected through agonistic exchange institutions such as the Potlatch. Houses are tied together through oftentimes contradictory forms of kinship, whether descent or alliance, given that Houses are not lineages, leadership is rarely ascribed by genealogical seniority alone. Leadership of a House is gained through status competition, a number of traditional Southeast Asian kingdoms, such as those in Bali, or the kingdom of Luwu in Sulawesi, were dominated by noble Houses that competed with each other for control of the state. These states have alternately been described as mandala states, although they may be referred to as House Societies, not all societies with Houses have those Houses uniformly distributed among all ranks and classes. The House in Bali, as well as in the kingdom of Luwu in Sulawesi, is a kinship group. Schrauwers has argued that class and House formation are linked, in this case, class and rank are synonymous. Because they are property, slaves are prevented from forming their own Houses, commoners in those societies are of a different rank, but lack property, and therefore cannot form their own houses either
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Unilineality
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Both patrilineality and matrilineality are types of unilineal descent. The main types of the unilineal descent groups are lineages and clans, a lineage is a unilineal descent group that can demonstrate their common descent from a known apical ancestor. Its conclusion is that as the communal democracy correlates positively with the supracommunal one, christianization might have contributed to the development of modern democracy by helping to replace unilineal descent organization in Europe
18.
Extended family
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An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same household. An example is a couple that lives with either the husband or the wifes parents. The family changes from immediate household to extended household, in some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in one household, near relatives in addition to an immediate family, an example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age. However, it may refer to a family unit in which several generations live together within a single household. In some cultures, the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family, in these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable property. In an extended family, parents and their childrens families may often live under a single roof and this type of joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different meanings, for instance, in India, the family is a patriarchal society, with the sons families often staying in the same house. In the joint family set-up, the workload is shared among the members, the roles of women are often restricted to housewives and this usually involves cooking, cleaning, and organizing for the entire family. The patriarch of the family lays down the rules and arbitrates disputes, other senior members of the household babysit infants in case their mother is working. They are also responsible in teaching the children their mother tongue, manners. Grandparents often take the roles because they have the most experience with parenting and maintaining a household. The second most popular is a grandparent moving in with a childs family, usually for care-giving reasons. She noted that 2.5 million grandparents say they are responsible for the needs of the grandchild living with them. The house often has a reception area and a common kitchen. Each family has their own bedroom, the members of the household also look after each other when a member is ill. Particularly in working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own households within the general area as their parents, aunts, uncles. These extended family members tend to gather often for events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one another
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Nuclear family
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¡Uno. is the ninth studio album by American punk rock band Green Day, released on September 21,2012, by Reprise Records. It is the first of three albums in the ¡Uno, ¡Tré. trilogy, a series of studio albums released from September 2012 to December 2012. Green Day recorded the album from February to June 2012 at Jingletown Studios in Oakland and this is the first album to feature longtime touring guitarist Jason White as an official member, making the band a quartet. Artwork of the album was revealed in a video uploaded to YouTube and the track list of the album, the first single from the album, titled Oh Love, was released on July 16,2012. The second single Kill the DJ was released on European iTunes Stores on August 14,2012. The third single Let Yourself Go was released on the US iTunes Store on September 5,2012, a music video for Stay the Night was released on Rolling Stone and their YouTube channel on September 24,2012. The song Rusty James is based on the character Rusty-James from the novel Rumble Fish, ¡Uno. received generally positive reviews from music critics. It debuted at two on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 139,000 copies. The album also reached the top 10 of charts in other countries. In February 2012, Billie Joe Armstrong announced that the band was in the studio, in the statement, he said, We are at the most prolific and creative time in our lives. This is the best music ever written, and the songs just keep coming. Instead of making one album, we are making a three album trilogy, every song has the power and energy that represents Green Day on all emotional levels. We are going epic as fuck, the band started work by rehearsing every other day and making songs. They recorded the album at Jingletown Studios in Oakland, California, the band recorded 37 songs and initially thought of making a double album. Armstrong suggested making a trilogy of albums like Van Halens Van Halen I, Van Halen II and he stated in an interview, The songs just kept coming, kept coming. Id go, Maybe a double album, and one day, I sprung it on the others, Instead of Van Halen I, II and III, what if its Green Day I, II and III and we all have our faces on each cover. In an interview to Rolling Stone, Armstrong stated that the theme of ¡Uno. would be different from that of 21st Century Breakdown and American Idiot, and would not be a third rock opera. He also added that music on the record would be punchier and he also stated that a few songs on the album would also sound like garage rock and dance music
20.
Kinship terminology
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Kinship terminology is the system used in languages to refer to the persons to whom an individual is related through kinship. Anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan performed the first survey of kinship terminologies in use around the world, though much of his work is now considered dated, he argued that kinship terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most kinship terminologies distinguish between sexes and between generations, moreover, he argued, kinship terminologies distinguish between relatives by blood and marriage. However, Morgan also observed that different languages organize these distinctions differently and he proposed to describe kinship terms and terminologies as either descriptive or classificatory. When a descriptive term is used, it can represent one type of relationship between two people, while a classificatory term represents one of many different types of relationships. For example, the brother in English-speaking societies indicates a son of the same parent, thus. Morgan discovered that a term in one society can become a classificatory term in another society. For example, in societies, one would refer to many different people as mother. Moreover, some societies do not group together relatives which the English-speaking societies classify together, for example, some languages have no one-word equivalent to cousin, because different terms refer to ones mothers sisters children and to ones fathers sisters children. Armed with these different terms, Morgan identified six basic patterns of kinship terminologies, Hawaiian kinship, thus, siblings and cousins are not distinguished. Sudanese kinship, the most descriptive, no two types of relatives share the same term, siblings are distinguished from cousins, and different terms are used for each type of cousin. Eskimo kinship, has both classificatory and descriptive terms, in addition to sex and generation, it distinguishes between lineal relatives and collateral relatives. Lineal relatives have highly descriptive terms, collateral relatives have highly classificatory terms, thus, siblings are distinguished from cousins, while all types of cousins are grouped together. The system of English-language kinship terms falls into the Eskimo type, Iroquois kinship, has both classificatory and descriptive terms, in addition to sex and generation, it also distinguishes between siblings of opposite sexes in the parental generation. In other words, siblings are grouped together with parallel cousins, also, one calls ones mothers sister mother and ones fathers brother father. However, one refers to ones mothers brother and ones fathers sister by separate terms, Crow kinship, like Iroquois, but further distinguishes between ones mothers side and ones fathers side. Relatives on the side of the family have more descriptive terms. Omaha kinship, like Iroquois, but further distinguishes between ones side and ones fathers side
. PMID 23453668. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.02.002.
