1.
Budapest
–
Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD
2.
Port Chester, New York
–
Port Chester (locally pronounced PORT-chester is a village in Westchester County, New York, United States. The village is part of the town of Rye, as of the 2010 census, Port Chester had a population of 28,967. The village name is pronounced with the same syllable stress pattern as that of the county which contains it, i. e. PORT ches-ter, not Port CHES-ter. Port Chester is one of only 12 villages in New York still incorporated under a charter, in 1660, three settlers from Greenwidge, Thomas Studwell, John Coe, and Peter Disbrow, arranged to buy Manursing Island and the land near the Byram River from the Mohegan Indians. The land that they bought is now Port Chester, the village was originally known as Saw Pit for the saw pits which were in use during the time. Logs were cut in holes in the ground for wood to be used for shipbuilding, the name of Sawpit was used for the first time in 1732. The village eventually outgrew this name and became Port Chester by incorporating as a village in 1868, when Port Chester was first incorporated, it was considered a major seaport. In 1665, Sawpit was claimed by both New York and Connecticut, however, the land was given back to the New York Colony by Connecticut in 1683. This struggle over the ownership of Sawpit continued for almost 105 years, in 1788, the Legislature of New York ruled that Sawpit was a part of the town of Rye in New York. Travel was considered dangerous in the years of Sawpit as good roads were hard to find. The Boston Post Road, King Street, and Grace Church streets are some of the migration paths in the Sawpit/Rye settlement. Other roads were dirt, which made transportation via water important. The local waterways, the Byram River and Long Island Sound, were a key part of the growth, early residents took part in boat building, farming, and shell fishing. As of the census of 2010, there were 28,967 people,9,240 households, the population density was 11,722.5 people per square mile. There were 10,046 housing units at a density of 4,185.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 31. 6% White,5. 3% African American,0. 2% Native American,2. 0% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 7% some other race, and 0. 9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 59. 4% of the population,24. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.08 and the family size was 3.54
3.
Westchester County, New York
–
Westchester County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. It is the second-most populous county on the mainland of New York, according to the 2010 Census, the county had a population of 949,113, estimated to have increased by 2. 9% to 976,396 by 2015. Situated in the Hudson Valley, Westchester covers an area of 450 square miles, consisting of 6 cities,19 towns, established in 1683, Westchester was named after the city of Chester, England. The county seat is the city of White Plains, the annual per capita income for Westchester was $47,813 in 2011. The 2011 median household income of $77,006 was the fifth highest in New York, by 2014, the countys median household income had risen to $83,422. Westchester County ranks second in the state after New York County for median income per person, Westchester County is one of the centrally located counties within the New York metropolitan area. They called the region Lenapehoking, which consisted of the area around, the first European explorers to visit the Westchester area were Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 and Henry Hudson in 1609. Dutch settlers began arriving in the 1620s, followed by settlers from England in the 1640s, Westchester County was one of the original twelve counties of the Province of New York, created by an act of the New York General Assembly in 1683. At the time it included present day Bronx County, and abutted then-Dutchess County to the north, by 1775, Westchester was the richest and most populous county in the colony of New York. Although the Revolutionary War devastated the county, recovery after the war was rapid, in 1788, five years after the end of the war, the county was divided into 20 towns. In 1798, the first federal census recorded a population of 24,000 for the county. Two developments in the first half of the 19th century – the construction of the first Croton Dam and Aqueduct, and the coming of the railroad – had enormous impacts on the growth of Westchester. The Croton Dam and Aqueduct was begun in 1837 and completed in 1842, now a National Historic Landmark, the Croton Aqueduct is considered one of the great engineering achievements of the 19th century. In the 1840s, the first railroads were built in Westchester, and included the New York and Harlem Railroad, the Hudson River Railroad, the railroads often determined the growth of a town, and the population shifted from Northern to Southern Westchester. By 1860, the county population was 99,000. The period following the American Civil War enabled entrepreneurs in the New York area to create fortunes, during the latter half of the 19th century, Westchesters transportation system and labor force attracted a manufacturing base, particularly along the Hudson River and Nepperhan Creek. In 1874, the portion of the present Bronx County was transferred to New York County. These would later split from Manhattan to form their own county, during the 20th century, the rural character of Westchester would transform into the suburban county known today
4.
Hungary
–
Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
5.
Peter C. Goldmark Jr.
–
Goldmark, Jr. is an environmentalist whose career has included leadership in major governmental, philanthropic, newsmedia and environmental organizations. Goldmark retired in 2010 as director of the Environmental Defense Fund’s climate and he is noted for being an advocate for social causes and environmental issues in many of his assignments. He was responsible for management of multi-billion-dollar budgets in some of his posts, Goldmark is the son of Peter Carl Goldmark, who led the development of LP records and invented the first practical color television, among other innovations, and the former Frances Trainer. He graduated from Harvard University in 1962, thereafter he taught at the Putney School in Vermont for two years, where he met his wife, née Aliette Marie Misson. Goldmark has reportedly maintained a residence in Brooklyn, New York since his tenure with the Rockefeller Foundation, goldmarks career has spanned several tracks, including government, management, finance, philanthropy, journalism and environmentalism. Goldmark was selected for positions in government at a young age. He also worked for several other New York politicians, including New York City mayor, John Lindsay, in 1970 as chief of staff and governor, Eliot Spitzer, as co-chair of his transition team. In 1988, the Rockefeller Foundation chose Goldmark to become its eleventh president, during his tenure, he reportedly grew the foundations assets by $1 billion and directed programs towards school reforms, the education of women and poor Americans. He left the organization in 1997, in 1985, he became senior vice president of the Times Mirror Companys Newsday for two years. Following his service with the Rockefeller Foundation, he was the publisher of the International Herald Tribune from 1998 to 2003, as of 2012, Goldmark continued to write weekly columns for Newsday on a variety of topics. Upon retiring from the EDF in 2010, he expressed disappointment that his generation had failed to solve the environmental issues. Goldmark received the Wilson Wyatt National Award for Urban Revitalization and became a member of the French Legion of Honor and he is reportedly a member of the Council on Foreign Relations
6.
Columbia Records
–
Columbia Records is an American record label owned by Sony Music Entertainment, a subsidiary of Sony Corporation of America, Inc. the United States division of Sony Corporation. It was founded in 1887, evolving from an enterprise named the American Graphophone Company. Columbia is the oldest surviving brand name in the sound business. Columbia Records went on to release records by an array of singers, instrumentalists. It is one of Sony Musics three flagship record labels alongside RCA Records and Epic Records, rather, as above, it was connected to CBS, a broadcasting media company which had purchased the company in 1938, and had been co-founded in 1927 by Columbia Records itself. Though Arista Records was sold to Bertelsmann Music Group, it would become a sister label of Columbia Records through its mutual connection to Sony Music. The Columbia Phonograph Company was founded in 1887 by stenographer, lawyer and New Jersey native Edward Easton and it derived its name from the District of Columbia, where it was headquartered. At first it had a monopoly on sales and service of Edison phonographs and phonograph cylinders in Washington. As was the custom of some of the regional companies, Columbia produced many commercial cylinder recordings of its own. Columbias ties to Edison and the North American Phonograph Company were severed in 1894 with the North American Phonograph Companys breakup, thereafter it sold only records and phonographs of its own manufacture. In 1902, Columbia introduced the XP record, a brown wax record. According to Gracyk, the molded brown waxes may have sold to Sears for distribution. Columbia began selling records and phonographs in addition to the cylinder system in 1901, preceded only by their Toy Graphophone of 1899. For a decade, Columbia competed with both the Edison Phonograph Company cylinders and the Victor Talking Machine Company disc records as one of the top three names in American recorded sound. In order to add prestige to its catalog of artists. The firm also introduced the internal-horn Grafonola to compete with the extremely popular Victrola sold by the rival Victor Talking Machine Company, during this era, Columbia used the famous Magic Notes logo—a pair of sixteenth notes in a circle—both in the United States and overseas. Columbia was split into two companies, one to make records and one to make players, Columbia Phonograph was moved to Connecticut, and Ed Easton went with it. Eventually it was renamed the Dictaphone Corporation, in late 1923, Columbia went into receivership
7.
LP record
–
The LP is an analog sound storage medium, a vinyl record format characterized by a speed of 33 1⁄3 rpm, a 12 or 10 inch diameter, and use of the microgroove groove specification. Introduced by Columbia in 1948, it was adopted as a new standard by the entire record industry. Apart from a few relatively minor refinements and the important later addition of stereophonic sound, the new product was a 12- or 10-inch fine-grooved disc made of vinyl and played with a smaller-tipped microgroove stylus at a speed of 33 1⁄3 rpm. Each side of a 12-inch LP could play for more than 20 minutes, although the LP was suited to classical music because of its extended continuous playing time, it also allowed a collection of ten or more pop music recordings to be put on a single disc. The use of the word album persisted for the one-disc LP equivalent, the prototype of the LP was the soundtrack disc used by the Vitaphone motion picture sound system, developed by Western Electric and introduced in 1926. For soundtrack purposes, the less than five minutes of playing time of side of a conventional 12-inch 78 rpm disc was not acceptable. The sound had to play continuously for at least 11 minutes, long enough to accompany a full 1, the disc diameter was increased to 16 inches and the speed was reduced to 33 1⁄3 revolutions per minute. Unlike their smaller LP descendants, they were made with the same large standard groove used by 78s, unlike conventional records, the groove started at the inside of the recorded area near the label and proceeded outward toward the edge. Like 78s, early soundtrack discs were pressed in an abrasive shellac compound, syndicated radio programming was distributed on 78 rpm discs beginning in 1928. The desirability of a longer continuous playing time soon led to the adoption of the Vitaphone soundtrack disc format, 16-inch 33 1⁄3 rpm discs playing about 15 minutes per side were used for most of these electrical transcriptions beginning about 1930. Transcriptions were variously recorded inside out like soundtrack discs or with an outside start, some transcriptions were recorded with a vertically modulated hill and dale groove. This was found to allow deeper bass and also an extension of the frequency response. Neither of these was necessarily an advantage in practice because of the limitations of AM broadcasting. Today we can enjoy the benefits of those higher-fidelity recordings, even if the radio audiences could not. Initially, transcription discs were pressed only in shellac, but by 1932 pressings in RCA Victors vinyl-based Victrolac were appearing, by the late 1930s, vinyl was standard for nearly all kinds of pressed discs except ordinary commercial 78s, which continued to be made of shellac. Use of the LPs microgroove standard began in the late 1950s, the King Biscuit Flower Hour is a late example, as are Westwood Ones The Beatle Years and Doctor Demento programs, which were sent to stations on LP at least through 1992. RCA Victor introduced a version of a long-playing record for home use in September 1931. These Program Transcription discs, as Victor called them, played at 33 1⁄3 rpm and used a somewhat finer and they were to be played with a special Chromium Orange chrome-plated steel needle
8.
Color television
–
Color television is a television transmission technology that includes information on the color of the picture, so the video image can be displayed in color on the television set. It is an improvement on the earliest television technology, monochrome or black and white television, Television broadcasting stations and networks in most parts of the world upgraded from black and white to color transmission in the 1960s and 1970s. The invention of color television standards is an important part of the history of television, in its most basic form, a color broadcast can be created by broadcasting three monochrome images, one each in the three colors of red, green, and blue. When displayed together or in succession, these images will blend together to produce a full color image as seen by the viewer. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the eye to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image, the NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement. Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U. S. in 1953, high prices, the first national color broadcast occurred on January 1,1954, but during the next ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later, early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of GEs relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible, in 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Also in 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, Color broadcasting in Europe was also not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s. By the late 1980s even these areas switched to color sets, the human eyes detection system in the retina consists primarily of two types of light detectors, rod cells that capture light, dark, and shapes/figures, and the cone cells that detect color. A typical retina contains 120 million rods and 4.5 million to 6 million cones and this means that the eye has far more resolution in brightness, or luminance, than in color. The eye has limited bandwidth to the rest of the visual system and this illusion starts to work at about 16 frame/s, and common motion pictures use 24 frame/s. Experiments in television systems using radio broadcasts date to the 19th century, a key problem was the need to convert a 2D image into a 1D radio signal, some form of image scanning was needed to make this work. Early systems generally used a known as a Nipkow disk. A single photodetector behind the disk captured the image brightness at any given spot, a similar disk was used at the receiver side, with a light source behind the disk instead of a detector. A number of systems were being used experimentally in the 1920s. The best-known was John Logie Bairds, which was used for regular public broadcasting in Britain for several years. Indeed, Bairds system was demonstrated to members of the Royal Society in London in 1926 in what is recognized as the first demonstration of a true
9.
Hungarian language
–
Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
10.
Hungarian Americans
–
Hungarian Americans are Americans of Hungarian descent. In 1583, a Hungarian poet Stephanus Parmenius joined Humphrey Gilberts expedition to North America with the intention of writing a chronicle of the voyage, Parmenius reached Newfoundland, likely becoming the first Hungarian in the New World. Hungarians have long settled in the New World, such as Michael de Kovats, Hungarians have maintained a constant state of emigration to the United States since then, however, they are best known for three principle waves of emigration. He is widely remembered today as the Father of California Viticulture or the Father of Modern Winemaking in California, lajos Kossuth gave a seven-month speaking tour of the US in 1851 and 1852 to great acclaim as a champion of liberty, thereby unleashing a brief outburst of pro-Hungarian emotions. He left embittered because his refusal to oppose slavery alienated his natural constituency, by 1860,2,710 Hungarians lived in the US, and at least 99 of them fought in the Civil War. Their motivations were not so much antislavery as a belief in democracy, a taste for adventure, validation of their military credentials, and solidarity with their American neighbors. Unlike the educated classes who formed the core of the 1849 wave, the majority of the 2 million immigrants from the Kingdom of Hungary were not ethnic Hungarians but belonged to the Slavic, Romanian or German minorities. An increase of immigration from Hungary was also observed after World War II and The Holocaust, the circumstances of the third wave of emigration had much in common with the first wave. In 1956, Hungary was again under the power of a state, this time the Soviet Union. There was a renewed economic migration after the end of communism in Hungary during the 1990s to 2000s, other places with over 10% are Fairport Harbor, Ohio and West Pike Run Township, Pennsylvania. About one hundred other municipalities have more than 5% of Hungarian-American residents, Wallingford, Connecticut, has a vibrant Hungarian-American Club and community. In entertainment, Szőke Szakáll, known as S. Z. Sakall, was a Hungarian film character actor and he was in many films including In the Good Old Summertime, Lullaby of Broadway, Christmas in Connecticut and Casablanca in which he played Carl, the head waiter. The comic style of Ernie Kovacs influenced numerous television programs for years to come. The Fox Film Corporation was formed by William Fox, actress Vilma Bánky starred in numerous silent films opposite Hollywood legends such as Rudolph Valentino and Ronald Colman. Actress Drew Barrymores mother is Hungarian, actor Tony Curtis has been in over 100 films, including his iconic roles in Some Like It Hot and The Defiant Ones. Actress Jessica Szohr of Gossip Girl is of partial Hungarian descent, actor Peter Lorre became famous after his role as a murderer in Fritz Langs M and went on to play many antagonistic villain roles. Legendary actor Béla Lugosi played Count Dracula in the stage version, actress Ilona Massey was frequently billed as the new Dietrich and famously played the role of a femme fatale in Love Happy. Sex symbol Zsa Zsa Gabor was perhaps known for her status as a socialite
11.
Phonograph record
–
The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. The phonograph disc record was the medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century. It had co-existed with the cylinder from the late 1880s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed, by the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. The phonograph record has made a resurgence in the early 21st century –9.2 million records were sold in the U. S. in 2014. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014, as of 2017,48 record pressing facilities remain worldwide,18 in the United States and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of vinyl has led to the investment in new, only two producers of lacquers remains, Apollo Masters in California, USA, and MDC in Japan. Vinyl records may be scratched or warped if stored incorrectly but if they are not exposed to heat or broken. The large cover are valued by collectors and artists for the space given for visual expression, in the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008, along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound. In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, unlike the phonautograph, it was capable of both recording and reproducing sound. Despite the similarity of name, there is no evidence that Edisons phonograph was based on Scotts phonautograph. Edison first tried recording sound on a paper tape, with the idea of creating a telephone repeater analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. The tinfoil was wrapped around a metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately, Edison also invented variations of the phonograph that used tape and disc formats. A decade later, Edison developed a greatly improved phonograph that used a wax cylinder instead of a foil sheet. This proved to be both a better-sounding and far more useful and durable device, the wax phonograph cylinder created the recorded sound market at the end of the 1880s and dominated it through the early years of the 20th century. Berliners earliest discs, first marketed in 1889, but only in Europe, were 12.5 cm in diameter, both the records and the machine were adequate only for use as a toy or curiosity, due to the limited sound quality
12.
Goddard Lieberson
–
Goddard Lieberson was the president of Columbia Records from 1956 to 1971, and again from 1973 to 1975. He became president of the Recording Industry Association of America in 1964 and he was also a composer, and studied with George Frederick McKay, at the University of Washington, Seattle. He was born on April 5,1911, in Hanley in Staffordshire and he was married to actress/dancer Vera Zorina from 1946 until his death in 1977. They had two sons, Peter Lieberson, a composer, and Jonathan Lieberson, before becoming president of the company, Lieberson was responsible for Columbias introduction of the long-playing record. He was promoted to president of Columbia Records from 1956 to 1971, in 1966, in a reorganization, Columbia Records became subsidiary to the newly formed CBS/Columbia Group. In 1967, Lieberson promoted Clive Davis to president of Columbia Records and he died of cancer in New York City on May 29,1977, aged 66. Lieberson was the grandfather of sisters Elizabeth, Katherine, and Kristina and his greatest legacy, however, was probably the original cast recordings he produced. Columbia was not the first to offer such recordings, Musicrafts 1938 recording of The Cradle Will Rock was the first, liebersons recordings at Columbia, however, were influential. Though other labels had issued Broadway shows on LP Lieberson’s extensive coverage of Broadway mainstreamed and popularized original cast recordings, the investment paid off both on stage and at the record store. The original cast recording, starring Julie Andrews and Rex Harrison, a stereo recording produced in England with Andrews and Harrison was issued in 1959. Broadway theatre Cast recording List of musicals Musical theatre
13.
John Logie Baird
–
In 1928 the Baird Television Development Company achieved the first transatlantic television transmission. Bairds early technological successes and his role in the introduction of broadcast television for home entertainment have earned him a prominent place in televisions history. Baird was ranked number 44 in the BBCs list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote in 2002. In 2006, Baird was named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history, in 2015 he was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. He was educated at Larchfield Academy in Helensburgh, the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, while at college Baird undertook a series of engineering apprentice jobs as part of his course. The conditions in industrial Glasgow at the time helped form his socialist convictions and he became an agnostic, though this did not strain his relationship with his father. His degree course was interrupted by the First World War and he never returned to graduate, at the beginning of 1915 he volunteered for service in the British Army but was classified as unfit for active duty. Unable to go to the Front, he took a job with the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Company, the development of television was the result of work by many inventors. Among them, Baird was a prominent pioneer and made advances in the field. Many historians credit Baird with being the first to produce a live, moving, Baird achieved this, where other inventors had failed, by obtaining a better photoelectric cell and improving the signal conditioning from the photocell and the video amplifier. Between 1902 and 1907, Arthur Korn invented and built the first successful signal-conditioning circuits for image transmission, the circuits overcame the image-destroying lag effect that is part of selenium photocells. Korns success at transmitting halftone still images suggested that such compensation circuits might work in television, Baird was the direct beneficiary of Korns research and success. In his first attempts to develop a television system, Baird experimented with the Nipkow disk. Paul Gottlieb Nipkow had invented this scanning system in 1884. Television historian Albert Abramson calls Nipkows patent the master television patent, Nipkows work is important because Baird and many others chose to develop it into a broadcast medium. In early 1923, and in health, Baird moved to 21 Linton Crescent, Hastings. He later rented a workshop in the Queens Arcade in the town, in February 1924, he demonstrated to the Radio Times that a semi-mechanical analogue television system was possible by transmitting moving silhouette images. In July of the year, he received a 1000-volt electric shock, but survived with only a burnt hand
14.
CBS Laboratories
–
CBS Laboratories or CBS Labs was the technology research and development organization of CBS. Innovations developed at the labs included many groundbreaking broadcast, industrial, CBS Laboratories was established in 1936 in New York City to conduct technological research for CBS and outside clients. The CBS Laboratories Division moved from Madison Avenue in New York to a new facility in Stamford, dr. Peter Goldmark joined CBS Laboratories in 1936. On September 4,1940, while working at the lab and it was the first color broadcasting system that received FCC approval in 1950, and the CBS Television Network began broadcasting in color on November 20,1950. However, no other TV set manufacturers made the sets, the LP was introduced to the market place by Columbia Records in 1948. In 1959 the CBS Audimax I Audio Gain Controller was introduced and it was the first of its kind in the broadcasting industry. In the 1960s the CBS Volumax Audio FM Peak Limiter was introduced, electronic Video Recording was announced in 1967. In 1966, the CBS Vidifont was invented and it was the first electronic graphics generator used in television production. Brought to the marketplace at the NAB in 1970, it revolutionized television production, the minicam was developed for use in national political conventions in 1968. In 1971, a backwards-compatible 4-channel encoding technique was developed for vinyl records, called SQ Quadraphonic, based on work by musician Peter Scheiber and that same year, CBS Labs Staff Scientist Dennis Gabor received the Nobel Prize in Physics for earlier work on holography. Upon Peter Goldmarks retirement, also in 1971, Senior Vice President Renville H. McMann assumed the role of Labs President, CBS Laboratories was reorganized in 1975. CLDs Professional Products Department which manufactured the products developed by the Labs for sale to the broadcast industry was sold to Thomson-CSF, together with McMann, Some of the research engineers involved in the existing products were also transferred to support the effort. The core company R&D function was renamed CBS Technology Center, and Bauer was promoted to Vice-President, in 1978, the CBS Actiontrak system was spun off from a Digital Noise Reducer project. In 1986 Laurence Tisch took control of CBS and closed CTC as part of company-wide streamlining
15.
Naturalization
–
Naturalization is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application, an oath or pledge of allegiance is also sometimes required. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed, since World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of refugees, most of them economic refugees. The Peoples Republic of China gives citizenship to persons with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries, the country also gives citizenship to people born on its territory to stateless people who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have a relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China. In practice, only few people gain Chinese citizenship, as of 2010, the naturalization process starts with a written application. Applicants must also submit original copies of a passport, a residence permit, a permanent residence permit. The Indian citizenship and nationality law and the Constitution of India provides single citizenship for the entire country, the provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution are contained in Articles 5 to 11 in Part II of the Constitution of India. Relevant Indian legislation is the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended by the Citizenship Act 1986, the Citizenship Act 1992, the Citizenship Act 2003, and the Citizenship Ordinance 2005. The Citizenship Act 2003 received the assent of the President of India on 7 January 2004, the Citizenship Ordinance 2005 was promulgated by the President of India and came into force on 28 June 2005. Following these reforms, Indian nationality law largely follows the jus sanguinis as opposed to the jus soli, Indonesian nationality is regulated by Law No. The Indonesian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis and jus soli, the Indonesian nationality law does not recognize dual citizenship except for persons under the age of 18. After reaching 18 years of age individuals are forced to choose one citizenship, Israels Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan. The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization, the Law of Return and the Israeli nationality law, the Law of Return, enacted on July 15,1950, gives Jews living anywhere in the world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship, in fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens. On July 14,1952, the Israeli parliament enacted the Israeli Nationality Law. The Nationality Law naturalized all citizens of Mandated Palestine, the inhabitants of Israel on July 15,1952, because of Israels relatively new and culturally mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to persons born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, there is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants
16.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
17.
Field-sequential color system
–
One field-sequential system was developed by Dr. Peter Goldmark for CBS, which was its sole user in commercial broadcasting. It was first demonstrated to the press on September 4,1940, the Federal Communications Commission adopted it on October 11,1950 as the standard for color television in the United States, but it was later withdrawn. The concept of color systems in moving images predates the invention of fully electronic television. When due to litigation by William Friese-Greene, Kinemacolor ended up in the domain by c. If the 144-field color signal were transmitted with the detail as a 60-field monochrome signal,2.4 times the bandwidth would be required. Therefore, to keep the signal within the standard 6-MHz bandwidth of a channel, the vertical resolution was 77% of monochrome, and the horizontal resolution was 54% of monochrome. CBS purchased its own television manufacturer in April 1951 when no other company would produce color sets using the system, production of CBS-Columbia color receivers began in September, and were first offered for retail sale in October. Only 200 color sets had been manufactured for sale, and only 100 of those had shipped. CBS announced in March 1953 that it had abandoned any plans for its color system. RCA was the company in the television field, with a larger technical staff, more development funds. RCA developed the hardware for NTSC which superseded the system as the U. S. standard in December 1953. According to television historian Albert Abramson, A. A. Polumordvinov invented the first field-sequential color system, Polumordvinov applied for his Russian patent 10738 in 1899. This system scanned images with two rotating cylinders, a later German patent by A. Frankenstein and Werner von Jaworski described another field-sequential system. Like the CBS System, this patent included a color wheel, Frankenstein and Jaworski applied for their patent 172376 in 1904. This patent probably inspired John Logie Baird to use a color wheel in his system. At the receiving station a similar process is employed, red, blue, the apparatus used at the transmitter consists of a disc perforated with three successive spiral curves of holes. The holes in the first spiral are covered with red filters, in the second with green filters, Light is projected through these holes and an image of the moving holes is projected onto the object. The disc revolves at 10 revolutions per second and so thirty complete images are transmitted every second — ten blue, ten red, and ten green
18.
RCA
–
RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
19.
NBC
–
The National Broadcasting Company is an American commercial broadcast television network that is the flagship property of NBCUniversal, a subsidiary of Comcast. The network is part of the Big Three television networks, founded in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America, NBC is the oldest major broadcast network in the United States. Following the acquisition by GE, Bob Wright served as executive officer of NBC, remaining in that position until his retirement in 2007. In 2003, French media company Vivendi merged its entertainment assets with GE, Comcast purchased a controlling interest in the company in 2011, and acquired General Electrics remaining stake in 2013. Following the Comcast merger, Zucker left NBC Universal and was replaced as CEO by Comcast executive Steve Burke, during a period of early broadcast business consolidation, radio manufacturer Radio Corporation of America acquired New York City radio station WEAF from American Telephone & Telegraph. Westinghouse, a shareholder in RCA, had an outlet in Newark, New Jersey pioneer station WJZ. This station was transferred from Westinghouse to RCA in 1923, WEAF acted as a laboratory for AT&Ts manufacturing and supply outlet Western Electric, whose products included transmitters and antennas. The Bell System, AT&Ts telephone utility, was developing technologies to transmit voice- and music-grade audio over short and long distances, the 1922 creation of WEAF offered a research-and-development center for those activities. WEAF maintained a schedule of radio programs, including some of the first commercially sponsored programs. In an early example of chain or networking broadcasting, the station linked with Outlet Company-owned WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island, AT&T refused outside companies access to its high-quality phone lines. The early effort fared poorly, since the telegraph lines were susceptible to atmospheric. In 1925, AT&T decided that WEAF and its network were incompatible with the companys primary goal of providing a telephone service. AT&T offered to sell the station to RCA in a deal that included the right to lease AT&Ts phone lines for network transmission, the divisions ownership was split among RCA, its founding corporate parent General Electric and Westinghouse. NBC officially started broadcasting on November 15,1926, WEAF and WJZ, the flagships of the two earlier networks, were operated side-by-side for about a year as part of the new NBC. On April 5,1927, NBC expanded to the West Coast with the launch of the NBC Orange Network and this was followed by the debut of the NBC Gold Network, also known as the Pacific Gold Network, on October 18,1931. The Orange Network carried Red Network programming, and the Gold Network carried programming from the Blue Network, initially, the Orange Network recreated Eastern Red Network programming for West Coast stations at KPO in San Francisco. The Orange Network name was removed from use in 1936, at the same time, the Gold Network became part of the Blue Network. In the 1930s, NBC also developed a network for shortwave radio stations, in 1927, NBC moved its operations to 711 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, occupying the upper floors of a building designed by architect Floyd Brown
20.
Federal Communications Commission
–
The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and homeland security, and modernizing itself. The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the Federal Radio Commission, the FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCCs mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees and it has an estimated fiscal-2016 budget of US$388 million. Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act and these are, Broadband All Americans should have affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services. Competition Competition in the provision of services, both domestically and overseas, supports the Nations economy. The competitive framework for communications services should foster innovation and offer consumers reliable, Media The Nations media regulations must promote competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery. Public Safety and Homeland Security Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health, defense, the Nations critical communications infrastructure must be reliable, interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable. The FCC is directed by five appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five-year terms. The U. S. President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman, only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them may have a financial interest in any FCC-related business, importantly, commissioners may continue serving until the appointment of their replacements, but may not serve beyond the end of the next session of Congress following term expiration. In practice, as of 2016 this means that commissioners may serve up to 1 1/2 years beyond the term expiration dates listed above if no replacement is appointed. The Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau develops and implements the FCCs consumer policies, CGB serves as the public face of the FCC through outreach and education, as well as through their Consumer Center, which is responsible for responding to consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains partnerships with state, local, and tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness. The Enforcement Bureau is responsible for enforcement of provisions of the Communications Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, major areas of enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement Bureau are consumer protection, local competition, public safety, and homeland security. S. The International Bureau also oversees FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations, the Media Bureau also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct broadcast satellite service. The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau regulates domestic wireless telecommunications programs and policies, the Wireline Competition Bureau develops policy concerning wire line telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureaus main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in technology infrastructure, development, markets
21.
Highway Hi-Fi
–
Highway Hi-Fi was a system of proprietary players and seven-inch phonograph records with standard LP center holes designed for use in automobiles. Designed and developed by Peter Goldmark, who developed the LP microgroove. The system appeared in Chrysler automobiles from 1956 to 1959, records for the system were manufactured exclusively by Columbia Special Products, and could hold roughly 45 minutes of music or an hour of speech per side. The players themselves were manufactured by CBS Electronics, according to the official Chrysler press release of September 12,1955, Highway Hi-Fi plays through the speaker of the car radio and uses the radios amplifier system. The turntable for playing records, built for Chrysler by CBS-Columbia, is located in a shock-proof case mounted just below the center of the instrument panel, a tone arm, including sapphire stylus and ceramic pick up, plus storage space for six long-play records make up the unit. A button controlled whether you listened to the radio or the records, a proprietary 0. 25-mil stylus was used with an unusually high stylus pressure of two grams to prevent skipping or skating despite normal car vibrations. Highway Hi-Fi units were factory-installed and were not available as aftermarket add-ons, another automobile record player was manufactured by RCA from 1960 to 1961. This later version dropped the Highway Hi-Fi label and played standard 45 RPM7 records, automotive Oddities Highway Hi-Fi at Ooks World 1956 to 1959 Columbia Highway Hi-Fi 16-2/3 rpm Record Players
22.
Sony
–
Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
23.
U-matic
–
U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, a locking mechanism integral to each cassette case secures the tape hubs during transportation to keep the tape wound tightly on the hubs. Once the cassette is taken off the case, the hubs are free to spin, accidental recording is prevented by the absence of a red plastic button fitted to a hole on the bottom surface of the tape, removal of the button disabled recording. As part of its development, in March 1970, Sony, victor Co. of Japan, and five non-Japanese companies reached agreement on unified standards. U-matic was named after the shape of the path when it was threaded around the helical scan video head drum. Betamax used a type of B-load as well. Recording time was limited to one hour, at the 1971 introduction of U-Matic, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format oriented at the consumer market. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the manufacturing cost. But the cost was affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, as a result, Sony shifted U-Matics marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational sectors. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or Electronic News Gathering, film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible. U-matic is also available in a smaller size, officially known as U-Matic S. To minimise weight and bulk in the field, portable recorders had an external AC power supply, the price point of the VO series was oriented toward educational, corporate and industrial fields, featured unbalanced audio connectors, and did not typically include SMPTE time code. The VO-3800 was largely metal, which made the unit heavy, the VO-4800 had the same functionality as the VO-3800, but at a greatly reduced weight and size, by replacing many components with plastic. The VO-6800 added the improvement of a long, thin battery standard that permitted storage of the batteries in a trouser pocket, common model numbers for these batteries were NP-1, NP-1A and NP-1B. The VO-8800 was the last of the portable VO series to be produced by Sony, the Sony BVU series added longitudinal and vertical interval SMPTE time code, balanced audio XLR connectors, and heavier-duty transport features. The BVU-50 enabled recording in the field but not playback, portable recorders were connected to the camera with a multi-conductor cable terminated with multi-pin connectors on each end. The cable carried bi-directional audio, video, synchronisation, record on/off control, early studio and all portable U-Matic VCRs had a drawer-type mechanism which required the tape to be inserted, followed by manual closure of the drawer. Later studio VCRs accepted the cassette from an opening and the cassette was pulled into
24.
Videotape
–
Videotape is magnetic tape used for storing video and usually sound in addition. Information stored can be in the form of either a signal or digital signal. Videotape is used in video tape recorders or, more commonly, videocassette recorders and camcorders. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the produced by an electrocardiogram. Tape is a method of storing information and thus imposes delays to access a portion of the tape that is not already under the heads. The early 2000s saw the introduction and rise to prominence of high quality video recording media such as hard disks. Since then, videotape has been relegated to archival and similar uses. The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosbys production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises, overall the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film. Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a version available in 1954. The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA and it used half-inch tape traveling at 200 inches per second. RCA demonstrated the magnetic recording of both black-and-white and color television programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1,1953. The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record, the color system used half-inch tape to record five tracks, one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch tape with two tracks, one for video and one for audio, both systems ran at 360 inches per second. RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23,1956 when a song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live television program. BCE demonstrated a color system in February 1955 using a longitudinal recording on half-inch tape. CBS, RCAs competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system, BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. Quad employed a transverse four-head system on a tape. On January 22,1957, the NBC Television game show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder
25.
Compact disc
–
Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format
26.
Elliott Cresson Medal
–
The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, the medal was first awarded in 1875,21 years after Cressons death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on a basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the awards lifetime
27.
National Science Foundation
–
The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
28.
Windham County, Connecticut
–
Windham County is a county located in the northeastern corner of the U. S. state of Connecticut. As of the 2010 census, the population was 118,428 and it forms the core of the region known as the Quiet Corner. Windham County is included in the Worcester, MA-CT Metropolitan Statistical Area, the entire county is within the Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor, as designated by the National Park Service. The area that is now Windham County became of interest to the English around 1635, john Winthrop took a strong interest to this land, purchased land from the Narragansetts, and was given permission by the court of Connecticut to settle in October 1671. In 1678, a tract of land, called Joshua’s Tract, was willed to Connecticut officials, in 1684,1200 acres of land was sold to Jonathan Curtis, Thomas Dudley, and Samuel, among others, by the Nipmunks. Windham County was created from Hartford and New London counties on 12 May 1726 by an act of the Connecticut General Court, in May 1749, the town of Woodstock, formerly New Roxbury, Worcester County Massachusetts, was unilaterally annexed by Connecticut and assigned to Windham County. In 1785, the town of Union was transferred to the newly formed Tolland County, the final boundary adjustment occurred on April 7,1885, when the boundary dispute between the towns of Windham and Mansfield was resolved. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 521 square miles. The highest point in Windham County is Snow Hill in Ashford at 1,210 feet, Worcester County, Massachusetts Providence County, Rhode Island Kent County, Rhode Island New London County Tolland County County level government in the state of Connecticut was abolished in 1960. All government affairs and services are administered by either the state or local municipality, the office of county high sheriff was abolished by constitutional referendum in 2000. All former functions of the county sheriffs office are now carried out by the marshals service. The last high sheriff of Windham County was Thomas W. White, major highways through Windham County include Interstate 395, which runs north-south from the New London County line at Plainfield to the Massachusetts state line at Thompson. The southern part of I-395 is part of the Connecticut Turnpike, other secondary north-south roads are Routes 89,198,97,21, and 49. U. S. Route 6 has short expressway segments in Windham, other secondary east-west roads are Routes 14,101,171, and 197. Windham Airport is the airport for the county, located 3 miles from Willimantic. Other smaller airports include Woodstock Airport and Danielson Airport, there are many bike paths in the county. The major two trails are the Air Line State Park Trail and the Hop River State Park Trail, the Hop River Trail ends at the Air Line Trail shortly after entering the county, while the Air Line Trail continues all the way into Putnam. Another section of the Air Line Trail is in Thompson, which continues to the border with Massachusetts which it counties as the Southern New England Trunkline Trail
29.
David Sarnoff
–
David Sarnoff was an American businessman and pioneer of American radio and television. Throughout most of his career he led the Radio Corporation of America in various capacities from shortly after its founding in 1919 until his retirement in 1970. He ruled over an ever-growing telecommunications and consumer electronics empire that included both RCA and NBC, and became one of the largest companies in the world, named a Reserve Brigadier General of the Signal Corps in 1945, Sarnoff thereafter was widely known as The General. Sarnoff is credited with Sarnoffs law, which states that the value of a broadcast network is proportional to the number of viewers, David Sarnoff was born to a Jewish family in Uzlyany, a small town in Belarus, the son of Abraham and Leah Sarnoff. Abraham emigrated to the United States and raised funds to bring the family, Sarnoff spent much of his early childhood in a cheder studying and memorizing the Torah. In 1906 his father became incapacitated by tuberculosis, and at age 15 Sarnoff went to work to support the family. He had planned to pursue a career in the newspaper business. Over the next 13 years Sarnoff rose from office boy to commercial manager of the company, learning about the technology and he also served at Marconi stations on ships and posts on Siasconset, Nantucket and the New York Wanamaker Department Store. The following year, he led two other operators at the Wanamaker station in an effort to confirm the fate of the Titanic, some researchers question whether Sarnoff was at the telegraph key at all. By the time of the Titanic disaster in 1912, Sarnoff was a manager of the telegraphers and that same year Marconi won a patent suit that gave it the coastal stations of the United Wireless Telegraph Company. Sarnoff used H. J. Rounds hydrogen arc transmitter to demonstrate the broadcast of music from the New York Wanamaker station. This demonstration and the AT&T demonstrations in 1915 of long-distance wireless telephony inspired the first of many memos to his superiors on applications of current and future radio technologies. Sometime late in 1915 or in 1916 he proposed to the president, Edward J. Nally. Nally deferred on the proposal because of the volume of business during World War I. Throughout the war years, Sarnoff remained Marconis Commercial Manager, including oversight of the factory in Roselle Park. Unlike many who were involved with radio communications, viewing radio as point-to-point. One person could speak to many, up to 300,000 people heard the fight, and demand for home radio equipment bloomed that winter. By the spring of 1922 Sarnoffs prediction of popular demand for broadcasting had come true, in 1925, RCA purchased its first radio station and launched the National Broadcasting Company, the first radio network in America
30.
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
–
SMPTE Membership is open to any individual or organization with interest in the subject matter. SMPTE standards documents are copyrighted and may be purchased from the SMPTE website, standard documents may be purchased by the general public. Significant standards promulgated by SMPTE include, All film and television formats and media. The society sponsors many awards, the oldest of which are the SMPTE Progress Medal, the Samuel Warner Memorial Medal, SMPTE also has a number of student Chapters and sponsors scholarships for college students in the motion imaging disciplines. A group within the standards committees has begun to work on the definition of the SMPTE 3D Home Master. SMPTE, instituted in 1999, a committee for the foundations of Digital Cinema. The SMPTE presents awards to individuals for outstanding contributions in fields of the society, James Cameron Edwin Catmull Birney Dayton Clyde D. Smith Roderick Snell Dr. Kees Immink Stanley N. Baron William C. Miller Bernard J. Lechner Ray Dolby Harold E. Edgerton Vladimir K. Zworykin John G. Frayne Walt Disney Chuck Pagano James M. DeFilippis Bernard J. Lechner Stanley N. Baron William F. Schreiber Adrian Ettlinger Joseph A. Flaherty, goldmark W. R. G. Baker Albert Rose Charles Ginsburg Robert E. Shelby Arthur V. Loughren Otto H. Recent recipients are Andrew Laszlo James MacKay Dr. Roderick T. Swartz
31.
Industrial Research Institute
–
The Industrial Research Institute, Inc. is a nonprofit association based in Arlington, Virginia. IRI is a nonpartisan, membership-based organization that brings leaders of R&D together to discover, IRI held its first meeting on February 25,1938, after the National Research Council established it as a branch within its Division of Engineering and Industrial Research. IRI’s original membership consisted of fourteen companies, the organizations first president was Maurice Holland, on April 17,1945, IRI separated from the National Research Council and formed a nonprofit,501 organization, incorporated in the State of New York. 1945, IRI separates from the National Research Council and forms an independent organization,1946, IRI establishes the IRI Medal. 1952, IRI hosts a meeting with the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation,1958, The need to publish research findings results in the creation of IRIs journal Research Management. 1966, The organization assists the OEEC in developing a proposal for the construction of a college in Europe meant to teach scientists how to manage and this eventually leads to the creation of one of IRIs sister organizations, the European Industrial Research and Management Association. 1973, IRI establishes the IRI Achievement Award,1982, IRI establishes the Maurice Holland Award. 1984, IRI creates a program to allow an individual to serve in the Office of Science. 1985, IRI and its journal begin publishing the results of a survey regarding expected expenditure levels among R&D labs. The report is known as the R&D Trends Forecast,1988, Research Management is redesigned and renamed Research-Technology Management as part of the Institutes 50th anniversary celebration. 1989, the IRI Board decides to relocate IRI headquarters from New York City to Washington,1995, the IRI Board changes the constitution of the Institute to allow for organizations without a U. S. -based lab to become members, helping to expand membership internationally. 2001, RTM begins to be offered online via Ingenta,2003, IRI headquarters is moved from Washington, D. C. to Arlington, VA. 2007, IRI celebrates RTMs 50th year of publication,2008, IRI drafts policy speeches on science and technology for both candidates in the presidential election. 2012, IRIs journal, RTM, is redesigned and reformatted starting in the January–February 2012 issue,2013, IRI celebrates its 75th anniversary. IRI governance resides in its membership, each member organization is responsible for choosing a voting representative to vote on its behalf in IRI elections. A simple majority is required for any action to be taken, the membership is led by an elected sixteen-member Board of Directors, with each member serving three years. The board also appoints a president who serves as Chief Staff Administrator, federal laboratories involved in technological innovation, research, design, or technical support of products and services may also join as Associate Members. The Board of Directors retains the right to offer limited membership to others at its discretion, membership includes free attendance passes to IRI events and a subscription to IRIs official journal, Research-Technology Management
32.
IRI Medal
–
The reverse side of the medal is an adaptation of the official seal of the Institute. This award is presented each spring at the IRI Annual Meeting alongside the IRI Achievement Award. 1946, Willis R. Whitney 1947, Charles A. Thomas 1948, Games Slayter 1949, Vannevar Bush 1950, kinzel 1961, Max Tishler 1962, Chauncey G. Suits 1963, James B. Fisk 1964, Ray H. Boundy 1965, Edwin H. Land 1966, Paul L. Salzberg 1967, Emanuel R. Piore 1968, John H. Dessauer 1969, Patrick E. Haggerty 1970, William O. Baker 1971, Henri G. Busignies 1972, Peter C
33.
National Medal of Science
–
The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
34.
German inventors and discoverers
–
This is a list of German inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Germany or German-speaking Europe, and also people of predominantly German heritage, Ernst Abbe, Invented the first refractometer, and many other devices. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, Franz Carl Achard, Developed a process to produce sugar from sugar beet. Built the first factory for the process in 1802, Robert Adler, Invented a better television remote control. Konrad Adenauer, Invented soya sausage and, together with Jean and Josef Oebel, georgius Agricola, Named the father of mineralogy. Wilhelm Albert, Invented the wire rope 1834, kurt Alder, Discovery of the Diels–Alder reaction, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950. Richard Altmann, Discovery of the Mitochondrion Alois Alzheimer, Psychiatrist who discovered Alzheimer´s disease, ottomar Anschütz, in 1883 he patented a camera with an internal roller blind shutter mechanism, just in front of the photographic plate. Thus the focal-plane shutter in modern form was born. Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe, Invented the gyrocompass in 1907, manfred von Ardenne, Self-taught researcher, applied physicist and inventor. 600 patents in fields including television and radio, electron microscopy, medical technology, nuclear technology, Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander, catalogued all stars brighter than approximately magnitude 9.5 and north of -2 degrees in the Bonner Durchmusterung, the first large-scale modern star catalogue. Leo Arons, Mercury-vapor lamp together with Peter Cooper Hewitt, Leopold Auerbach, Discovery of Plexus myentericus Auerbachi, or Auerbachs plexus. Worked as Max Plancks assistant for three years, with Fritz Zwicky, he identified supernovae as a new category of astronomical objects Karl Ernst von Baer, discovered mammal ovum. Ralph Baer, Inventor of the first home game console. Synthesized indigo, discovered the phthalein dyes, and investigated polyacetylenes, oxonium salts, nitroso compounds, Albert Ballin, Father of modern cruise ship travel Heinrich Band, Developed a musical instrument and called it bandoneón in 1846. It is used in most tango orchestras until today, oskar Barnack, The father of the first mass marketed 35mm camera and Leica. Heinrich Anton de Bary, Father of Phytopathology, the science of plant diseases, coined the word symbiosis in 1879. Eugen Baumann, He was one of the first people to create polyvinyl chloride, Carl Baunscheidt, Inventor of the Lebenswecker or artificial leech. Hans Beck, Inventor of the toy Playmobil, Georg Bednorz, Physicist, discovered high-temperature superconductivity in ceramics, shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics
35.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
37.
NASA
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
38.
Laureate
–
In English, the word laureate has come to signify eminence or association with literary awards or military glory. It is also used for winners of the Nobel Prize and the Gandhi Peace Award, in ancient Greece, the laurel was sacred to Apollo and as such sprigs of it were fashioned into a crown or wreath of honor for poets and heroes. This symbolism has been ever since. Laureate letters in old times meant the dispatches announcing a victory, the name of bacca-laureate for a bachelors degree shows a confusion with a supposed etymology from Latin bacca lauri, which, though incorrect, involves the same idea. Jonsons appointment does not seem to have been made as poet laureate. The post then became an institution, though the emoluments varied. Abolition was similarly advocated when Thomas Warton and William Wordsworth died, Wordsworth stipulated, before accepting the honor, that no formal effusions from him should be considered a necessity, but Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The emoluments of the post have varied, Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, to Pye an allowance of £27 was made instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the Lord Chamberlains department, glory This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
39.
Roger Adams
–
Roger Adams was an American organic chemist. He is best known for the eponymous Adams catalyst, and his work did much to determine the composition of naturally occurring substances such as vegetable oils. Adams was born in Boston, Massachusetts and grew up in a neighborhood in South Boston. Adams was part of the prominent Adams family, and was descended from John Adamss grandfather, Adams attending Boston Latin School and Cambridge Latin High School. In 1900, the moved to Cambridge, which was closer to the two colleges. Adams entered Harvard University in 1905 and completed the requirements for a degree in three years. In his first year, he earned a John Harvard Honorary Scholarship by getting four As and his years at Harvard were undistinguished, earning high grades in chemistry and mining. After graduation from Harvard in 1909 he worked towards his Ph. D. at Radcliffe College supported by a teaching assistantship, torrey died unexpectedly in 1910, so Adams finished his Ph. D. under Charles Loring Jackson, George Shannon Forbes, and Latham Clarke. In 1912 he was initiated as a brother of Alpha Chi Sigma at Omicron Chapter at Harvard, after returning from Europe in 1913, Adams returned to Harvard and worked as a research assistant for Charles L. Jackson for $800 a year. During the next three years he taught chemistry at Harvard and Radcliffe, initiated the first elementary organic chemistry laboratory at Harvard. Several other prominent contemporaries of Adams at Harvard Graduate School were Elmer Keiser Bolton, Farrington Daniels, in 1916, Adams accepted an offer of an assistant professorship from William A. Noyes, head of the chemistry department at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He began a career at UIUC that would span 56 years, Adams succeeded Noyes as department head in 1926, and remained in that position until 1954. During this time, Adams made several well-known discoveries, Roger Adams and his students developed the so-called Adams catalyst, which is one of the most readily-prepared and active catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. The catalyst can be prepared by fusing sodium nitrate with chloroplatinic acid or ammonium chloroplatinate, working at the Noyes Laboratory, Adams and his more than 250 graduate students made many significant discoveries, Synthesis of chloralkyl esters by combining aldehydes and acyl chlorides. That aliphatic acid anhydrides effectively form ketones in the Friedel-Crafts reaction, determination of the structure of disalicylaldehyde and dehydroacetic acid. A method of synthesizing polyhydroxyanthraquinones with precisely-known stereochemistry using phthalides, determination of the structures of leprosy drugs chaulmoogric acid and hydnocarpic acid and the synthesis of their dihydro derivatives. Determination of the structure of gossypol for the cottonseed industry, isolated and identified cannabidiol from Cannabis sativa, showed its relationship to cannabinol and tetrahydrocannabinol. Studies of Senecio and Crotalaria alkaloids that opened two fields of study, pyrrolizidine and large-ring diester chemistry, at UIUC, Adams took charge of the Organic Chemical Manufactures started by his predecessor C. G
40.
Othmar Ammann
–
Othmar Hermann Ammann was a Swiss-American structural engineer whose bridge designs include the George Washington Bridge, Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, and Bayonne Bridge. He also directed the planning and construction of New York Citys Lincoln Tunnel, Othmar Ammann was born nearby Schaffhausen, Switzerland in 1879. His father was a manufacturer and his mother was a hat maker and he received his engineering education at the Polytechnikum in Zürich, Switzerland. He studied with Swiss engineer Wilhelm Ritter, in 1904, he emigrated to the United States, spending his career working mostly in New York City. In 1905 he briefly returned to Switzerland to marry Lilly Selma Wehrli, together they had 3 children- Werner, George, and Margot- before she died in 1933. In 1924, he became a citizen of the United States. He then married Karly Vogt Noetzli in 1935 in California, Ammann wrote two reports about bridge collapses, the collapse of the Quebec Bridge and the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge. It was the report that he wrote about the failure of the Quebec Bridge in 1907 that first earned him recognition in the field of design engineering. Because of this report, he was able to obtain a position working for Gustav Lindenthal on the Hell Gate Bridge, by 1925, he had been appointed bridge engineer to the Port of New York Authority. His design for a bridge over the Hudson River was accepted one developed by his mentor. Ultimately, this became the George Washington Bridge, under Ammanns direction, it was completed six months ahead of schedule for less than the original $60 million budget. Ammanns designs for the George Washington Bridge, and, later, the Bayonne Bridge, caught the attention of master builder Robert Moses, who drafted Ammann into his service. The last four of Ammanns six New York City bridges — Triborough, Bronx-Whitestone, Throgs Neck, in 1946, Ammann and Charles Whitney founded the firm Ammann & Whitney. In 1964, Ammann opened the Verrazano Narrows Bridge in New York, that had the worlds longest suspended span of 4,260 feet, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge is currently the eleventh-longest span in the world and longest in the Western Hemisphere. Ammann also assisted in the building of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Othmar Ammann designed more than half of the eleven bridges that connect New York City to the rest of the United States. His talent and ingenuity helped him create the two longest suspension bridges of his time, Ammann was known for being able to create bridges that were light and inexpensive, yet they were still simple and beautiful. He was able to do this by using the deflection theory and he believed that the weight per foot of the span and the cables would provide enough stiffness so that the bridge would not need any stiffening trusses. This made him popular during the era when being able to reduce the cost was crucial
41.
Theodosius Dobzhansky
–
Dobzhansky was born in Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire, and became an immigrant to the United States in 1927, aged 27 years old. His 1937 work Genetics and the Origin of Species became an influence on the synthesis and was awarded the US National Medal of Science in 1964. Dobzhansky was born on January 25,1900 in Nemyriv, Russian Empire, currently Ukraine and his father, Grigory Dobzhansky, was a mathematics teacher, and his mother was Sophia Voinarsky. In 1910 the family moved to Kiev, Russian Empire, at high school, Dobzhansky collected butterflies and decided to become a biologist. In 1915, he met Victor Luchnik who convinced him to specialize in beetles instead, Dobzhansky attended the Kiev State University between 1917 and 1921, where he then studied until 1924. He then moved to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to study under Yuri Filipchenko, on August 8,1924, Dobzhansky married geneticist Natalia Natasha Sivertzeva who was working with I. I. The Dobzhanskys had one daughter, Sophie, who married the U. S. archaeologist and anthropologist Michael D. Coe. Before moving to the USA, Dobzhansky published 35 scientific works on entomology, genetics, Dobzhansky immigrated to the United States in 1927 on a scholarship from the International Education Board of the Rockefeller Foundation to work and study in the United States. Arriving in New York City on December 27, he worked with Thomas Hunt Morgan at Columbia University and he followed Morgan to the California Institute of Technology from 1930 to 1940. On the basis of his experiments, he articulated the idea that reproductive isolation can be caused by differences in presence of microbial symbionts between populations, Dobzhanskys work was instrumental in spreading the idea that it is through mutations in genes that natural selection takes place. Also in 1937, he became a citizen of the United States. During this time, he had a public falling out with one of his Drosophila collaborators, Alfred Sturtevant. In 1941, Dobzhansky was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences and he returned to Columbia University from 1940 to 1962. He was one of the signatories of the 1950 UNESCO statement The Race Question and he then moved to the Rockefeller Institute until his retirement in 1971. In 1972 he was elected the first president of the BGA, and was recognised by the society for his role in behavior genetics, Dobzhansky was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1965. In 1970, he published Genetics of the evolutionary process, Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ashley Montagu debated the use and validity of the term “race” over a period of many years without reaching an agreement, and the “debate” has continued to the present day. Montagu argued that “race” was so laden with toxic associations that it was a word best eliminated from science completely and he argued that science should not give into the misuses to which it had been subjected. This was done in hopes that its foundation in population genetics would undermine the deeply ingrained social prejudices associated with “race”, Dobzhansky had serious confidence that mixing races created no serious medical issues
42.
Neal E. Miller
–
Neal Elgar Miller was an American experimental psychologist. Described as a man with a variety of interests, including physics, biology and writing. Millers career in psychology started with research on fear as a learned drive, work in behavioral medicine led him to his most notable work on biofeedback. Over his lifetime he lectured at Yale University, Rockefeller University, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Miller as the eighth most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Miller was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1909 and he grew up in the Pacific Northwest. His father, Irving Miller, worked at Western Washington University as Chair of the Department of Education and his fathers position in Neal Millers words, may have had something to do with his interest in psychology. Originally having a curiosity for science, Miller entered the University of Washington and his senior year he decided that psychology would allow him to pursue his wide variety of interests. He graduated from the University of Washington with a B. S. afterwards he studied at Stanford University where he received his M. S. and an interest in psychology of personality. At Stanford he accompanied his professor, Walter Miles, to the Institute of Human Relations at Yale University as a research assistant, There he was encouraged by another professor to further study psychoanalysis. He spent a total of 30 years at Yale University, and in 1950 he was appointed professor at Yale, in 1966 he began teaching at Rockefeller University and afterwards spent the early 1970s teaching at Cornell University Medical College. In 1985 he returned to Yale as a research associate, Millers early work focused on experimenting with Freudian ideas on behavior in real-life situations. His most notable topic was fear, Miller came to the conclusion that fear could be learned through conditioning. Miller then decided to extend his research to other drives, such as hunger. His unique ideas and experimental techniques to study these autonomic drives resulted in findings that changed ideas about motivations, Miller was also one of the founding fathers behind the idea of biofeedback. Today, many of his ideas have been expanded and added to, Miller was doing experimentation on conditioning and rats when he discovered biofeedback. Neal Miller, along with John Dollard and O. Hobart Mowrer, helped to integrate behavioral and they were able to translate psychological analytic concepts into behavioral terms that would be more easily understood. Specifically, they focused on the stimulus-response theory and these three men also recognized Sigmund Freuds understanding of anxiety as a signal of danger and that some things in Freuds work could be altered to fix this. Miller, Dollard and Mowrer believed that a person who was relieved of high anxiety levels would experience what is called anxiety relief, together with fellow psychologist O. Hobart Mowrer, Miller gives his name to the Miller-Mowrer Shuttlebox apparatus
43.
Herbert A. Simon
–
Simon received many top-level honors in life, including the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 and the Turing Award in 1975. He also received degrees from various universities, such as from Harvard University. As of 2016, Simon was the most cited person in Artificial Intelligence, with almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century. Herbert Alexander Simon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 15,1916 and his father, Arthur Simon, was an electrical engineer who had come to the United States from Germany in 1903 after earning his engineering degree from the Technische Hochschule of Darmstadt. An inventor who was granted several patents, his father also was an independent patent attorney. His mother, Edna Marguerite Merkel, was an accomplished pianist whose ancestors had come from Prague and his European ancestors had been piano makers, goldsmiths, and vintners. Simons father was Jewish and his mother came from a family with Jewish, Lutheran, Simon was educated as a child in the public school system in Milwaukee where he developed an interest in science. He found schoolwork to be interesting and easy, through his uncle’s books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered the social sciences. Among his earliest influences, Simon has cited Richard Ely’s economics textbook, Norman Angell’s The Great Illusion, at that time, Simon argued from conviction, rather than cussedness in favor of Georges controversial single tax on land rents. In 1933, Simon entered the University of Chicago, and following those early influences, he studied the social sciences and he was interested in biology, but chose not to study it because of his color-blindness and awkwardness in the laboratory. He chose instead to focus on science and economics. His most important mentor at the University was Henry Schultz who was an econometrician, eventually his studies led him to the field of organizational decision-making, which would become the subject of his doctoral dissertation. After graduating with his degree, Simon obtained a research assistantship in municipal administration which turned into a directorship at the University of California. From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science, there, he began participating in the seminars held by the staff of the Cowles Commission who at that time included Trygve Haavelmo, Jacob Marschak, and Tjalling Koopmans. He thus began a more in-depth study of economics in the area of institutionalism, Marschak brought Simon in to assist in the study he was currently undertaking with Sam Schurr of the “prospective economic effects of atomic energy”. From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty at Carnegie Mellon, in 1949, Simon became a professor of administration and chairman of the Department of Industrial Management at Carnegie Tech. Simon later also taught psychology and computer science in the same university, Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938. Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death from a cancerous tumor, in January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen
44.
George Stigler
–
George Joseph Stigler was a U. S. economist, the 1982 laureate in Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences and a key leader of the Chicago School of Economics. Stigler was born in Seattle, Washington, the son of Elsie Elizabeth and he graduated from the University of Washington in 1931 with a B. A and then spent a year at Northwestern University from which he obtained his M. B. A in 1932. It was during his studies at Northwestern that Stigler developed an interest in economics and his teaching experience began in 1936 at Iowa State College, where he taught until 1938. He spent much of World War II at Columbia University, performing mathematical and statistical research for the Manhattan Project and he then spent one year at Brown University. He served on the Columbia faculty from 1947 to 1958, while at Chicago, he was greatly influenced by Frank Knight, his dissertation supervisor. Stiglers influences included Jacob Viner and Henry Simons, as well as students W. Allen Wallis and this theory is a component of the public choice field of economics but is also deeply opposed by public choice scholars belonging to the Virginia School such as Charles Rowley. He also carried out research in the history of economic thought. Rowley and other public choice thinkers oppose what they see as nihilistic thinking in Stiglers view that policy advice is irrelevant because political markets are efficient, Stiglers most important contribution to economics was disseminated in his landmark article titled The Economics of Information. According to Friedman, Stigler essentially created a new area of study for economists, in this article, Stigler stressed the importance of information by writing, One should hardly have to tell academicians that information is a valuable resource, knowledge is power. And yet it occupies a slum dwelling in the town of economics and his 1962 article Information in the Labor Market developed the theory of search unemployment. In 1963 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association and he was known for his sharp sense of humor, and wrote a number of spoof essays. Another essay, on Truth in Teaching, described the consequences of a set of decisions that held universities legally responsible for the consequences of teaching errors. The Stigler diet was named after him, Stigler wrote numerous articles on the history of economics, published in the leading journals and republished 14 of them in 1965. However, economist Deirdre McCloskey later referred to Stigler as among the worst historians of economic thought in the history of the discipline who read a lot but was defective in paying attention. Stigler was a member of the Mont Pelerin Society, and was president from 1976 to 1978. He received National Medal of Science in 1987, production and Distribution Theories, The Formative Period. “The Economics of Information, ” Journal of Political Economy,69, Journal of Political Economy,70, Part 2, pp. 94–105. Chicago, University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, a Dialogue on the Proper Economic Role of the State
45.
Milton Friedman
–
Friedmans challenges to what he later called naive Keynesian theory began with his 1950s reinterpretation of the consumption function. In the 1960s, he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies and he theorized that there existed a natural rate of unemployment, and argued that employment above this rate would cause inflation to accelerate. He argued that the Phillips curve was, in the run, vertical at the natural rate. Friedman promoted an alternative macroeconomic viewpoint known as monetarism, and argued that a steady and his ideas concerning monetary policy, taxation, privatization and deregulation influenced government policies, especially during the 1980s. His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserves response to the financial crisis of 2007–08. Friedman was an advisor to Republican U. S. President Ronald Reagan and his political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal intervention. He once stated that his role in eliminating U. S. conscription was his proudest accomplishment and his support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, later renamed EdChoice. His books and essays have had influence, including in former communist states. Friedman was born in Brooklyn, New York on July 31,1912 and his parents, Sára Ethel and Jenő Saul Friedman, were Jewish immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia, Kingdom of Hungary. They both worked as dry goods merchants, shortly after Miltons birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey. In his early teens, Friedman was injured in a car accident, a talented student, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, just before his 16th birthday. In 1932, Friedman graduated from Rutgers University, where he specialized in mathematics and economics, during his time at Rutgers, Friedman became influenced by two economics professors, Arthur F. Burns and Homer Jones, who convinced him that modern economics could help end the Great Depression. After graduating from Rutgers, Friedman was offered two scholarships to do graduate work—one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago, Friedman chose the latter, thus earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933. He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and it was at Chicago that Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director. During the 1933–1934 academic year he had a fellowship at Columbia University and he was back in Chicago for the 1934–1935 academic year, working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on Theory and Measurement of Demand. That year, Friedman formed what would prove to be lifelong friendships with George Stigler, foreshadowing his later ideas, he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued. During 1935, he work for the National Resources Committee. Ideas from this later became a part of his Theory of the Consumption Function
