1.
Golden ratio
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In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The figure on the right illustrates the geometric relationship, expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b with a > b >0, a + b a = a b = def φ, where the Greek letter phi represents the golden ratio. Its value is, φ =1 +52 =1.6180339887 …, A001622 The golden ratio is also called the golden mean or golden section. Other names include extreme and mean ratio, medial section, divine proportion, divine section, golden proportion, golden cut, the golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other plant parts. The golden ratio has also used to analyze the proportions of natural objects as well as man-made systems such as financial markets. Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if a + b a = a b = φ, one method for finding the value of φ is to start with the left fraction. Through simplifying the fraction and substituting in b/a = 1/φ, a + b a =1 + b a =1 +1 φ, multiplying by φ gives φ +1 = φ2 which can be rearranged to φ2 − φ −1 =0. First, the line segment A B ¯ is about doubled and then the semicircle with the radius A S ¯ around the point S is drawn, now the semicircle is drawn with the radius A B ¯ around the point B. The arising intersection point E corresponds 2 φ, next up, the perpendicular on the line segment A E ¯ from the point D will be establish. The subsequent parallel F S ¯ to the line segment C M ¯, produces, as it were and it is well recognizable, this triangle and the triangle M S C are similar to each other. The hypotenuse F S ¯ has due to the cathetuses S D ¯ =1 and D F ¯ =2 according the Pythagorean theorem, finally, the circle arc is drawn with the radius 5 around the point F. The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a fascination for at least 2,400 years. But the fascination with the Golden Ratio is not confined just to mathematicians, biologists, artists, musicians, historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of mathematics. Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid explains a construction for cutting a line in extreme and mean ratio, throughout the Elements, several propositions and their proofs employ the golden ratio. The golden ratio is explored in Luca Paciolis book De divina proportione, since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter φ or less commonly by τ. Timeline according to Priya Hemenway, Phidias made the Parthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio, plato, in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids, some of which are related to the golden ratio
2.
Greek alphabet
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It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
3.
Alpha
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Alpha is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 1 and it was derived from the Phoenician and Hebrew letter aleph - an ox or leader. Letters that arose from alpha include the Latin A and the Cyrillic letter А, in English, the noun alpha is used as a synonym for beginning, or first, reflecting its Greek roots. In Ancient Greek, alpha was pronounced and could be either long or short. Where there is ambiguity, long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today, Ᾱᾱ, ὥρα = ὥρᾱ hōrā a time γλῶσσα = γλῶσσᾰ glôssa tongue In Modern Greek, vowel length has been lost, and all instances of alpha simply represent. It can also combine with the iota subscript, in the Attic-Ionic dialect of Ancient Greek, long alpha fronted to. In Ionic, the took place in all positions. In Attic, the shift did not take place after epsilon, iota, in Doric and Aeolic, long alpha is preserved in all positions. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European *n̥- and is cognate with English un-, copulative a is the Greek prefix ἁ- or ἀ- ha-, a-. The letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry, including radiation, angular acceleration, alpha particles, alpha carbon. Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry and it is also commonly used in mathematics in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. Furthermore, in mathematics, the alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level when proving null. In zoology, it is used to name the dominant individual in a wolf or dog pack, the proportionality operator ∝ is sometimes mistaken for alpha. The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, a letter based on the lower case of alpha represents the open back unrounded vowel. Alpha was derived from aleph, which in Phoenician means ox, plutarch, in Moralia, presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus grandfather, according to Plutarchs natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon. Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, the New Testament has God declaring himself to be the Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last. The term alpha has been used to position in social hierarchy
4.
Nu (letter)
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Nu /njuː/, is the 13th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 50 and it is derived from the ancient Phoenician alphabet nun. Its Latin equivalent is N, though the lowercase resembles the Roman lowercase v, the name of the letter is written νῦ in Ancient Greek and traditional Modern Greek polytonic orthography, while in Modern Greek it is written νι. The uppercase nu is not used, because it is identical to Latin N. The lower-case letter ν is used as a symbol for, Degree of freedom in statistics, the frequency of a wave in physics and other fields, sometimes also spatial frequency. Poissons ratio, the ratio of strains perpendicular with and parallel with an applied force, any of three kinds of neutrino in particle physics. One of the Greeks in mathematical finance, known as vega, the number of neutrons released per fission of an atom in nuclear physics. A DNA polymerase found in eukaryotes and implicated in translesion synthesis. Molecular vibrational mode, νx where x is the number of the vibration, the greatest fixed point of a function, as commonly used in the μ-calculus. Free names of a process, as used in the π-calculus, the maximum conditioning possible for an unconditioned stimulus in the Rescorla-Wagner model. The true anomaly, a parameter that defines the position of a body moving along an orbit. Greek Nu/Coptic Ni Mathematical Nu These characters are used only as mathematical symbols, stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style
5.
Beta
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Beta is the second letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 2, in Ancient Greek, beta represented the voiced bilabial plosive /b/. In Modern Greek, it represents the voiced labiodental fricative /v/, letters that arose from beta include the Roman letter ⟨B⟩ and the Cyrillic letters ⟨Б⟩ and ⟨В⟩. Like the names of most other Greek letters, the name of beta was adopted from the name of the corresponding letter in Phoenician. In Greek, the name was βῆτα bêta, pronounced in Ancient Greek and it is spelled βήτα in modern monotonic orthography, and pronounced. In US English, the name is pronounced /ˈbeɪtə/, while in British English it is pronounced /ˈbiːtə/, the letter beta was derived from the Phoenician letter beth. The letter Β had the largest number of highly divergent local forms, besides the standard form, there were forms as varied as, and. In the system of Greek numerals, beta has a value of 2, such use is denoted by a number mark, Β′. In computing, the term beta is used as the last testing release in the release life cycle before the release version. Beta versions often have a number of the form 0. n. Typically it is the last version before a version of a software is released to all its actual customers. Beta is used in finance as a measure of investment portfolio risk, Beta in this context is calculated as the covariance of the portfolios returns with its benchmarks returns, divided by the variance of the benchmarks returns. A beta of 1.5 means that for every 1% change in the value of the benchmark, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, Greek minuscule beta denotes a voiced bilabial fricative. The name Beta was used as a name during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season as Hurricane Beta, Beta is often used to denote a variable in mathematics and physics, where it often has specific meanings for certain applications. In physics a stream of unbound energetic electrons is referred to as beta radiation or beta rays. β is sometimes used as a placeholder for a number if α is already used. In spaceflight, beta angle describes the angle between the plane of a spacecraft or other body and the vector from the sun. The term beta refers to advice on how to complete a particular climbing route, boulder problem
6.
Xi (letter)
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Xi is the 14th letter of the Greek alphabet. It is pronounced in Modern Greek, and generally /ˈzaɪ/ or /ˈsaɪ/ in English, in the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 60. Xi was derived from the Phoenician letter samekh, Xi is not to be confused with the letter chi, which gave its form to the Latin letter X. Both in classical Ancient Greek and in Modern Greek, the letter Ξ represents the sound, in some archaic local variants of the Greek alphabet, this letter was missing. Instead, especially in the dialects of most of the Greek mainland and Euboea, because this variant of the Greek alphabet was used in Italy, the Latin alphabet borrowed Χ rather than Ξ as the Latin letter X. While having no Latin derivative, the Xi was adopted into the early Cyrillic alphabet, the Killing vector in general relativity. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup, upper case Ξ is used as an E to stylize company names/logos like Razer and musician Banners
7.
Gamma
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Gamma is the third letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 3, in Ancient Greek, the letter gamma represented a voiced velar stop /ɡ/. In Modern Greek, this represents either a voiced velar fricative or a voiced palatal fricative. In the International Phonetic Alphabet and other modern Latin-alphabet based phonetic notations, the Greek letter Gamma Γ was derived from the Phoenician letter for the /g/ phoneme, and as such is cognate with Hebrew gimel ג. In Archaic Greece, the shape of gamma was closer to a classical lambda, letters that arose from the Greek gamma include Etruscan
8.
Omicron
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Omicron is the 15th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 70 and this letter is derived from the Phoenician letter ayin. In classical Greek, omicron represented the sound in contrast to omega, in modern Greek, omicron represents the mid back rounded vowel /o/. Such stars include Omicron Andromedae, Omicron Ceti, and Omicron Persei, Greek Omicron / Coptic O Mathematical Omicron These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style
9.
Delta (letter)
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Delta is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 4 and it was derived from the Phoenician letter dalet
10.
Pi (letter)
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Pi is the sixteenth letter of the Greek alphabet, representing. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 80 and it was derived from the Phoenician letter Pe. Letters that arose from pi include Cyrillic Pe, Coptic pi, the upper-case letter Π is used as a symbol for, The product operator in mathematics, indicated with capital pi notation ∏. In textual criticism, Codex Petropolitanus, a 9th-century, uncial codex of the Gospels, now located in St. Petersburg, in legal shorthand, it represents a plaintiff. The letter π is the first letter of the Greek words περιφέρεια periphery and περίμετρος perimeter, dimensionless parameters constructed using the Buckingham π theorem of dimensional analysis. The hadron called the pi meson or pion, a type of chemical bond in which the P-orbitals overlap, called a pi bond. The natural projection on the tangent bundle on a manifold, the unary operation of projection in relational algebra. In reinforcement learning π denotes policy, an early form of pi was, appearing almost like a gamma with a hook. In the book Lalphabet grec, T. H. de Mortain speculates that letter П is a gate, allegedly, the Greeks wanted to represent the shape of the entrance to civilization, such as the gate of the lions in Mycenae. This hypothesis is not shared by any authority in the field and has no other attestation. It is used as a symbol for, Angular frequency of a wave, longitude of pericenter, in celestial mechanics. Mean Fitness of a population in Biology, Greek / Coptic Pi Mathematical Pi These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup, П, п - Pe Р, р - Er P, p - Pe Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering#Ππ Pilcrow - an unrelated but similar looking glyph
11.
Epsilon
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Epsilon is the fifth letter of the Greek alphabet, corresponding phonetically to a mid front unrounded vowel /e/. In the system of Greek numerals it has the value five and it was derived from the Phoenician letter He. Letters that arose from epsilon include the Roman E, Ë and Ɛ, in essence, the uppercase form of epsilon looks identical to Latin E. The lowercase version has two variants, both inherited from medieval Greek handwriting. One, the most common in typography and inherited from medieval minuscule. The other, also known as lunate or uncial epsilon and inherited from earlier uncial writing, while in normal typography these are just alternative font variants, they may have different meanings as mathematical symbols. Computer systems therefore offer distinct encodings for them, in Unicode, the character U+0一3F5 Greek lunate epsilon symbol is provided specifically for the lunate form. In TeX, \epsilon denotes the lunate form, while \varepsilon denotes the reversed-3 form, there is also a Latin epsilon or open e, which looks similar to the Greek lowercase epsilon. It is encoded in Unicode as U+025B and U+0190 and is used as an IPA phonetic symbol, the lunate or uncial epsilon has also provided inspiration for the euro sign. The lunate epsilon is not to be confused with the set membership symbol, in addition, mathematicians have read the symbol ∈ as element of, as in 1 is an element of the natural numbers for 1 ∈ N, for example. As late as 1960, ϵ itself was used for set membership, Only gradually did a fully separate stylized symbol take the place of epsilon. In a related context, Peano also introduced the use of a backwards epsilon, ∍, for the phrase such that, the letter Ε was taken over from the Phoenician letter He when Greeks first adopted alphabetic writing. In archaic Greek writing, its shape is often identical to that of the Phoenician letter. Archaic writing often preserves the Phoenician form with a stem extending slightly below the lowest horizontal bar. In the classical era, through the influence of cursive writing styles. Besides its classical Greek sound value, the short /e/ phoneme, for instance, in early Attic before c.500 B. C. it was used also both for the long, open /ɛː/, and for the long close /eː/. In the former role, it was replaced in the classic Greek alphabet by Eta. Some dialects used yet other ways of distinguishing between various e-like sounds, in Corinth, the normal function of Ε to denote /e/ and /ɛː/ was taken by a glyph resembling a pointed B, while Ε was used only for long close /eː/
12.
Rho
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Rho is the 17th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 100 and it is derived from Phoenician letter res. Its uppercase form is not to be confused with the Latin letter P, although both use the same glyph, P. Rho is classed as a liquid consonant. In both Ancient and Modern Greek, it represents a trilled or tapped r, the name of the letter is written in Greek as ῥῶ or ρω/ρο. Letters that arose from rho include Roman R and Cyrillic Er, the characters Ρ, ρ and ϱ are also used outside its Greek alphabetical context in science and mathematics. In such occasions, it is represented as ϱ, to avoid confusion with the Latin letter p In ecology to represent the population damping ratio where ρ = λ1 / |λ2|. Former Rhodes Scholars are entitled to use the Greek letter rho as a designation of their status, when used, the symbol should precede the name. These characters are used only as mathematical symbols, stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style. Р, р - Er R, r - Latin P, p - Latin
13.
Zeta
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Zeta is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 7 and it was derived from the Phoenician letter zayin. Letters that arose from zeta include the Roman Z and Cyrillic З, unlike the other Greek letters, this letter did not take its name from the Phoenician letter from which it was derived, it was given a new name on the pattern of beta, eta and theta. The word zeta is the ancestor of zed, the name of the Latin letter Z in British English. Swedish and many Romanic languages, do not distinguish between the Greek and Roman forms of the letter, zeta is used to refer to the Roman letter Z as well as the Greek letter, the letter ζ represents the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ in Modern Greek. The sound represented by zeta in Classical Greek is disputed, see Ancient Greek phonology and Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching. Most handbooks agree on attributing to it the pronunciation /zd/, PIE *zd becomes ζ in Greek. Without there would be an empty space between and in the Greek sound system, and a voiced affricate would not have a voiceless correspondent, alcman, Sappho, Alcaeus and Theocritus have σδ for Attic-Ionic ζ. Contra, The tradition would not have invented this special digraph for these poets if was the pronunciation in all Greek. Furthermore, this convention is not found in inscriptions. Thus, σδ indicates only a different pronunciation from Hellenistic Greek, the grammarians Dionysius Thrax and Dionysius of Halicarnassus class ζ with the double letters ψ, ξ and analyse it as σ + δ. Contra, The Roman grammarian Verrius Flaccus believed in the sequence, δ + σ. This suggests that different dialects had different pronunciations, the Greek inscriptions almost never write ζ in words like ὅσδε, τούσδε or εἰσδέχται, so there must have been a difference between this sound and the sound of ἵζω, Ἀθήναζε. It seems improbable that Greek would invent a special symbol for the bisegmental combination, furthermore, it is not clear that ζ was pronounced when it was originally invented. Mycenean Greek had a symbol to denote some sort of affricate or palatal consonant, ζ may have been invented for this sound. Boeotian, Elean, Laconian and Cretan δδ are more easily explained as a development from *dz than through an intermediary *zd. Greek in South Italy has preserved until modern times, contra, a) this may be a later development from or under the influence of Italian, b) even if it is derived from an ancient, it may be a dialectal pronunciation. Vulgar Latin inscriptions use the Greek letter Z for indigenous affricates, Italian, similarly, has consistently used Z for and
14.
Sigma
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Sigma is the eighteenth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 200. When used at the end of a word, the form is used, e. g. Ὀδυσσεύς. The shape and alphabetic position of sigma is derived from Phoenician shin
15.
Eta
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Eta is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet. Originally denoting a consonant /h/, its value in the classical Attic dialect of Ancient Greek was a long vowel, raised to in hellenistic Greek. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 8 and it was derived from the Phoenician letter heth. Letters that arose from eta include the Latin H and the Cyrillic letter И, the letter shape H was originally used in most Greek dialects to represent the sound /h/, a voiceless glottal fricative. In this function, it was borrowed in the 8th century BC by the Etruscan and other Old Italic alphabets and this also gave rise to the Latin alphabet with its letter H. Other regional variants of the Greek alphabet, in dialects that still preserved the sound /h/, in the southern Italian colonies of Heracleia and Tarentum, the letter shape was reduced to a half-heta lacking the right vertical stem. From this sign later developed the sign for rough breathing or spiritus asper, in 403 BC, Athens took over the Ionian spelling system and with it the vocalic use of H. This later became the standard orthography in all of Greece, itacism is continued into Modern Greek, where the letter name is pronounced and represents the sound /i/. It shares this function with other letters and digraphs, which are all pronounced alike. This phenomenon at large is called iotacism, Eta was also borrowed with the sound value of into the Cyrillic script, where it gave rise to the Cyrillic letter И. In Modern Greek the letter, pronounced, represents a close front unrounded vowel, in Classical Greek, it represented a long open-mid front unrounded vowel, /ɛː/. The upper-case letter Η is used as a symbol in textual criticism for the Alexandrian text-type, the lower-case letter η is used as a symbol in, Thermodynamics, the efficiency of a Carnot heat engine, or packing fraction. Chemistry, the hapticity, or the number of atoms of an attached to one coordination site of the metal in a coordination compound. For example, a group can coordinate to palladium in the η¹ mode or the η³ mode. Optics, the impedance of a medium, or the quantum efficiency of detectors. Particle physics, to represent the η mesons, experimental particle physics, η stands for pseudorapidity. Cosmology, η represents conformal time, dt = adη, relativity and Quantum field theory, η represents the metric tensor of Minkowski space. Statistics, η2 is the regression coefficient
16.
Tau
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Tau is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 300, the name in English is pronounced /taʊ/ or /tɔː/, but in modern Greek it is. This is because the pronunciation of the combination of Greek letters αυ has changed from ancient to modern times one of to either or. Tau was derived from the Phoenician letter taw, letters that arose from tau include Roman T and Cyrillic Te. The letter occupies the Unicode slots U+03C4 and U+03A4, in HTML, they can be produced with named entities, decimal references, or hexadecimal references. Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient in statistics Stopping time in stochastic processes Tau, in Biblical times, the taw was put on men to distinguish those who lamented sin, although newer versions of the Bible have replaced the ancient term taw with mark or signature. Tau in the Court of Seven Vowels, contains a reference to the cross attribution, stauros the vile engine is called, and it derives its vile name from him. Now, with all these crimes upon him, does he not deserve death, nay, francis love for it, symbol of the redemption and of the Cross. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style
17.
Theta
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Theta is the eighth letter of the Greek alphabet, derived from the Phoenician letter Teth. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 9, in Ancient Greek, θ represented the aspirated voiceless dental plosive /t̪ʰ/, but in Modern Greek it represents the voiceless dental fricative /θ/. In its archaic form, θ was written as a cross within a circle, archaic crossed forms of theta are seen in the wheel letters of Linear A and Linear B. The cursive form ϑ was retained by Unicode as U+03D1 ϑ GREEK THETA SYMBOL, for the purpose of writing Greek text, the two can be font variants of a single character, but θ and ϑ are also used as distinct symbols in technical and mathematical contexts. In the Latin script used for the Gaulish language, theta developed into the tau gallicum, conventionally transliterated as Ð, the phonetic value of the tau gallicum is thought to have been. The early Cyrillic letter fita developed from θ and this letter existed in the Russian alphabet until the 1918 Russian orthography reform. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, represents the voiceless dental fricative and it does not represent the consonant in the, which is the voiced dental fricative. The lower-case letter θ is used as a symbol for, A plane angle in geometry, a Variable in trigonometry A special function of several complex variables. One of the Chebyshev functions in prime number theory, the score of a test taker in item response theory. Theta Type Replication, a type of bacterial DNA replication specific to circular chromosomes, threshold value of an artificial neuron. A Bayer designation letter applied to a star in a constellation, usually the star so labelled. The parameter frequently used in writing the likelihood function, the Watterson estimator for the population mutation rate in population genetics. Indicates a minimum optimum integration level determined by the intersection of GG, the GG-LL schedules are a tool used in analyzing the potential benefits of a country pegging their domestic currency to a foreign currency. The reserve ratio of banks in economic models, the ordinal collapsing function developed by Solomon Feferman The upper-case letter Θ is used as a symbol for, Quantity or temperature, by SI standard. An asymptotically tight bound in the analysis of algorithms, a certain ordinal number in set theory. Pentaquarks, exotic baryons in particle physics, a brain signal frequency ranging from 4–8 Hz. One of the known as Greeks in finance, representing time decay of options or the change in the intrinsic value of an option divided by the number of days until the option expires. A variable indicating temperature difference in heat transfer, according to Porphyry of Tyros, the Egyptians used an X within a circle as a symbol of the soul, having a value of nine, it was used as a symbol for Ennead
18.
Upsilon
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Upsilon is the 20th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, Υʹ has a value of 400 and it is derived from the Phoenician waw. The name of the letter was originally just “υ”, but the name changed to “υ ψιλόν”, to distinguish it from οι, in early Greek it was pronounced like English oo. In Classical Greek, it was pronounced like French u or German ü, i. e and this was the case at least until the year 1030AD. In Modern Greek it is pronounced like continental i or English ee, in ancient Greek, it occurred in both long and short versions, but this distinction has been lost in Modern Greek. As an initial letter in Classical Greek it always carried the rough breathing as reflected in the many Greek-derived English words, such as those that begin with hyper- and hypo-. This rough breathing was derived from an older pronunciation that used a sibilant instead, Upsilon participated as the second element in falling diphthongs, which have subsequently developed in various ways, For instance, after alpha or epsilon it is pronounced or in Modern Greek. The usage of Y in Latin dates back to the first century BC and it was used to transcribe loanwords from Greek, so it was not a native sound of Latin and was usually pronounced /u/ or /i/. The latter pronunciation was the most common in the Classical period and was used mostly by uneducated people, four letters of the Latin alphabet arose from it, V and Y and, much later, U and W. In the Cyrillic script, the letters U and izhitsa arose from it, in some languages, the name upsilon is used to refer to the Latin letter Y as well as the Greek letter. In particle physics the capital Greek letter Υ denotes an Upsilon particle, note that the symbol should always look like Υ in order to avoid confusion with a Latin Y denoting the hypercharge. Automobile manufacturer Lancia has a model called the Ypsilon, in linguistics, the symbol is used to represent a labiodental approximant. In astrophysics and physical cosmology, Υ refers to the mass-to-light ratio, Upsilon is known as Pythagoras letter, or the Samian letter, because Pythagoras used it as an emblem of the path of virtue or vice. As the Roman writer Persius wrote in Satire III, and the letter which spreads out into Pythagorean branches has pointed out to you the steep path which rises on the right, Greek Upsilon Coptic Ua Latin Upsilon Mathematical Upsilon These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup, brady Haran for the University of Nottingham
19.
Iota
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Iota /aɪˈoʊtə/ is the ninth letter of the Greek alphabet. It was derived from the Phoenician letter Yodh, letters that arose from this letter include the Latin I and J, the Cyrillic І, Yi, and Je, and iotated letters. In the system of Greek numerals, iota has a value of 10, in ancient Greek it occurred in both long and short versions, but this distinction was lost in Koine Greek. Iota participated as the element in falling diphthongs, with both long and short vowels as the first element. Examples include ᾼ ᾳ ῌ ῃ ῼ ῳ, the former diphthongs became digraphs for simple vowels in Koine Greek. This refers to iota, the smallest letter, or possibly Yodh, י, the word jot derives from iota. The German, Portuguese and Spanish name for the letter J is derived from iota, in some programming languages iota is used to represent and generate an array of consecutive integers. For example, in APL ι4 gives 1234, the lowercase iota symbol is sometimes used to write the imaginary unit, but more often Roman i or j is used. In mathematics, the map of one space into another is sometimes denoted by the lowercase iota. In logic, the lowercase iota denotes the definite descriptor, the lowercase iota symbol has Unicode code point U+03B9 and the uppercase U+0399. Greek Iota / Ypogegrammeni Coptic Iaude Latin Iota Cyrillic Iota Technical Iota Mathematical Iota These characters are used only as mathematical symbols, stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style
20.
Kappa
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Kappa is the 10th letter of the Greek alphabet, used to represent the /k/ sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, Kʹ has a value of 20 and it was derived from the Phoenician letter kaph. Letters that arose from kappa include the Roman K and Cyrillic К, Greek proper names and placenames containing kappa are often written in English with c due to the Romans transliterations into the Latin alphabet, Constantinople, Corinth, Crete. All formal modern romanizations of Greek now use the k, however, Thessaloniki, Kalamata. The cursive form ϰ is generally a simple font variant of lower-case kappa, in mathematics, the kappa curve is named after this letter, the tangents of this curve were first calculated by Isaac Barrow in the 17th century. In graph theory, the connectivity of a graph is given by κ, in differential geometry, the curvature of a curve is given by κ. In Cosmology, the curvature of the universe is described by κ, in physics, the torsional constant of an oscillator is given by κ as well as Einsteins constant of gravitation. In physics the coupling coefficient in magnetostatics is represented by κ In fluid dynamics, in structural engineering, κ is the ratio of the smaller factored moment to the larger factored moment and is used to calculate the critical elastic moment of an unbraced steel member. κ is also used to notate conductivity, the reciprocal of resistivity, in Thermodynamics, the compressibility of a compound is given by κ. In psychology and psychiatry, kappa represents a measure of diagnostic reliability, in biology, kappa and kappa prime are important nucleotide motifs for a tertiary interaction of group II introns. In biology, kappa designates a subtype of an antibody component, in pharmacology, kappa represents a type of opioid receptor. Kappa statistics such as Cohens kappa and Fleiss kappa are methods for calculating inter-rater reliability, upper-case letter Κ is used as a symbol for, In textual criticism, the Byzantine text-type. In set theory, kappa is used to denote an ordinal that is also a cardinal. In Chemistry, kappa is used to denote the denticity of the compound, mathematical Kappa These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style
21.
Chi (letter)
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Chi is the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet, pronounced /ˈkaɪ/ or /ˈkiː/ in English. Its value in Ancient Greek was a velar stop /kʰ/. In Koine Greek and later dialects it became a fricative along with Θ and Φ, in front of low or back vowels and consonants, it is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative, as in German ach. Chi is romanized as ⟨ch⟩ in most systematic transliteration conventions, in addition, in Modern Greek, it is often also romanized as ⟨h⟩ or ⟨x⟩ in informal practice. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 600, in ancient times, some local forms of the Greek alphabet used the chi instead of xi to represent the /ks/ sound. This was borrowed into the early Latin language, which led to the use of the letter X for the sound in Latin. Chi was also included in the Cyrillic script as the letter Х, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the minuscule chi is the symbol for the voiceless uvular fricative. Chi is the basis for the name literary Chiastic structure and the name of Chiasmus, in Platos Timaeus, it is explained that the two bands that form the soul of the world cross each other like the letter Χ. Platos analogy, along several other examples of chi as a symbol occur in Thomas Brownes discourse The Garden of Cyrus. Chi or X is often used to abbreviate the name Christ, when fused within a single typespace with the Greek letter Rho, it is called the labarum and used to represent the person of Jesus Christ. These characters are used only as mathematical symbols, stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style. In statistics, the term chi-squared or χ2 has various uses, including the distribution, the chi-squared test. In algebraic topology, Chi is used to represent the Euler characteristic of a surface, in neurology, the optic chiasm is named for the letter Chi because of its Χ-shape. In chemistry, the fraction and electronegativity may be denoted by the lowercase χ. In rhetoric, both chiastic structure and the figure of speech Chiasmus derive from their names from the shape of the letter Chi. In engineering, chi is used as a symbol for the factor of relevant buckling loads in the EN1993. In graph theory, a lowercase chi is used to represent a graphs chromatic number
22.
Lambda
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Lambda is the 11th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals lambda has a value of 30, Lambda is related to the Phoenician letter Lamed. Letters in other alphabets that stemmed from lambda include the Latin L, the ancient grammarians and dramatists give evidence to the pronunciation as in Classical Greek times. In Modern Greek the name of the letter, Λάμδα, is pronounced, in early Greek alphabets, the shape and orientation of lambda varied. Most variants consisted of two strokes, one longer than the other, connected at their ends. The angle might be in the upper-left, lower-left, or top, other variants had a vertical line with a horizontal or sloped stroke running to the right. With the general adoption of the Ionic alphabet, Greek settled on an angle at the top, the HTML4 character entity references for the Greek capital and small letter lambda are Λ, and λ, respectively. The Unicode code points for lambda are U+039B and U+03BB, the lambda particle is a type of subatomic particle in subatomic particle physics. Lambda is the set of axioms in the axiomatic method of logical deduction in first-order logic. Lambda was used as a pattern by the Spartan army. This stood for Lacedaemon, the name of the polis of the Spartans, Lambda is the von Mangoldt function in mathematical number theory. Lambda is a associated with the Identitarian movement, intended to emulate a Spartan shield pattern. In statistics, Wilkss lambda is used in analysis of variance to compare group means on a combination of dependent variables. In the spectral decomposition of matrices, lambda indicates the diagonal matrix of the eigenvalues of the matrix, in computer science, lambda is the time window over which a process is observed for determining the working memory set for a digital computers virtual memory management. In astrophysics, lambda represents the likelihood that a body will encounter a planet or a dwarf planet leading to a deflection of a significant magnitude. An object with a value of lambda is expected to have cleared its neighborhood. In crystal optics, lambda is used to represent the period of a lattice, in NATO military operations, a chevron is painted on the vehicles of this military alliance for identification. In chemistry there are Δ and Λ isomers, see, coordination complex In electrochemistry, in cosmology, lambda is the symbol for the cosmological constant, a term added to some dynamical equations to account for the acceleration of the universe
23.
Psi (letter)
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Psi is the 23rd letter of the Greek alphabet and has a numeric value of 700. In both Classical and Modern Greek, the indicates the combination /ps/. For Greek loanwords in Latin and modern languages with Latin alphabets, in English, the letter is pronounced /ˈsaɪ/ or sometimes /ˈpsaɪ/. It may or may not derive from the Phoenician alphabet and it appears in the 7th century BC, expressing /ps/ in the Eastern alphabets, but /kʰ/ in the Western alphabets. In writing, the letter appears in an angular shape. There were early graphical variants that omitted the stem, the Western letter was adopted into the Old Italic alphabets, and its shape is also continued into the Algiz rune of the Elder Futhark. The classical Greek letter was adopted into the early Cyrillic alphabet as Ѱ, the letter psi is commonly used in physics to represent wave functions in quantum mechanics, such as in the Schrödinger equation and bra–ket notation, ⟨ ϕ | ψ ⟩. It is also used to represent the states of a qubit in a quantum computer. Psi is also used as the symbol for the polygamma function, the letters Ψ or ψ can also be a symbol for, psychology, psychiatry, and sometimes parapsychology. In mathematics, the reciprocal Fibonacci constant and the division polynomials, water potential in movement of water between plant cells. In biochemistry, it denotes the rare nucleotide pseudouridilic acid, stream function in fluid mechanics defining the curve to which the flow velocity is always tangent. One of the angles in the backbones of proteins The planet Neptune Indiana University Gangster Disciples A sai. Pharmacology, general pharmacy In virology the ψ site is a viral packaging signal, the J/ψ meson, in particle physics. In the computability theory, ψ P represents the return value Y of a program P, in circadian physiology, ψ represents the phase relationship between a zeitgeber and a biological rhythm. In building, to represent an adjustment to a U-value, accounting for thermal bridge effects, the ordinal collapsing function and notation developed by Wilfried Buchholz Greek / Coptic Psi Cyrillic Psi Mathematical Psi These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup, Psi and phi type figurine Psi
24.
Mu (letter)
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Mu is the 12th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 40, Mu was derived from the Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol for water, which had been simplified by the Phoenicians and named after their word for water, to become
25.
Omega
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Omega is the 24th and last letter of the Greek alphabet. In the Greek numeric system, it has a value of 800, the word literally means great O, as opposed to omicron, which means little O. In phonetic terms, the Ancient Greek Ω is a long open-mid o, in Modern Greek, Ω represents the mid back rounded vowel /o/, the same sound as omicron. The letter omega is transcribed ō or simply o, as the last letter of the Greek alphabet, Omega is often used to denote the last, the end, or the ultimate limit of a set, in contrast to alpha, the first letter of the Greek alphabet. Ω was not part of the early Greek alphabets and it was introduced in the late 7th century BC in the Ionian cities of Asia Minor to denote the long half-open. It is a variant of omicron, broken up at the side, the name Ωμέγα is Byzantine, in Classical Greek, the letter was called ō, whereas the omicron was called ou. In addition to the Greek alphabet, Omega was also adopted into the early Cyrillic alphabet, a Raetic variant is conjectured to be at the origin or parallel evolution of the Elder Futhark ᛟ. Omega was also adopted into the Latin alphabet, as a letter of the 1982 revision to the African reference alphabet, the uppercase letter Ω is used as a symbol, In chemistry, For oxygen-18, a natural, stable isotope of oxygen. In physics, For ohm – SI unit of resistance, formerly also used upside down to represent mho. Unicode has a code point for the ohm sign, but it is included only for backward compatibility. In statistical mechanics, Ω refers to the multiplicity in a system, the solid angle or the rate of precession in a gyroscope. In particle physics to represent the Omega baryons, in astronomy, Ω refers to the density of the universe, also called the density parameter. In astronomy, Ω refers to the longitude of the node of an orbit. In mathematics and computer science, In complex analysis, the Omega constant, a solution of Lamberts W function In differential geometry, a variable for a 2-dimensional region in calculus, usually corresponding to the domain of a double integral. In topos theory, the subobject classifier of an elementary topos, in combinatory logic, the looping combinator, In group theory, the omega and agemo subgroups of a p-group, Ω and ℧ In group theory, Cayleys Ω process as a partial differential operator. In statistics, it is used as the symbol for the sample space, in number theory, Ω is the number of prime divisors of n. In notation related to Big O notation to describe the behavior of functions. As part of logo or trademark, The logo of Omega Watches SA, part of the Badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
26.
History of the Greek alphabet
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The history of the Greek alphabet starts with the adoption of Phoenician letter forms and continues to the present day. This article concentrates on the period, before the codification of the now-standard Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet was developed by a Greek with first-hand experience of contemporary Phoenician script, almost as quickly as it was established in the Greek mainland, it was rapidly re-exported, eastwards to Phrygia, where a similar script was devised. It was also exported westwards with Euboean or West Greek traders, the earliest known fragmentary Greek inscriptions date from this time, 770–750 BC, and they match Phoenician letter forms of c. Some scholars argue for dates, Naveh for the 11th century BC, Stieglitz for the 14th century, Bernal for the 18th–13th century, some for the 9th. He had seen and described the Cadmean writing engraved on certain tripods in the temple of Apollo at Thebes and he estimated that those tripods dated back to the time of Laius, the great-grandson of Cadmus. On one of the tripods there was this inscription in Cadmean writing, a second tripod bears the inscription in hexameter verse, Σκαῖος πυγμαχέων με ἑκηβόλῳ Ἀπόλλωνι νικήσας ἀνέθηκε τεῒν περικαλλὲς ἄγαλμα. Herodotus estimated that if Scaeus, the son of Hippocoon was the dedicator and not another of the same name, the third tripod bears the inscription again in hexameter verse, Λαοδάμας τρίποδ᾽ αὐτὸς ἐυσκόπῳ Ἀπόλλωνι μουναρχέων ἀνέθηκε τεῒν περικαλλὲς ἄγαλμα. Furthermore, he argues that Gephyraei were Euboeans or Eretrians and he doubts the reliability of Herodotus sources, plutarch and other ancient Greek writers credited the legendary Palamedes of Nauplion on Euboea with the invention of the supplementary letters not found in the original Phoenician alphabet. The distinction between Eta and Epsilon and between Omega and Omicron, adopted in the Ionian standard, was attributed to Simonides of Ceos. Plutarch goes further back to describe an older Greek writing system, agesilaus sent a transcript to Egypt in order to be translated back into Ancient Greek. Agetoridas the Spartan travelled to Memphis of Egypt and gave the transcript to Chonouphis the Egyptian priest, some scholars speculate that this plate was written in Linear B. And therefore, as the story goes, the Egyptian priest, having studied the script and translated it, the majority of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet were adopted into Greek with much the same sounds as they had had in Phoenician. However, Phoenician, like other Semitic scripts, has a range of consonants, commonly called gutturals, that did not exist in Greek, ’āleph, hē, ḥēth, and ‘ayin. For example, the two letters wāw and yōdh stood for both the approximant consonants and, and the vowels and in Phoenician. By this point in time, Greek had lost its sound, so Phoenician yōdh was used only for its vocalic value, upsilon was added at the end of the alphabet, perhaps to avoid upsetting the alphabetic order that was used in Greek numerals. All Phoenician letters had been acrophonic, and they remained so in Greek, only the letter ‘ayin for necessitated a change of name. Phoenician also had an emphatic consonant, ṭēth, which did not exist in Greek, however, Greek had an aspiration distinction that Phoenician lacked, and used ṭēth for the aspirated
27.
Archaic Greek alphabets
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The system now familiar as the standard 24-letter Greek alphabet was originally the regional variant of the Ionian cities in Asia Minor. It was officially adopted in Athens in 403 BC and in most of the rest of the Greek world by the middle of the 4th century BC, the green type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician. The red type is the one that was transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet. The blue type is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged, *Upsilon is also derived from waw. The green type uses no additional letters beyond the Phoenician set, thus, the aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /kʰ/ are spelled either simply as Π and Κ respectively, without a distinction from unaspirated /p/, /k/, or as digraphs ΠΗ, ΚΗ. Likewise, the clusters /ps/, /ks/ are simply spelled ΠΣ and this is the system found in Crete and in some other islands in the southern Aegean, notably Thera, Melos and Anaphe. The red type also lacks Phoenician-derived Ξ for /ks/, but instead introduces a supplementary sign for that sound combination at the end of the alphabet, in addition, the red alphabet also introduced letters for the aspirates, Φ = /pʰ/ and Ψ = /kʰ/. Note that the use of Χ in the red set corresponds to the letter X in Latin, while it differs from the later standard Greek alphabet, where Χ stands for /kʰ/, only Φ for /pʰ/ is common to all non-green alphabets. The red type is found in most parts of central mainland Greece, as well as the island of Euboea, the light blue type still lacks Ξ, and adds only letters for /pʰ/ and /kʰ/. Both of these correspond to the standard alphabet. The light blue system thus still has no letters for the clusters /ps/, /ks/. In this system, these are typically spelled ΦΣ and ΧΣ and this is the system found in Athens and several Aegean islands. The dark blue type, finally, is the one that has all the consonant symbols of the standard alphabet, in addition to Φ and Χ, it also adds Ψ. This system is found in the cities of the Ionian dodecapolis, Knidos in Asia Minor, in the psilotic dialects of Anatolia and adjacent eastern Aegean islands, as well as Crete, vocalic Η was used only for /ɛː/. In a number of Aegean islands, notably Rhodes, Milos, Santorini and Paros, in Knidos, a variant letter was invented to distinguish the two functions, Η was used for /h/, and for /ɛː/. In south Italian colonies, especially Taranto, after c.400 BC and this latter symbol was later turned into the diacritic sign for rough breathing by the Alexandrine grammarians. The normal letter epsilon was used exclusively for the latter, while a new special symbol stood both for short /e/ and for /ɛː/, the letter Digamma for the sound /w/ was generally used only in those local scripts where the sound was still in use in the spoken dialect. During the archaic period, this includes most of mainland Greece, as well as Euboea, in Athens and in Naxos it was apparently used only in the register of poetry
28.
Digamma
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Digamma, waw, or wau is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It originally stood for the sound /w/ but it has remained in use as a Greek numeral for 6. Digamma or wau was part of the original archaic Greek alphabet as initially adopted from Phoenician, like its model, Phoenician waw, it represented the voiced labial-velar approximant /w/ and stood in the 6th position in the alphabet between epsilon and zeta. It is the doublet of the vowel letter upsilon, which was also derived from waw but was placed at the end of the Greek alphabet. Digamma or wau is in turn the ancestor of the Latin letter F, as an alphabetic letter, it is attested in archaic and dialectal ancient Greek inscriptions until the classical period. The shape of the letter went through a development from through, to or, in modern Greek, this is often replaced by the digraph στ. The sound /w/ existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in Linear B and it is also confirmed by the Hittite name of Troy, Wilusa, corresponding to the Greek name *Wilion. The /w/ sound was lost at times in various dialects. In Ionic, /w/ had probably disappeared before Homers epics were written down, further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that οἶνος was earlier ϝοῖνος /wóînos/. Aeolian was the dialect that kept the sound /w/ longest, in discussions by ancient Greek grammarians of the Hellenistic era, the letter is therefore often described as a characteristic Aeolian feature. Loanwords that entered Greek before the loss of /w-/ lost that sound when Greek did, for instance, Oscan Viteliu gave rise to the Greek word Italia. The Adriatic tribe of the Veneti was called in Ancient Greek, in loanwords that entered the Greek language after the drop of /w/, the phoneme was once again registered, compare for example the spelling of Οὐάτεις for vates. In some local alphabets, a variant glyph of the letter digamma existed that resembled modern Cyrillic И, in one local alphabet, that of Pamphylia, this variant form existed side by side with standard digamma as two distinct letters. It has been surmised that in this dialect the sound /w/ may have changed to labiodental /v/ in some environments, the F-shaped letter may have stood for the new /v/ sound, while the special И-shaped form signified those positions where the old /w/ sound was preserved. Digamma/wau remained in use in the system of Greek numerals attributed to Miletus and it was one of three letters that were kept in this way in addition to the 24 letters of the classical alphabet, the other two being koppa for 90, and sampi for 900. During their history in handwriting in late antiquity and the Byzantine era and it has remained in use as a numeral in Greek to the present day, in contexts such as enumerating chapters in a book or other items in a set. Digamma was derived from Phoenician waw, which was shaped roughly like an Y, of the two Greek reflexes of waw, digamma retained the alphabetic position, but had its shape modified to, while the upsilon retained the original shape but was placed in a new alphabetic position. Early Crete had a form of digamma somewhat closer to the original Phoenician
29.
Heta
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Heta is a conventional name for the historical Greek alphabet letter Eta and several of its variants, when used in their original function of denoting the consonant /h/. The letter Η had been adopted by Greek from the Phoenician letter Heth originally with this sound value. The Italic alphabets, and ultimately Latin, adopted the letter H from this Greek usage, however, Greek dialects progressively lost the sound /h/ from their phonological systems. In this function it later entered the classical orthography adopted across the whole of Greece, according to traditional accounts, the new vowel, Ēta, was originally the innovation of the poet Simonides of Ceos. In dialects that still had the /h/ sound as part of their systems, including early Athens. During the classical era, more dialects adopted the new Ionian vocalic Eta, as many of these dialects nevertheless still also pronounced /h/, they faced the problem of distinguishing between their own old consonantal symbol and the new vocalic symbol. Some dialects, including classical Attic, simply omitted the marking of the /h/-sound, in others, the same symbol was used in both functions. Others distinguished between glyph variants, for instance in Delphi by using the square sign for /h/. In the southern Italian colonies of Heracleia and Tarentum, a new shape for /h/ was invented, consisting of a single vertical stem. The later standard spelling of the eta, however, has the smooth breathing. Under the Roman emperor Claudius in the mid-1st century AD, Latin briefly re-borrowed the letter in the shape of the half-H tack glyph and it denoted the sonus medius, a short close vowel sound of a quality between i and u. Some authors have adopted the Heracleian tack Heta for use in modern transcription. Jeffery uses the symbol also as a modern label for the abstract grapheme. The Unicode standard of computer encoding introduced code points for a tack-shaped Greek letter Heta designed for usage in its version 5.1 of April 2008. Like other archaic letters, Unicode Heta comes in an uppercase and lowercase variant to cater for the needs of modern typography, type designers have created several designs for this new typographic lowercase form, one of them resembling a lowercase Latin h with a straight rightward horizontal bar. The Greek Heta codepoints are distinct from another set designed to represent the tack-shaped Claudian Latin letter half H
30.
San (letter)
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San was an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. Its shape was similar to modern M, or to a modern Greek Sigma turned sideways, unlike Sigma, whose position in the alphabet is between Rho and Tau, San appeared between Pi and Qoppa in alphabetic order. In addition to denoting this separate archaic character, the name San was also used as a name to denote the standard letter Sigma. Conversely, Greek Xi got its shape and position from Samekh, however, since voiced and voiceless were not distinct phonemes in Greek, Sigma and San came to be used in essentially the same function. According to a different theory, San was indeed the name of what is now known as Sigma. This name was later also associated with the alternative local letter now known as San. The modern name Sigma, in turn, was a transparent Greek innovation that simply meant hissing, based on a nominalization of a verb σίζω. Moreover, a modern re-interpretation of the values of the sibilants in Proto-Semitic. The use of San became a characteristic of the Doric dialects of Corinth and neighboring Sikyon, San became largely obsolete by the second half of the fifth century BC, when it was generally replaced by Sigma, although in Crete it continued in use for about a century longer. In Sikyon, it was retained as a mark of the city used on coin inscriptions. San could be written with the outer stems either straight or slanted outwards and it was typically distinguished from the similar-looking Mu by the fact that San tended to be symmetrical, whereas Mu had a longer left stem in its archaic forms. Outside Greece, San was borrowed into the Old Italic alphabets and it initially retained its M-shape in the archaic Etruscan alphabet, but from the 6th century BC changing its aspect to a shape similar to that of the d-rune. The name of San lived on as a name for Sigma even at a time when the letter itself had everywhere been replaced with standard Sigma. Thus, Herodotus in the late 5th century reports that the letter was called San by the Dorians. It appears to have denoted a /ts/ sound and has been labelled Tsan by some modern writers, in the local Arcadian dialect, this sound occurred in words that reflect Proto-Greek */kʷ/. In such words, other Greek dialects usually have /t/, while the related Cypriot dialect has /s/, the letter has been represented in modern scholarly transcriptions of the Mantinea inscription by ⟨ś⟩ or by ⟨σ̱⟩. Note, however, that the symbol is used to denote the unrelated letter waw in Pamphylia and was also the form of beta used in Melos. The Ionian letter, which gave rise to the numeral symbol Sampi may also be a continuation of San
31.
Koppa (letter)
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Koppa or Qoppa is a letter that was used in early forms of the Greek alphabet, derived from Phoenician qoph. It was originally used to denote the /k/ sound, but dropped out of use as a character in favor of Kappa. It has remained in use as a symbol in the system of Greek numerals. Koppa is the source of Latin Q, as well as the Cyrillic numeral sign of the same name, in Phoenician, qoph was pronounced, in Greek, which lacked such a sound, it was instead used for /k/ before back vowels Ο, Υ and Ω. In this function, it was borrowed into the Italic alphabets, however, as the sound /k/ had two redundant spellings, koppa was eventually replaced by kappa in Greek. It remained in use as a letter in some Doric regions into the 5th century BC, the koppa was used as a symbol for the city of Corinth, which had the early spelling of Ϙόρινθος. Koppa remained in use in the system of Milesian Greek numerals and it has continued to be used in this function into modern times, though its shape has changed over time. In the Greek cursive script, the Q-like shape with a circle on top was often broken up at the side or at the top. These are also the shapes in which it was borrowed into the early Cyrillic alphabet, as well as into Gothic, in both cases with the same numeric function. In the Coptic script, the identical-looking sign ϥ is also used as a numeral for 90, although as a letter it has an unrelated sound value, /f/. Later, in handwriting, the shape changed further into a simple zigzag line. Modern typography of the numeral Koppa has most often employed some version of the Z-shaped character, other variants common in older print include shapes based on the open uncial form. Some of these shapes may be indistinguishable from realizations of the other Greek numeral, Stigma, Koppa has also sometimes been replaced by a lowercase Latin q, a mirrored uppercase P, or a 5 turned upside down. As with the usage of stigma and Sampi, modern typographical practice normally does not observe a contrast between uppercase and lowercase forms for numeric koppa. A lowercase form was encoded in version 3.0, a second pair of codepoints specifically for the original closed epigraphical shape was introduced in version 3.2. This left the older two code points to cover primarily the numeral glyphs, conversely, older fonts may have the numeral glyph at the uppercase codepoint, while this position may be filled with any of several less common glyphs in newer ones. A serifed version similar to his koppa was adopted as the glyph for the Unicode code charts, along with a lowercase form with heavy curved arms. Some current Unicode fonts have adopted these new shapes, while many font designers have opted for some combination of the more traditional glyphs, including the uncial, Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet
32.
Sampi
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Sampi is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It later remained in use as a symbol for 900 in the alphabetic system of Greek numerals. Its modern shape, which resembles a π inclining to the right with a longish curved cross-stroke and its current name, sampi, originally probably meant san pi, i. e. like a pi, and is also of medieval origin. The letters original name in antiquity is not known and it has been proposed that sampi was a continuation of the archaic letter san, which was originally shaped like an M and denoted the sound in some other dialects. Besides san, names that have proposed for sampi include parakyisma and angma, while other historically attested terms for it are enacosis, sincope. It has been attested in the cities of Miletus, Ephesos, Halikarnassos, Erythrae, Teos, in the island of Samos, in the Ionian colony of Massilia, and in Kyzikos. In addition, in the city of Pontic Mesembria, on the Black Sea coast of Thrace, it was used on coins, Sampi occurs in positions where other dialects, including written Ionic, normally have double sigma, i. e. a long /ss/ sound. Some other dialects, particularly Attic Greek, have ττ in the same words, the sounds in question are all reflexes of the proto-Greek consonant clusters *, *, *, *, or *. Among the earliest known uses of sampi in this function is an abecedarium from Samos dated to the mid-7th century BC and this early attestation already bears witness to its alphabetic position behind omega, and it shows that its invention cannot have been much later than that of omega itself. The first known use of sampi in writing native Greek words is an inscription found on a silver plate in Ephesus. It can be dated between the late 7th century and mid 6th century BC, an inscription from Halicarnassus has the names Ἁλικαρναͳέν and the personal names Ὀαͳαͳιος and Πνυάͳιος. All of these appear to be of non-Greek, local origin. On a late 6th century bronze plate from Miletus dedicated to the sanctuary of Athena at Assesos and this is currently the first known instance of alphabetic sampi in Miletus itself, commonly assumed to be the birthplace of the numeral system and thus of the later numeric use of sampi. It has been suggested there may be an isolated example of the use of alphabetic sampi in Athens. In a famous painted black figure amphora from c.615 BC, known as the Nessos amphora, the expected regular form of the name would have been either Attic Νέττος – with a double τ – or Ionic Νέσσος. Traces of corrections that are still visible underneath the painted Τ have led to the conjecture that the painter originally wrote Νέͳος, a letter similar to Ionian sampi, but of unknown historical relation with it, existed in the highly deviant local dialect of Pamphylia in southern Asia Minor. According to Brixhe it probably stood for the sounds /s/, /ss/ and it is found in a few inscriptions in the cities of Aspendos and Perge as well as on local coins. For instance, an inscription from Perge dated to around 400 BC reads, anax, it is believed that the letter stood for some type of sibilant reflecting Proto-Greek */ktj/
33.
Greek diacritics
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Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The complex polytonic orthography notates Ancient Greek phonology, the simple monotonic orthography, introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics. Polytonic orthography is the system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent, the accent, and the circumflex indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing indicates the presence of the /h/ sound before a letter, monotonic orthography is the standard system for Modern Greek. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus. Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole has in a way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. The original Greek alphabet did not have any diacritics, the Greek alphabet is attested since the 8th century BC. Until 403 BC, variations of the Greek alphabet—which exclusively used what is now known as capitals —were used in different cities, from 403 on, the Athenians decided to employ a version of the Ionian alphabet. With the spread of Koine Greek, a continuation of the Attic dialect, the Ionian alphabet, however, was also made up only of capitals. During the Hellenistic period, Aristophanes of Byzantium introduced the breathings—marks of aspiration and it was not until the 2nd century AD that the accents and breathings appeared sporadically in the papyri. The need for the diacritics arose from the divergence between spelling and pronunciation. The majuscule, i. e. a system where text is entirely in capital letters, was used until the 8th century. By the Byzantine period, the rule which turns an acute accent on the last syllable into a grave accent —except before a punctuation sign or an enclitic—had been firmly established. Certain authors have argued that the grave originally denoted the absence of accent, the rule is, in their view. Originally certain proclitic words lost their accent before another word and received the grave, others, drawing e. g. on evidence from Ancient Greek music, consider that the grave was linguistically real and expressed a word-final modification of the acute pitch. In the later development of the language, the ancient pitch accent was replaced by an intensity or stress accent, making the three types of accent identical, and the /h/ sound became silent. At the beginning of the 20th century, the grave was replaced by the acute, and the iota subscript and the breathings on the rho were abolished, except in printed texts
34.
Greek ligatures
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Greek ligatures are graphic combinations of the letters of the Greek alphabet that were used in medieval handwritten Greek and in early printing. Ligatures were used in the writing style and very extensively in later minuscule writing. There were dozens of conventional ligatures, some of them stood for frequent letter combinations, some for inflectional endings of words, and some were abbreviations of entire words. In early printed Greek from around 1500, many ligatures fashioned after contemporary manuscript hands continued to be used. Important models for this early typesetting practice were the designs of Aldus Manutius in Venice, and those of Claude Garamond in Paris, however, the use of ligatures gradually declined during the 17th and 18th centuries and became mostly obsolete in modern typesetting. The ου ligature is still used in decorative writing, while the καὶ abbreviation has some limited usage in functions similar to the Latin ampersand. Another ligature that was frequent in early modern printing is a ligature of Ο with ς for a terminal ος. The ligature ϛ for στ, now called stigma, survived in a special role besides its use as a ligature proper. It took on the function of a sign for 6, having been visually conflated with the cursive form of the ancient letter digamma. In the modern computer encoding standard Unicode, the abbreviation ϗ has been encoded since version 3.0 of the standard, an uppercase version Ϗ was added in version 5.1. A lower and upper case stigma, designed for its use, is also encoded in Unicode. Letters derived from the ου ligature exist for use in Latin, Greek digraphs Latin and Cyrillic Ou digraphs iota adscript, which is written with a ligatured iota, ᾼ iota subscript, also written with a ligatured iota, ᾳ Tau-Rho Chi-Rho
35.
Greek numerals
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Greek numerals are a system of writing numbers using the letters of the Greek alphabet. These alphabetic numerals are known as Ionic or Ionian numerals, Milesian numerals. In modern Greece, they are used for ordinal numbers. For ordinary cardinal numbers, however, Greece uses Arabic numerals, attic numerals, which were later adopted as the basis for Roman numerals, were the first alphabetic set. They were acrophonic, derived from the first letters of the names of the numbers represented and they ran =1, =5, =10, =100, =1000, and =10000. 50,500,5000, and 50000 were represented by the letter with minuscule powers of ten written in the top right corner, the same system was used outside of Attica, but the symbols varied with the local alphabets, in Boeotia, was 1000. The present system probably developed around Miletus in Ionia, 19th-century classicists placed its development in the 3rd century BC, the occasion of its first widespread use. The present system uses the 24 letters adopted by Euclid as well as three Phoenician and Ionic ones that were not carried over, digamma, koppa, and sampi. The position of characters within the numbering system imply that the first two were still in use while the third was not. Greek numerals are decimal, based on powers of 10, the units from 1 to 9 are assigned to the first nine letters of the old Ionic alphabet from alpha to theta. Each multiple of one hundred from 100 to 900 was then assigned its own separate letter as well and this alphabetic system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to obtain the total. For example,241 was represented as, in ancient and medieval manuscripts, these numerals were eventually distinguished from letters using overbars, α, β, γ, etc. In medieval manuscripts of the Book of Revelation, the number of the Beast 666 is written as χξϛ, although the Greek alphabet began with only majuscule forms, surviving papyrus manuscripts from Egypt show that uncial and cursive minuscule forms began early. These new letter forms sometimes replaced the ones, especially in the case of the obscure numerals. The old Q-shaped koppa began to be broken up and simplified, the numeral for 6 changed several times. During antiquity, the letter form of digamma came to be avoided in favor of a special numerical one. By the Byzantine era, the letter was known as episemon and this eventually merged with the sigma-tau ligature stigma. In modern Greek, a number of changes have been made
36.
Bactrian language
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Bactrian is an Iranian language which was spoken in the Central Asian region of Bactria, and used as the official language of the Kushan and the Hephthalite empires. It was long thought that Avestan represented Old Bactrian, but this notion had rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century, Bactrian, which was written predominantly in an alphabet based on the Greek script, was known natively as αρια. It has also known by names such as Greco-Bactrian, Kushan or Kushano-Bactrian. Under Kushan rule, Bactria became known as Tukhara or Tokhara, by the 1970s, however, it became clear that there was little evidence for such a connection. Eastern Scythian tribes invaded the territory around 140 BC, and at time after 124 BC. Subsequently, one of the Yuezhi tribes advanced to found the Kushan dynasty in the 1st century AD, the Kushans at first retained the Greek language for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian. The Bactrian Rabatak inscription records that the Kushan king Kanishka discarded Greek as the language of administration, the Greek language accordingly vanishes from official use and only Bactrian is attested. The use of the Greek script however remained to write Bactrian, in the 3rd century, the Kushan territories west of the Indus river fell to the Sassanids, and Bactrian began to be influenced by Middle Persian. Next to Pahlavi script and Brahmi script, some coinage of this period is still in Greco-Bactrian script, beginning in the mid-4th century, Bactria and northwestern India yielded to the Hephthalite tribes. The Hephthalite period is marked by linguistic diversity and in addition to Bactrian, Middle Persian, North Indo-Aryan, Turkish, the Hephthalites ruled their territories until the 7th century when they were overrun by the Arabs, after which the official use of Bactrian ceased. Although Bactrian briefly survived in usage, that too eventually ceased. The territorial expansion of the Kushans helped propagate Bactrian to Northern India, among Indo-Iranian languages, the use of the Greek script is unique to Bactrian. Although ambiguities remain, some of the disadvantages were overcome by using heta for /h/, xi and psi were not used for writing Bactrian as the ks and ps sequences do not occur in Bactrian. They were however used to represent numbers. The Bactrian language is known from inscriptions, coins, seals, manuscripts, of eight known manuscript fragments in Greco-Bactrian script, one is from Lou-lan and seven from Toyoq, where they were discovered by the second and third Turpan expeditions under Albert von Le Coq. One of these may be a Buddhist text, one other manuscript, in Manichaean script, was found at Qočo by Mary Boyce in 1958. Over 150 legal documents, accounts, letters and Buddhist texts have surfaced since the 1990s and these have greatly increased the detail in which Bactrian is currently known. The phonology of Bactrian is not known with certainty, due to the limitations of the native scripts, a major difficulty in determining Bactrian phonology is that affricates and voiced stops were not consistently distinguished from the corresponding fricatives in the Greek script
37.
Albanian alphabet
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The modern Albanian alphabet is a Latin alphabet, and consists of 36 letters, Note, The vowels are shown in bold. Listen to the pronunciation of the letters, the earliest mention of Albanian writings describes them Licet Albanenses aliam omnino linguam a latina habeant et diversam, tamen litteram latinam habent in uso et in omnibus suis libris. The history of the later Albanian alphabet is closely linked with the influence of religion among Albanians, there were also attempts for an original Albanian alphabet in the period of 1750–1850. The current alphabet in use among Albanians is one of the two approved in the Congress of Manastir held by Albanian intellectuals from November 14 to 22 November 1908. A first reference for Latin letters was in a medieval Latin manuscript of 1332, the earliest document discovered so far that is written in Albanian is a manuscript from 1210 by Theodor of Shkodra, presumably written in Latin characters. The first certain document in Albanian Formula e pagëzimit, issued by Pal Engjëlli, was written in Latin characters. It was a phrase that was supposed to be used by the relatives of a dying person if they couldnt make it to churches during the troubled times of the Ottoman invasion. The Greek intellectual Anastasios Michael, in his speech to the Berlin Academy mentions an Albanian alphabet produced recently by Kosmas from Cyprus and it is assumed that this is the alphabet used later for the Gospel of Elbasan. Anastasios calls Kosmas the Cadmus of Albania, in 1857 Kostandin Kristoforidhi, an Albanian scholar and translator, drafted in Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, a Memorandum for the Albanian language. He then went to Malta, where he stayed until 1860 in a Protestant seminary, finishing the translation of The New Testament in the Tosk and he was helped by Nikolla Serreqi from Shkodër with the Gheg version of the Testament. In November 1869, a Commission for the Alphabet of the Albanian Language was gathered in Istanbul, one of its members was Kostandin Kristoforidhi and the main purpose of the Commission was the creation of a unique alphabet for all the Albanians. In January 1870 the Commission ended its work of the standardization of the alphabet, a plan on the creation of textbooks and spread of Albanian schools was drafted. However this plan was not realized, because the Ottoman Government wouldnt finance the expenses for the establishment of such schools, Sami Frashëri, Koto Hoxhi, Pashko Vasa and Jani Vreto created an alphabet. This was based on the principle of one sound one letter and this was called the Istanbul alphabet. In 1905 this alphabet was in use in all Albanian territory, North and South, including Catholic, Muslim. One year earlier, in 1904 had been published the Albanian dictionary of Kostandin Kristoforidhi, the dictionary had been drafted 25 years before its publication and was written in the Greek alphabet. The so-called Bashkimi alphabet was designed by the Society for the Unity of the Albanian Language for being written on a French typewriter, in 1908, the Congress of Monastir was held by Albanian intellectuals in Bitola, Ottoman Empire, modern-day Republic of Macedonia. The Congress was hosted by the Bashkimi club, and prominent delegates included Gjergj Fishta, Ndre Mjeda, Mithat Frashëri, Sotir Peçi, Shahin Kolonja, there was much debate and the contending alphabets were Istanbul, Bashkimi and Agimi
38.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
39.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
40.
Voiceless labiodental fricative
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The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in a number of spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨f⟩ and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
41.
Ef (Cyrillic)
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Ef is a Cyrillic letter, commonly representing the voiceless labiodental fricative /f/, like the pronunciation of ⟨f⟩ in fill. The Cyrillic letter Ef is romanized as ⟨f⟩, the Cyrillic letter Ef was derived from the Greek letter Phi. It merged with an eliminated letter Fita in the Russian alphabet in 1918, the name of Ef in the Early Cyrillic alphabet is фрьтъ, in later Church Slavonic and Russian form it became фертъ. In the Cyrillic numeral system, Ef has a value of 500, the Slavic languages have almost no native words containing /f/, which did not exist in Proto-Indo-European. It arose in Greek and Latin from PIE *bʰ, in some instances in Latin, it represented historical th-fronting and derived from Proto-Indo-European *dʰ, and in the Germanic languages from PIE *p, which remained unchanged in Slavic. The letter ф is thus almost exclusively found in words of foreign origin, especially Greek, Latin, French, German, English and it represents the consonant /f/ unless it is before a palatalizing vowel, when it represents /fʲ/. Φ φ/ϕ, Greek letter Phi Ѳ ѳ, Cyrillic letter Fita F f, Latin letter F The dictionary definition of Ф at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of ф at Wiktionary
42.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
43.
Magnetic flux
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In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux through a surface is the surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field B passing through that surface. The SI unit of flux is the weber, and the CGS unit is the maxwell. Magnetic flux is measured with a fluxmeter, which contains measuring coils and electronics. The magnetic interaction is described in terms of a vector field, since a vector field is quite difficult to visualize at first, in elementary physics one may instead visualize this field with field lines. The magnetic flux through some surface, in this picture, is proportional to the number of field lines passing through that surface. In more advanced physics, the field line analogy is dropped, for a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux through an infinitesimal area element dS, where we may consider the field to be constant, d Φ B = B ⋅ d S. This law is a consequence of the observation that magnetic monopoles have never been found. In other words, Gausss law for magnetism is the statement, while the magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero, the magnetic flux through an open surface need not be zero and is an important quantity in electromagnetism. For example, a change in the flux passing through a loop of conductive wire will cause an electromotive force. The electromotive force is induced along this boundary, dℓ is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour ∂Σ, v is the velocity of the boundary ∂Σ, E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field. This equation is the principle behind an electrical generator, note that the flux of E through a closed surface is not always zero, this indicates the presence of electric monopoles, that is, free positive or negative charges. Gausss law gives the relation between the electric flux flowing out a surface and the electric charge enclosed in the surface. Magnetic circuit is a method using an analogy with electric circuits to calculate the flux of complex systems of magnetic components, Magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle that may loosely be described as a magnet with only 1 pole. Magnetic flux quantum is the quantum of magnetic flux passing through a superconductor, carl Friedrich Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber, it led to new knowledge in the field of magnetism. James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces are two aspects of electromagnetism. Patent 6,720,855, Magnetic-flux conduits Magnetic Flux through a Loop of Wire by Ernest Lee, conversion Magnetic flux Φ in nWb per meter track width to flux level in dB - Tape Operating Levels and Tape Alignment Levels
or 
).
