1.
Transport
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Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
2.
Mode of transport
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Mode of transport is a term used to distinguish substantially different ways to perform. The most dominant modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, other modes also exist, including pipelines, cable transport, and space transport. Human-powered transport and animal-powered transport are sometimes regarded as their own mode, in general, transportation is used for the movement of people, animals, and other things. Each mode of transport has a different technological solution. Each mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, and operations, each mode also has separate subsystems. A fixed-wing aircraft, typically airplane, is a flight vehicle. Fixed-wing aircraft ranges from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, for short distances or in places without runways, helicopters can be practical. Air transport is the second fastest method of transport, after space travel and this celerity comes with higher cost and energy use, and aviations impacts to the environment and particularly the global climate require consideration when comparing modes of transportation. U. S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the months between October 2013 and September 2014. WHO estimates that globally as many as 500,000 people at a time are on planes, land transport covers all land-based transportation systems that provide for the movement of people, goods and services. Land transport plays a role in linking communities to each other. The rails are anchored perpendicular to railroad train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails, propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems, alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics, railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities, modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 430 km/h, Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, a road is an identifiable route of travel, usually surfaced with gravel, asphalt or concrete, and supporting land passage by foot or by a number of vehicles. The most common vehicle in the developed world is the automobile. As of 2002, there were 591 million automobiles worldwide, other users of roads include motorcars, motorcycles, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians, and special provisions are sometimes made for each of these
3.
Aviation
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Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, being the design, development, production, operation and use of aircraft, especially heavier than air aircraft. The word aviation was coined by French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863, from the verb avier, itself derived from the Latin word avis and the suffix -ation. The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21,1783, the practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required, jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances, the best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin and it flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, the Golden Age of the airships ended on May 6,1937 when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed the coating used to protect the material over the frame was highly flammable. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents, although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Seven years later, on 14 October 1897, Aders Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry, the report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906 Ader claimed to have made a flight on 14 October 1897. Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited, however, the most widely accepted date is December 17,1903 by the Wright brothers. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft, previous flights were gliders or free flight, but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger, the Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14,1908. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, the war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide aircraft for the new middle-class market
4.
Cable transport
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A cable car is any of a variety of cable transportation systems relying on cables to pull vehicles along or lower them at a steady rate. The terminology also refers to the vehicles on these systems, the cable car vehicles are motorless and engineless and they are pulled by a cable that is rotated by a motor off-board. Cable car transport systems are a transportation system for various situations. Cable-Propelled Transit can be effective as a transit system at a reasonable cost. They are advantageous for transit of mountains, valleys, steep slopes and bodies of water, in an aerial transit system, cabins are suspended and propelled from above by cables. The cable that supports the cabin may or may not be the one that propels it too and this depends on the technology used. It is a two way transport, a mono-cable detachable system has only one cable that does the work of supporting and also propelling. A bi-cable detachable gondola has two cables, one of which supports the cabin and this cable is stationary while the other cable moves and serves the purpose of propulsion. An aerial tramway consists of a suspended from a cable. A tri-cable detachable gondola has three cables, two of which help in supporting and the other in propelling the cabin, a funifor is a type of aerial lift or aerial tramway patented by Doppelmayr Garaventa Group which consists of two guide ropes and a haul rope loop per cabin. The drives of the two cabins are not interconnected with two reversible cabins running on parallel tracks. At the top of each track, the rope for that track loops back to the bottom instead of looping over to serve the other track as occurs with a normal aerial tramway. In other words, a propulsion is not returned to the opposite direction for use by the other vehicle. A funitel is a type of lift, generally used to transport skiers. The name funitel is a portmanteau between the French words funiculaire and telepherique, funitels have not only been used as a means to transport skiers, there is one used to transport finished cars between different areas of a factory. Recently, more and more funitels have been added to ski areas, when used to transport skiers, funitels are a fast way to get to a higher altitude. Funitels combine a short time between successive cabins with a high capacity per cabin, funitels are able to tolerate higher wind speeds than classic gondola lifts because they are clamped to two steel cables instead of one. Pulsed Gondola systems are fixed-grip CPT systems with cabins grouped together in rather than being spaced evenly along the cable
5.
Human-powered transport
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Human-powered transport is the transport of person and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming, modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise, human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one used a experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle, compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment, freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs, in 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved the human-powered speed record of 142.04 km/h with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a 268.8 km/h speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3,1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car, the wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness World Records on July 17,2006 on a track in Eureka. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours by human power 1,041 km, and the second for the worlds fastest 1,000 km time trial. Both records were broken on August 6,2010 by Christian von Ascheberg who drove 1,000 km in 19 hours,27 minutes, in the same race he also raised the 12-hour record to 664.97 km, which is an average of 55.41 km/h. In 1969, artists in a small Northern California town began the Kinetic sculpture race which has grown to a 42 mi, three-day all terrain, human-powered sculpture race and it is held every year on the last weekend in May. The Pedaliante flew short distances fully under human power in 1936, the flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and not attainable by a typical human. Additional attempts were made in 1937 and 1938 using a catapult system, with the catapult launch, the plane successfully traveled the 1 km distance outlined by the competition, but was declined the prize due to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft. Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, the first officially observed human-powered helicopter to have left the ground was the Da Vinci III in 1989. It was designed and built by students at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in California and it flew for 7.1 seconds and reached a height of 8 in
6.
Land transport
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Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power. Human-powered vehicles have also developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, the rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev, a train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, the locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit, also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities, modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h, freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, a road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a function as urban space easement. The most common road vehicle is the automobile, a passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles, as of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Automobiles have caused air pollution which results to people getting Asthma, road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to the other and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed, and it is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport. Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport, pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also send solid capsules using compressed air. For liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline, short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas
7.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
8.
Road transport
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Road transport or road transportation is the transport of passengers or goods on roads. This transport method can be via bike or automobiles or by such as horse or oxen. Standard networks of roads were adopted by Romans, Persians, Aztec, modern roads came into adoption during the late 1700s with civil engineering. Cargo may be transported by trucking companies, while passengers may be transported via mass transit, commonly defined features of modern roads include defined lanes and signage. Within the United States, roads between regions are connected via the Interstate Highway System, the first methods of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trail. The Persians later built a network of Royal Roads across their empire, to resolve this issue, the Romans built great roads. The Roman roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as a layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone. The Islamic Caliphate later built tar-paved roads in Baghdad, as states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little innovation in road building before the 18th century. Starting in the early 18th century, the British Parliament began to pass a series of acts that gave the local powers to erect toll-gates on the roads. The toll-gate erected at Wades mill became the first effective toll-gate in England, the first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Foothill and Stony Stafford. This became the pattern for the turn piking of a number of highways. The quality of turnpike roads was varied. Although turn piking did result in some improvement to each highway, the used to deal with geological features, drainage. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s, British turnpike builders began to realize the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing, and excluding vegetable material and clay to make better lasting roads. The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf and he believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads, pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet established the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France and it involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel
9.
Spaceflight
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Spaceflight is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board, examples of human spaceflight include the U. S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth and these operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous. Spaceflight is used in exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites, a spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled, some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. The first theoretical proposal of space using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch. More well-known is Konstantin Tsiolkovskys work, Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами, spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddards publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space, nonetheless and his attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11,1918 armistice with Germany. Nonetheless, Goddards paper was influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, von Brauns V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers on a June 1944 test flight. At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon. Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond, other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. Spaceports are situated away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities, a launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself, once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit
10.
Maritime transport
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Ship transport is watercraft carrying people or goods. Freight transport has been achieved widely by sea throughout recorded history, although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air, despite fluctuating exchange rates, ship transport can be realized over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Virtually any material can be moved by water, however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-critical such as types of perishable produce. Containerization revolutionized ship transport starting in the 1970s, general cargo includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal, a nations shipping fleet consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo from one place to another. Ores, Coal, and grains can travel along the rivers of the American midwest to Pittsburgh, professional mariners are merchant seaman, merchant sailor, and merchant mariner, or simply seaman, sailor, or mariners. The terms seaman or sailor may refer to a member of a countrys navy, according to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%, statistics for individual countries are available at the list of merchant navy capacity by country. A ships complement can be divided into four categories, the department, the engineering department, the stewards department. Officer positions in the department include but not limited to, Master and his Chief, Second. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the department are Able Seaman. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of life on a merchant vessel. A ships engineering department consists of the members of a crew that operate and maintain the propulsion. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the Hotel facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning, on LPG and LNG tankers however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer. Other possible positions include Motorman, Machinist, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer, engine Cadets are trainee engineers who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license. A typical Stewards department for a ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a Chief Cook. All three positions are filled by unlicensed personnel
11.
History of transport
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The history of transport is largely one of technological innovation. Advances in technology have allowed people to travel farther, explore more territory, even in ancient times, new tools such as foot coverings, skis, and snowshoes lengthened the distances that could be travelled. As new inventions and discoveries were applied to problems, travel time decreased while the ability to move more. Innovation continues as transport researchers are working to find new ways to reduce costs, the first earth tracks were created by humans carrying goods and often followed trails. Tracks would be created at points of high traffic density. As animals were domesticated, horses, oxen and donkeys became an element in track-creation, with the growth of trade, tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate animal traffic. Later, the travois, a used to drag loads, was developed. Animal-drawn wheeled vehicles were developed in the Ancient Near East in the 4th or 5th millennium BC and spread to Europe and India in the 4th millennium BC. The Romans had a significant need for roads to extend and maintain their empire. The modern history of transport also involves the development of new vehicles such as new models of horse-drawn vehicles, bicycles, motor cars, motor trucks. In the stone ages primitive boats developed to permit navigation of rivers and for fishing in rivers and it has been argued that boats suitable for a significant sea crossing were necessary for people to reach Australia an estimated 40, 000-45,000 years ago. With the development of civilization, vessels evolved for expansion and generally grew in size for trade, in the Mediterranean, galleys were developed about 3000 BC. In the Industrial Revolution, the first steamboats and later diesel-powered ships were developed, eventually submarines were developed mainly for military purposes for peoples general benefit. Meanwhile, specialised craft were developed for river and canal transport, canals were developed in Mesopotamia c.4000 BC. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and North India had the first canal irrigation system in the world, the longest canal of ancient times was the Grand Canal of China. Iss 1,794 kilometers long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang between Beijing and Hangzhou. The project began in 605, although the oldest sections of the canal may have existed since c.486 BC, canals were developed in the Middle Ages in Europe in Venice and the Netherlands. Pierre-Paul Riquet began to organise the construction of the 240 km-long Canal du Midi in France in 1665, in the Industrial Revolution, inland canals were built in England and later the United States before the development of railways. The history of rail transportation dates back nearly 500 years, and includes systems with man or horse power and this was usually for moving coal from the mine down to a river, from where it could continue by boat, with a flanged wheel running on a rail
12.
Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
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The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System includes the trans-Alaska crude-oil pipeline,11 pump stations, several hundred miles of feeder pipelines, and the Valdez Marine Terminal. TAPS is one of the worlds largest pipeline systems, the crude oil pipeline is privately owned by the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company. The pipeline was built between 1974 and 1977 after the 1973 oil crisis caused a rise in oil prices in the United States. This rise made exploration of the Prudhoe Bay oil field economically feasible, in building the pipeline, engineers faced a wide range of difficulties, stemming mainly from the extreme cold and the difficult, isolated terrain. The project attracted tens of thousands of workers to Alaska, causing a boomtown atmosphere in Valdez, Fairbanks, the first barrel of oil traveled through the pipeline in 1977, and full-scale production began by the end of the year. Several notable incidents of oil leakage have occurred since, including those caused by sabotage, maintenance failures, as of 2010, the pipeline had shipped almost 16 billion barrels of oil. Iñupiat people on the North Slope of Alaska had mined oil-saturated peat for possibly thousands of years, using it as fuel for heat, whalers who stayed at Point Barrow saw the substance the Iñupiat called pitch and recognized it as petroleum. Brooks report confirmed the observations of Thomas Simpson, an officer of the Hudsons Bay Company who first observed the seepages in 1836, similar seepages were found at the Canning River in 1919 by Ernest de Koven Leffingwell. Following the First World War, as the United States Navy converted its ships from coal to fuel oil, accordingly, President Warren G. Harding established by executive order a series of Naval Petroleum Reserves across the United States. These reserves were areas thought to be rich in oil and set aside for future drilling by the U. S. Navy, Naval Petroleum Reserve No.4 was sited in Alaskas far north, just south of Barrow, and encompassed 23,000,000 acres. Other Naval Petroleum Reserves were embroiled in controversy over government corruption in the Teapot Dome Scandal, the first explorations of NPR-4 were undertaken by the U. S. These surveys were primarily pedestrian in nature, no drilling or remote sensing techniques were available at the time and these surveys named many of the geographic features of the areas explored, including the Philip Smith Mountains and quadrangle. The petroleum reserve lay dormant until the Second World War provided an impetus to new oil prospects. The first renewed efforts to identify strategic oil assets were a two pronged survey using bush aircraft, local Inupiat guides, and personnel from multiple agencies to locate reported seeps. Ebbley and Joesting reported on these initial forays in 1943 Starting in 1944, surveyors from the U. S. Geological Survey spread across the petroleum reserve and worked to determine its extent until 1953, when the Navy suspended funding for the project. The USGS found several oil fields, most notably the Alpine and Umiat Oil Field, four years after the Navy suspended its survey, Richfield Oil Corporation drilled an enormously successful oil well near the Swanson River in southern Alaska, near Kenai. The resulting Swanson River Oil Field was Alaskas first major commercially producing oil field, by 1965, five oil and 11 natural gas fields had been developed. The problems came from the areas remoteness and harsh climate and it was estimated that between 200,000,000 barrels and 500,000,000 barrels of oil would have to be recovered to make a North Slope oil field commercially viable
13.
Pipe (fluid conveyance)
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It can also be used for structural applications, hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members. In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter and a schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, Pipe is generally manufactured to one of several international and national industrial standards. While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing, tube is made to custom sizes. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe, the term tube is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i. e. square or rectangular tubing. In general, pipe is the common term in most of the world. Both pipe and tube imply a level of rigidity and permanence, Pipe assemblies are almost always constructed with the use of fittings such as elbows, tees, and so on, while tube may be formed or bent into custom configurations. For materials that are inflexible, cannot be formed, or where construction is governed by codes or standards, additionally, pipe is used for many purposes that do not involve conveying fluid. Handrails, scaffolding and support structures are constructed from structural pipe. There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture, centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one of the most prominent process. Ductile iron pipes are manufactured in such a fashion. Seamless pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a rod to create the hollow shell. As the manufacturing process does not include any welding, seamless pipes are perceived to be stronger, historically, seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure better than other types, and was often more available than welded pipe. Advances since the 1970s in materials, process control, and non-destructive testing, Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam. The weld flash can be removed from both inner and outer surfaces using a scarfing blade, the weld zone can also be heat-treated to make the seam less visible. Welded pipe often have tighter dimensional tolerances than the seamless type, there are a number of processes that may be used to produce ERW pipes. Each of these leads to coalescence or merging of steel components into pipes. Electric current is passed through the surfaces that have to be welded together, as the components being welded together resist the electric current, ERW pipes are manufactured from the longitudinal welding of steel
14.
Fuel
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A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
15.
Sewage
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Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension, that is intended to be removed from a community. Also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, it is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents and it consists mostly of greywater, blackwater, soaps and detergents, and toilet paper. Whether it also contains surface runoff depends on the design of sewer system, all sewage ends up back in the environment, by any of several routes. A basic distinction in its route is whether it undergoes sewage treatment to mitigate its effect on the environment before arriving there, Sewage usually travels from a buildings plumbing either into a sewer, which will carry it elsewhere, or into an onsite sewage facility. Whether it is combined with surface runoff in the sewer depends on the sewer design, before the 20th century, sewers usually discharged into a body of water such as a stream, river, lake, bay, or ocean. There was no treatment, so the breakdown of the waste was left to the ecosystem. Today, the goal is that sewers route their contents to a treatment plant rather than directly to a body of water. In many countries, this is the norm, in developing countries. Thus other goals of modern sewage routing include handling surface runoff separately from sewage, handling greywater separately from toilet waste, proper collection and safe, nuisance-free disposal of the liquid wastes of a community are legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized, industrialized society. In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only, the term sewage is nowadays regarded as an older term and is being more and more replaced by wastewater. In general American English usage, the sewage and sewerage mean the same thing. Both words are descended from Old French assewer, derived from the Latin exaquare, in American technical and professional English usage, sewerage refers to the infrastructure that conveys sewage. Wastes that result from an industrial processes such as the production or manufacture of goods are classed as industrial wastewater, surface runoff, also known as storm flow or overland flow, is that portion of precipitation that runs rapidly over the ground surface to a defined channel. Sewage is a mixture of chemicals, with many distinctive chemical characteristics. These include high concentrations of ammonium, nitrate, phosphorus, high conductivity, high alkalinity, the organic matter of sewage is measured by determining its biological oxygen demand or the chemical oxygen demand. Sewage also contains the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, Sewage can be monitored for both disease-causing and benign organisms with a variety of techniques. Traditional techniques involve filtering, staining, and examining samples under a microscope, sequencing DNA from an environmental sample is known as metagenomics. Sewage has also analyzed to determine relative rates of use of prescription
16.
Slurry
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A slurry is a thin sloppy mud or cement or, in extended use, any fluid mixture of a pulverized solid with a liquid, often used as a convenient way of handling solids in bulk. Slurries behave in ways like thick fluids, flowing under gravity but are also capable of being pumped if not too thick. It contains large amount of catalyst, in form of sediments hence the denomination of slurry. C, a General Theory of the Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Full Suspension Ravelet, F. Bakir, F. Khelladi, S. Rey, R. Experimental study of transport of large particles in horizontal pipes. Ming, G. Ruixiang, L. Fusheng, N. Liqun, X. Hydraulic Transport of Coarse Gravel—A Laboratory Investigation Into Flow Resistance
17.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
18.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
19.
Drinking water
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Drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation, without risk of health problems. Globally, in 2015, 91% of people had access to suitable for drinking. Nearly 4.2 billion had access to tap water while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps,1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diarrhea such as cholera and typhoid among others, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health issues. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be required. Water makes up about 60% of weight in men and 55% of weight in women, infants are about 70% to 80% water while the elderly are around 45%. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, other typical uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation and its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. Bottled water is sold for consumption in most parts of the world. The word potable came into English from the Late Latin potabilis, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health, and environmental conditions. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 litres per day may be required. Some health authorities have suggested that at least eight glasses of eight fl oz each are required by an adult per day, the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres. However, various reviews of the evidence performed in 2002 and 2008 could not find any scientific evidence recommending eight glasses of water per day. An individuals thirst provides a guide for how much water they require rather than a specific
20.
Irrigation
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Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular intervals for agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing of crops, maintenance of landscapes. Additionally, irrigation also has a few uses in crop production. In contrast, agriculture that only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming. Irrigation systems are used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area, Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, archaeological investigation has found evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops for rainfed agriculture. Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate land plots which had surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the sediment had settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse. The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a device called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia some time between the third and second millennium BCE and it largely depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other rivers in what is now the Sudan. In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding, terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World, traces of a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th millennium canal. Large scale agriculture was practiced and a network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation. Ancient Persia as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley was grown in areas where the rainfall was insufficient to support such a crop. The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today and they are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system comprises a network of wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into the sides of cliffs. The noria, a wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of the stream, was first brought into use at about this time
21.
Hill
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A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a summit, although in areas with scarp/dip topography a hill may refer to a particular section of flat terrain without a massive summit. The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is considered to be less tall. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia defines hill as an upland with a height up to 200 m. Today, a mountain is usually defined in the UK and Ireland as any summit at least 2,000 feet high, some definitions include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 feet or 500 feet. In practice, mountains in Scotland are frequently referred to as no matter what their height, as reflected in names such as the Cuillin Hills. In Wales, the distinction is more a term of land use, for a while, the U. S. defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet or more tall. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill, the United States Geological Survey, however, has concluded that these terms do not in fact have technical definitions in the U. S. A hillock is a small hill, other words include knoll and its variant, knowe. Artificial hills may be referred to by a variety of names, including mound. Various names used to describe types of hill, based on appearance and these include, Drumlin – an elongated whale-shaped hill formed by glacial action. Butte – an isolated hill with steep sides and a flat top. Kuppe – a rounded hill or low mountain, typical of central Europe Tor – a rock found on a hilltop, also used to refer to the hill. Puy – used especially in the Auvergne, France, to describe a conical volcanic hill, pingo – a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and Antarctica. For example, Ancient Rome was built on seven hills, protecting it from invaders, in northern Europe, many ancient monuments are sited in heaps. Some of these are structures, but others appear to have hardly any significance. In Britain, many churches at the tops of hills are thought to have built on the sites of earlier pagan holy places. The National Cathedral in Washington, DC has followed this tradition and was built on the highest hill in that city, Hills provide a major advantage to an army, giving them an elevated firing position and forcing an opposing army to charge uphill to attack them
22.
Canal
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Canals and navigations are human-made channels for water conveyance, or to service water transport vehicles. In the vernacular, both are referred to as canals, and in most cases, the works will have a series of dams. These areas are referred to as water levels, often just called levels. In contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide atop a ridge, many canals have been built at elevations towering over valleys and others water ways crossing far below. Cities need a lot of water and many canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination where there is a lack of water. The Roman Empires Aqueducts were such water supply canals, a navigation is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river. A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river, a vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements, traversing the same changes in height. A true canal is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide, most commercially important canals of the first half of the 19th century were a little of each, using rivers in long stretches, and divide crossing canals in others. This is true for many canals still in use, there are two broad types of canal, Waterways, canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people. These can be subdivided into two kinds, Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and oceans and those connected in a city network, such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice Italy, the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok. Aqueducts, water canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, hydro power canals. Historically canals were of importance to commerce and the development, growth. In 1855 the Lehigh Canal carried over 1.2 million tons of burning anthracite coal, by the 1930s the company which built. By the early 1880s, canals which had little ability to compete with rail transport, were off the map. In the next couple of decades, coal was diminished as the heating fuel of choice by oil. Later, after World War I when motor-trucks came into their own, Canals are built in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path, Human made streams A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, the water for the canal must be provided from an external source, like streams or reservoirs. Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks, lifts or elevators are constructed to raise, examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal
23.
Channel (geography)
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In physical geography, a channel is a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow body of fluid, most commonly the confine of a river, river delta or strait. The word is cognate to canal, and sometimes shows in this form, most examples of this are fjords in the Pacific Northwest, a notable exception is the Casiquiare canal. All likely share borrowing from Spanish, Portuguese or French, channels can be either natural or human-made. A channel is typically outlined in terms of its bed and banks, Channel initiation refers to the site on a mountain slope where water begins to flow between identifiable banks. This site is referred to as the head and it marks an important boundary between hillslope processes and fluvial processes. The channel head is the most upslope part of a network and is defined by flowing water between defined identifiable banks. A channel head forms as overland flow and/or subsurface flow accumulate to a point where shear stress can overcome resistance of the ground surface. Channel heads are associated with colluvium, hollows and landslides. Overland flow is a factor in channel initiation where saturation overland flow deepens to increase shear stress. Overland flows converge in topographical depressions where channel initiation begins, soil composition, vegetation, precipitation, and topography dictate the amount and rate of overland flow. The composition of a soil determines how quickly saturation occurs and cohesive strength retards the entrainment of material from overland flows, vegetation slows infiltration rates during precipitation events and plant roots anchor soil on hillslopes. Subsurface flow destabilizes soil and resurfaces on hillslopes where channel heads are often formed and this often results in abrupt channel heads and landslides. Natural channels are formed by fluvial process and are found across the Earth and these are mostly formed by flowing water from the hydrological cycle, though can also be formed by other fluids such as flowing lava. Channels also describe the course through a reef, sand bar, bay. One example is the Columbia River, a located in the US states of Washington and Oregon. A stream channel is the confine of a stream consisting of a bed. Stream channels exist in a variety of geometries, Stream channel development is controlled by both water and sediment movement. There is a difference between low gradient streams and high gradient streams, a wide variety of stream channel types can be distinguished
24.
Evaporation
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Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase, steam produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase. Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid phase below the melting point, on average, a fraction of the molecules in a glass of water have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid. The water in the glass will be cooled by the evaporation until an equilibrium is reached where the air supplies the amount of heat removed by the evaporating water, in an enclosed environment the water would evaporate until the air is saturated. With sufficient temperature, the liquid would turn into vapor quickly, when the molecules collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide. Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends up with energy to escape. Evaporation is an part of the water cycle. The sun drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, in hydrology, evaporation and transpiration are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor, when only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, as the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling and this is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a line will dry more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure, on a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined, because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen. It is just that the process is slower and thus significantly less visible. If evaporation takes place in an area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density
25.
Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
26.
Pneumatic tube
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Pneumatic tubes are systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects, as opposed to conventional pipelines, Pneumatic tube networks gained acceptance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for offices that needed to transport small, urgent packages over relatively short distances. Some installations grew to great complexity, but were mostly superseded, in some settings, such as hospitals, they remain widespread and have been further extended and developed in recent decades. A small number of transportation systems were also built for larger cargo, to compete with more standard train. Pneumatic capsule transportation was invented by William Murdoch and it was considered little more than a novelty until the invention of the capsule in 1836. The Victorians were the first to use capsule pipelines to transmit telegrams, in 1854, Josiah Latimer Clark was issued a patent for conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure of air and vacuum. In 1853, he installed a 220-yard pneumatic system between the London Stock Exchange in Threadneedle Street, London, and the offices of the Electric Telegraph Company in Lothbury, the system is known as Pneumatic Dispatch. It was once envisaged that networks of these massive tubes might be used to transport people, the technology is still used on a smaller scale. While its use for communicating information has been superseded, pneumatic tubes are used for transporting small objects, or where convenience. In the United States, drive-up banks often use pneumatic tubes to transport cash, some U. S. hospitals have a computer-controlled pneumatic tube system to deliver drugs, documents and specimens to and from laboratories and nurses stations. Many factories use them to deliver parts quickly across large campuses, many larger stores use systems to securely transport excess cash from checkout stands to back offices, and to send change back to cashiers. NASAs original Mission Control Center had pneumatic tubes connecting controller consoles with staff support rooms, Pneumatic tube systems are used in science, to transport samples during neutron activation analysis. Samples must be moved from the reactor core, in which they are bombarded with neutrons. As some of the isotopes in the sample can have very short half-lives. Pneumatic post or pneumatic mail is a system to deliver letters through pressurized air tubes and it was invented by the Scottish engineer William Murdoch in the 19th century and was later developed by the London Pneumatic Despatch Company. Pneumatic post systems were used in large cities starting in the second half of the 19th century. A major network of tubes in Paris was in use until 1984, in Prague, in the Czech Republic, the network extended approximately 60 kilometres. Pneumatic post stations usually connect post offices, stock exchanges, banks, italy was the only country to issue postage stamps specifically for pneumatic post
27.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
28.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
29.
Pump
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A pump is a device that moves fluids, or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three groups according to the method they use to move the fluid, direct lift, displacement. Pumps operate by some mechanism, and consume energy to mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes. Single stage pump - When in an only one impeller is revolving then it is called single stage pump. Double/ Multi stage pump - When in a two or more than two impellers are revolving then it is called double/ multi stage pump. In biology, many different types of chemical and bio-mechanical pumps have evolved, mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to the fluid. Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement pumps, impulse pumps, velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps, there are two basic types of pumps, positive displacement and centrifugal. Although axial-flow pumps are classified as a separate type, they have essentially the same operating principles as centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump makes a move by trapping a fixed amount. Some positive displacement pumps use a cavity on the suction side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands, the volume is constant through each cycle of operation. Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, theoretically can produce the flow at a given speed no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are constant flow machines, however, a slight increase in internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate. A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the side of the pump. A relief or safety valve on the side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external, the pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is only used as a safety precaution
30.
Carbon steel
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The term carbon steel may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel, in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating, however, regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the carbon content lowers the melting point. Mild steel, also known as steel and Low carbon steel. It is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications, mild steel contains approximately 0. 05–0. 25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. It is often used large quantities of steel are needed. The density of steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3. Low-carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two yield points, the first yield point is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develop Lüder bands, low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle. Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a content in the range of 0. 30–1. 70% by weight. Trace impurities of other elements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel red-short, that is, brittle, low-alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0. 05% sulfur and melts around 1, 426–1,538 °C. Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low-carbon steels and these additions turn the material into a low-alloy steel by some definitions, but AISIs definition of carbon steel allows up to 1. 65% manganese by weight. Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on content,0.05 to 0. 25% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and has good resistance, used for large parts, forging. Very strong, used for springs, swords, and high-strength wires, steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like knives, axles or punches, most steels with more than 2. 5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy
31.
Hydrogen pipeline transport
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Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. 1938 - Rhine-Ruhr The first 240 km hydrogen pipes that are constructed of regular steel, compressed hydrogen pressure 210–20 bars. 1973 –30 km pipeline in Isbergues, France,2009 -150 mi extension of the pipeline from Plaquemine to Chalmette. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand, hydrogen has an active electron, and therefore behaves somewhat like a halogen. For this reason, hydrogen pipes have to resist corrosion, the problem is compounded because hydrogen can easily migrate into the crystal structure of most metals. For metal piping at pressures up to 7,000 psi, composite pipes are assessed like, carbon fiber structure with fiberglass overlay. Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers Fiber-Reinforced Polymer pipelines and reinforced thermoplastic pipes are researched,2004 - USA -900 miles of low pressure hydrogen pipelines 2004 - Europe -1,500 km of low pressure hydrogen pipelines
32.
District heating
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District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating and water heating. District heating plants can provide higher efficiencies and better control than localized boilers. A combination of CHP and centralized heat pumps are used in the Stockholm multi energy system, the core element of many district heating systems is a heat-only boiler station. Additionally a cogeneration plant is added in parallel with the boilers. Both have in common that they are based on combustion of primary energy carriers. In the case of a fossil fueled cogeneration plant, the output is typically sized to meet half of the peak heat load. The boiler capacity will be able to meet the entire heat demand unaided and it is not economic to size the cogeneration plant alone to be able to meet the full heat load. In the New York City steam system, that is around 2.5 GW, Germany has the largest amount of CHP in Europe. The combination of cogeneration and district heating is very energy efficient, a simple thermal power station can be 20–35% efficient, whereas a more advanced facility with the ability to recover waste heat can reach total energy efficiency of nearly 80%. Some may exceed 100% based on the heating value by condensing the flue gas as well. Waste heat from nuclear plants is sometimes used for district heating. The principles for a combination of cogeneration and district heating applies the same for nuclear as it does for a thermal power station. Russia has several cogeneration nuclear plants which together provided 11.4 PJ of district heat in 2005, Russian nuclear district heating is planned to nearly triple within a decade as new plants are built. Other nuclear-powered heating from cogeneration plants are in Ukraine, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, one use of nuclear heat generation was with the Ågesta Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden closed in 1974. In Switzerland, the Beznau Nuclear Power Plant provides heat to about 20,000 people, history Geothermal district heating was used in Pompeii, and in Chaudes-Aigues since the 14th Century. In 1890, the first wells were drilled to access a hot water resource outside of Boise, in 1892, after routing the water to homes and businesses in the area via a wooden pipeline, the first geothermal district heating system was created. As of a 2007 study, there were 22 geothermal district heating systems in the United States, as of 2010, two of those systems have shut down. The table below describes the 20 GDHS currently operational in America, use of solar heat for district heating has been increasing in Denmark and Germany in recent years
33.
Insulated pipe
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Insulated pipes are widely used for district heating and hot water supply in Europe. They consist of a pipe, an insulating layer. The main purpose of such pipes is to maintain the temperature of the fluid in the pipes, a common application is the hot water from district heating plants. Most commonly used are single insulated pipes, but more recently in Europe it is becoming popular to use two pipes insulated within the same casing, by using insulated pipe supports, direct heat transfer between pipes and their supports are prevented. The insulating material used is polyurethane foam or similar, with a coefficient of thermal conductivity k=0. 033-0.024 W/mK. Outer casing is usually high-density polyethylene, production of preinsulated pipes for district heating in the European Union is regulated by the standard EN253. According to EN253,2003, pipes must be produced to work at constant temperature of 130 °C for 30 years, there are three insulation thickness levels. Insulated pipelines are usually assembled from pipes of 6 metres,12 metres, or 16 metres in length, efficient working life of district heating pipelines networks is estimated at 25–30 years, after which they need to be replaced with new pipes
34.
Superheated water
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Superheated water is liquid water under pressure at temperatures between the usual boiling point,100 °C and the critical temperature,374 °C. It is also known as water or pressurized hot water. This is distinct from the use of the term superheating to refer to water at pressure above its normal boiling point. Many of waters anomalous properties are due to very strong hydrogen bonding, over the superheated temperature range the hydrogen bonds break, changing the properties more than usually expected by increasing temperature alone. Water becomes less polar and behaves more like an organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol, all materials change with temperature, but superheated water exhibits greater changes than would be expected from temperature considerations alone. Viscosity and surface tension of water drop and diffusivity increases with increasing temperature, self-ionization of water increases with temperature, and the pKw of water at 250 °C is closer to 11 than the more familiar 14 at 25 °C. This means the concentration of ion is and the concentration of hydroxide are increased while the pH remains neutral. Specific heat capacity at constant pressure increases with temperature, from 4.187 kJ/kg at 25 °C to 8.138 kJ/kg at 350 °C. A significant effect on the behaviour of water at high temperatures is decreased dielectric constant, water is a polar molecule, where the centers of positive and negative charge are separated, so molecules will align with an electric field. The extensive hydrogen bonded network in water tends to oppose this alignment, water has a high relative permittivity of about 80 at room temperature, because polarity shifts are rapidly transmitted through shifts in orientation of the linked hydrogen bonds. This allows water to dissolve salts, as the electric field between ions is reduced by about 80–fold. Thermal motion of the molecules disrupts the hydrogen bonding network as temperature increases, at 205 °C the relative permittivity falls to 33, the same as methanol at room temperature. Thus water behaves like a water / methanol mixture between 100 °C and 200 °C, disruption of extended hydrogen bonding allows molecules to move more freely, and extra energy must be supplied to break the bonds. Thus materials generally considered “insoluble” can become soluble in superheated water, thus superheated water can be used to process many organic compounds with significant environmental benefits compared to the use of conventional organic solvents. Despite the reduction in relative permittivity, many salts remain soluble in superheated water until the point is approached. Sodium chloride, for example, dissolves at 37 wt% at 300 °C As the critical point is approached, solubility drops markedly to a few ppm, some salts show a reduction in solubility with temperature, but this behaviour is less common. The solubility of gases in water is thought to decrease with temperature. For nitrogen, this minimum is 74 °C and for oxygen it is 94 °C Gases are soluble in superheated water at elevated pressures, above the critical temperature, water is completely miscible with all gasses
35.
Steam
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Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
36.
Gasoline theft
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Gasoline theft can be applied to cases when fuel is stolen from a station without payment or when a vehicle driver takes it from a companys vehicle to use the gasoline personally. The rate of fuel theft is accelerating as fuel prices climb, employees can either siphon fuel from fuel tanks or use special devices making it hard to detect that fuel would gradually be leaving the fuel tank. This employee-related crime is now costing the United States trucking industry $2.1 billion a year, vehicle tracking systems are used by some companies to monitor cases of fuel theft and raise effectiveness of fleet usage. Gasoline theft is the removal of gasoline from a station without payment, the thief will usually use some form of decoy to prevent nearby witnesses from noticing the lack of payment until they have left the station. With typical gas thefts costing station owners in the range of $50 per incident, many stores have fought back by installing better video equipment, since the oil price increases after 2004, the surge in fuel theft has gone up, which has included license plate thefts. 2006 Abule Egba pipeline explosion 2006 Atlas Creek pipeline explosion 2010 South Kivu tank truck explosion
37.
Vandalism
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Vandalism is action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. The term includes criminal damage such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner, the term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people. The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths, however, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, the term was quickly adopted across Europe. Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing war, therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Gustave Courbets attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vendôme column, Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the fight against culture, taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on May 23,1871. The criminal fight against culture is only the side of a criminal culture wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche. Private citizens commit vandalism when they damage or deface the property of others or the commons. Some vandalism may qualify as culture jamming or sniggling, it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owners permission, examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard liberation and possibly crop circles. Graffiti on public property is common in inner cities as part of a gang culture. More serious forms of vandalism that may take place during public unrest such as rioting can involve the destruction of public. In elections, opposing candidates supporters may engage in political vandalism - the act of defacing opponents political posters, bumper stickers, billboards, and other street marketing material. Also activists may use the tactic of property destruction as means of protest, e. g. by smashing the windows of banks, shops and government institutions, Vandalism is also a common tactic of black blocs. Opportunistic vandalism of this nature may also be filmed, the mentality of which can be akin to happy slapping, greed can motivate vandalism as can some political ideologies, wish to draw attention to problems, frustration, even playfulness. Youngsters, the most common vandals, frequently experience low status, Vandalism enables powerless people to attack those above them, take control and frighten others. Unpunished vandalism can provide relief which reinforces the behaviour, Vandalism by one person can lead to imitation. Criminological research into vandalism has found that it serves many purposes for those who engage in it, sociologist Stanley Cohen describes six different types of vandalism, Acquisitive vandalism
38.
Sabotage
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Ecotage is direct action by extreme environmentalist groups in the Western world. All damage figures below are in United States dollars, some well-known acts of ecotage have included,1998 – Arson of buildings at Vail Mountain in the United States by the Earth Liberation Front. March 11,1999 – Genetically engineered potatoes uprooted at Crop, december 25,1999 – In Monmouth, Oregon, fire destroys the main office of the Boise Cascade logging company costing over $1 million. A 12-foot banner at the scene read If you build it, we will burn it, signed, ecotage was popularized in 1975 by Edward Abbeys book The Monkey Wrench Gang. It has also treated in novels by T. Coraghessan Boyle, Carl Hiaasen, Neal Stephenson, and Richard Melo. Ecotage. is also the title of a 1972 humor book by Sam Love, ecotage is mentioned in Mars trilogy of science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson as a means of protest shown by the Red political party. Typically the Reds would destroy terraforming ventures in an effort to slow the terraforming of Mars, the Concrete mini series Think Like a Mountain is centred about ecotage aimed to protect first growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. Radical environmentalism Environmental movement Billboarding Sabotage Operation Backfire Green Scare Ecodefense, A Field Guide To Monkeywrenching - Online text
39.
Terrorist attack
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
40.
Pigging
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Pigging in the context of pipelines refers to the practice of using devices known as pigs to perform various maintenance operations. This is done without stopping the flow of the product in the pipeline and these operations include but are not limited to cleaning and inspecting the pipeline. This is accomplished by inserting the pig into a pig launcher — an oversized section in the pipeline, reducing to the normal diameter. The launching station is closed and the pressure-driven flow of the product in the pipeline is used to push the pig along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap — the pig catcher. Pigging has been used for years to clean large diameter pipelines in the oil industry. Today, however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many continuous and batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies and reduced costs. Pigging can be used for almost any section of the process between, for example, blending, storage or filling systems. Pigging systems are installed in industries handling products as diverse as lubricating oils, paints, chemicals, toiletries, cosmetics. Pigs are used in oil or paint blending to clean the pipes to avoid cross-contamination. Pigs are also used in oil and gas pipelines to clean the pipes, there are also smart pigs used to inspect pipelines for the purpose of preventing leaks, which can be explosive and dangerous to the environment. They usually do not interrupt production, though some product can be lost when the pig is extracted and they can also be used to separate different products in a multiproduct pipeline. If the pipeline contains butterfly valves, or reduced port ball valves, full port ball valves cause no problems because the inside diameter of the ball opening is the same as that of the pipe. The original pigs were made from straw wrapped in wire and used for cleaning and they made a squealing noise while traveling through the pipe, sounding to some like a pig squealing, which gave pigs their name. PIG is sometimes claimed as an acronym or backronym derived from the letters of the term Pipeline Inspection Gauge or Pipeline Intervention Gadget. A major advantage for multi-product pipelines of piggable systems is the potential of product savings, at the end of each product transfer, it is possible to clear out the entire line contents with the pig, either forwards to the receipt point, or backwards to the source tank. There is no requirement for extensive line flushing, without the need for line flushing, pigging offers the additional advantage of much more rapid and reliable product changeover. Pigging can also be operated totally by a programmable logic controller, pigging has a significant role to play in reducing the environmental impact of batch operations. The cleaning agent then had to be subjected to effluent treatment or solvent recovery, if a product was used to clear the line, it was necessary to downgrade or dump the contaminated portion of the product
41.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
42.
Vladimir Shukhov
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He is also the inventor of the first cracking method. Besides the innovations he brought to the oil industry and the construction of bridges and buildings. These forms, based on non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, are known today as hyperboloids of revolution, Shukhov developed not only many varieties of light-weight hyperboloid towers and roof systems, but also the mathematics for their analysis. Shukhov is particularly reputed for his designs of hyperboloid towers such as the Shukhov Tower. Vladimir Shukhov was born in a town of Graivoron, Belgorod uezd and his father Grigory Ivanovich Shukhov was a minor government official, promoted for his efforts in the Crimean War. For a while, Grigory served as Mayor of Graivoron and later as an administrator in Warsaw, in 1864 Vladimir entered Saint Petersburg gymnasium from which he graduated with distinction in 1871. During his high school years he showed mathematical talents, once demonstrating to his classmates, the teacher praised his skills but he failed the grade for violating the textbooks guidelines. After graduating from the gymnasium, Shukhov entered the Imperial Moscow Technical School, in which his teachers included Pafnuty Chebyshev, Aleksey Letnikov, in the beginning of the year 1876 Shukhov graduated from school with distinction and a Gold Medal. Chebyshev offered him a job as a lecturer in mathematics at the Imperial Moscow Technical School, during his stay in the US, Shukhov came to know a Russian-American entrepreneur, Alexander Veniaminovich Bari who also worked on the organization of the Fair. In 1877 Shukhov returned to Russia and joined the office of the Warsaw–Vienna railroad. Within several months, Shukhovs frustration with standard and routine engineering made him abandon the office, on his coming to Russia in 1877, Bari persuaded Shukhov to give up his medical education and to assume the office of Chief Engineer in a new company specializing in innovative engineering. Shukhov worked with Bari at this company until the October Revolution and their works revolutionized many areas of civil engineering, ship engineering, and oil industry. The thermal cracking method, the Shukhov cracking process, was patented by Vladimir Shukhov in 1891, Shukhov always found time for a passionate hobby – photography. The photographic works of Shukhov opened new trends ahead of their flourishing of Fine art photography and he made photos in various genres, reporting, city landscape, portrait, constructivism. About two thousand photos and negatives made by Shukhov have survived until this day, after the October Revolution Shukhov decided to stay in the Soviet Union despite having received alluring job offers from around the world. Many signal Soviet engineering projects of the 1920s were associated with his name, in 1919 he framed his slogan, We should work independently from politics. The buildings, boilers, beams would be needed and so would we, in the later 1930s during the Great Purge he retired from engineering work but was not arrested or persecuted. Shukov died on 2 February 1939 in Moscow and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery and his many honours included the Lenin Prize and the title of Hero of Labour
43.
Branobel
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The share capital of three million rubles was divided as follows,53, 7% Ludwig Nobel,31, 0% Baron Peter von Bilderling,4, 7% I. J. Zabelskiv,3, 8% Alfred Nobel,3, 3% Robert Nobel,1, pipeline transport was pioneered near Baku by Vladimir Shukhov and the Branobel company in 1878-1880. On 10 April 1902, the signed a contract for the purchase of oil fields in Romany. On 17 October 1905, in accordance with the Committee of Ministers, the companys fixed capital in 1914–1917 was 30 million rubles. By 1916, it was the largest oil company in Russia, in 1912, the Russian General Oil Corporation was founded in London as an English holding company and united some 20 of the most important Russian and foreign banks. Lianozov Sons, Moscow-Caucasus Trade Company, Caspian Partnership, Russian Petroleum Society, Absheron Petroleum Society, mantashev & Co. the Anglo-Russian Maximov Oil Company in London and G. M. Lianozov Sons, of which he owned a third. About 12% of the left to establish the Nobel Prizes by Alfred Nobel came from his shares in the company. On 28 April 1920, the Bolsheviks seized power in Baku, in May 1920, the Nobel family sold almost half the Branobels shares in its possession to Standard Oil of New Jersey. At the time it was considered whether the Bolshevik regime would last and the negotiation led by Gustaf Nobel, on one side. Teagle, on the other, proved to be a profitable masterstroke for the Nobel family, Branobel was formally dissolved in 1959 and its last President was Nils Nobel-Oleinikoff, son of Marta Nobel-Oleinikoff and grandson of Ludvig Nobel. You can find more photos at Tekniska museet in Stockholm, Sweden, tolf, Robert, The Russian Rockefellers Yergin, Daniel, The Prize, the Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power, Free Press, p.58. ISBN 0-671-79932-0 Åsbrink, Brita, Ludvig Nobel, Petroleum har en lysande framtid, Russian oil business and Nobel brothers. - “Oil Gas Chemistry”, M.2004, №1, p. 51-55, the role of Azerbaijan in the World’s oil industry – “Oil-Industry History”,2011, v.12, no. The Nobels and Baku Oil Azerbaijans Oil History First pipelines Branobel company, The Tsaritsyn Heritage of the Nobel Brothers The Branobel History Project
44.
Oil Creek State Park
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Oil Creek State Park is Pennsylvania state park on 6,250 acres in Cherrytree, Cornplanter and Oil Creek Townships, Venango County, Pennsylvania in the United States. The park is adjacent to Drake Well Museum, the site of the first successful oil well in the United States. Oil Creek State Park follows Oil Creek, between Titusville and Oil City, and is on Pennsylvania Route 8, while the creek is the parks main recreational attraction, it also contains the sites of the first oil boomtown and much of Pennsylvanias original oil industry. The park contains a museum, tableaux, and trails to help understand the history of the oil industry there. Oil Creek State Park was chosen by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, the history of Oil Creek State Park is tied to the rise and fall of the oil industry in northwestern Pennsylvania. Titusville, to the north of Oil Creek State Park, was a slow-growing community, lumber was the principal industry with at least 17 sawmills in the area. Oil was known to exist here, but there was no way to extract it. Its main use to that time had been as a medicine for animals and humans. In the late 1850s Seneca Oil Company sent its manager, Colonel Edwin L. Drake, to start drilling on a piece of leased land just south of Titusville, Drake hired a salt well driller, William A. Smith, in the summer of 1859. After many difficulties, they finally drilled a successful well on August 27. It was an event that changed the world, beginning with the surrounding vicinity, teamsters were needed immediately to transport the oil to markets. Barges were filled with oil and sent down Oil Creek to Oil City on the Allegheny River, there the oil was transferred to steamships and sent on to Pittsburgh. Transportation methods improved, and in 1862 the Oil Creek and Titusville Railroad was built between Titusville and Corry, where freight was transferred to other, larger, east-west rail lines. In 1865, pipelines were laid next to the rail line. The next year the line was extended south to Petroleum Centre. The Union City & Titusville Railroad was built in 1865, which part of the Philadelphia. That fall President Ulysses S. Grant visited Titusville to view the oil industry. Other oil-related businesses quickly were built in the area, eight refineries were built between 1862 and 1868
45.
Petroleum product
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Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil as it is processed in oil refineries. Unlike petrochemicals, which are a collection of well-defined usually pure chemical compounds, the majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels. According to the composition of the oil and depending on the demands of the market. The largest share of oil products is used as carriers, i. e. various grades of fuel oil. These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil, heavier fractions can also be used to produce asphalt, tar, paraffin wax, lubricating and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce chemicals, some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics. Since petroleum often contains a few percent sulfur-containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also produced as a petroleum product. Carbon, in the form of coke, and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products. The hydrogen produced is used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking. Oil refineries will blend various feedstocks, mix appropriate additives, provide short term storage, and prepare for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, gaseous fuels such as propane, stored and shipped in liquid form under pressure in specialized railcars to distributors. Shipped by barge, rail, and tanker ship, lubricants, usually shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant. Paraffin wax, used in the packaging of foods, among others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to prepare as packaged blocks, sulfur, byproduct of sulfur removal from petroleum, which contain percent of organosulfur compounds. Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing or similar uses, asphalt - used as a binder for gravel to form asphalt concrete, which is used for paving roads, lots, etc. An asphalt unit prepares bulk asphalt for shipment, Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon products such as certain types of electrodes, or as solid fuel. Petrochemical are organic compounds that are the ingredients for the industry, ranging from polymers. Representative petrochemicals are ethylene and benzene-toluene-xylenes, o2 Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products including, Fertilizer, Linoleum, Perfume, Insecticide, Petroleum Jelly, Soap, Vitamin Capsules. See link to partial list of 144 by-products listed by Ranken Energy
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Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
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Natural-gas processing
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Natural-gas processing begins at the well head. The composition of the raw natural gas extracted from producing wells depends on the type, depth, and location of the underground deposit, oil and natural gas are often found together in the same reservoir. The natural gas produced from oil wells is generally classified as associated-dissolved, Natural gas production absent any association with crude oil is classified as “non-associated. ”In 2009,89 percent of U. S. wellhead production of natural gas was non-associated. Natural-gas processing plants purify raw natural gas by removing common contaminants such as water, carbon dioxide, some of the substances which contaminate natural gas have economic value and are further processed or sold. A fully operational plant delivers pipeline-quality dry natural gas that can be used as fuel by residential, commercial and industrial consumers, raw natural gas comes primarily from any one of three types of wells, crude oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells. Natural gas that comes from oil wells is typically called associated gas. This gas can have existed as a gas cap above the oil in the underground formation. Natural gas from gas wells and from wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is called non-associated gas. Gas wells typically produce raw natural gas, while condensate wells produce raw natural gas along with other low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Those that are liquid at ambient conditions are called natural gas condensate, Natural gas is called sweet gas when relatively free of hydrogen sulfide, gas that does contain hydrogen sulfide is called sour gas. Such gas is referred to as coalbed gas or coalbed methane, coalbed gas has become an important source of energy in recent decades. Raw natural gas typically consists primarily of methane, the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule and it also contains varying amounts of, Heavier gaseous hydrocarbons, ethane, propane, normal butane, isobutane, pentanes and even higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. When processed and purified into finished by-products, all of these are referred to as Natural Gas Liquids or NGL. Acid gases, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans such as methanethiol and ethanethiol, water, water vapor and liquid water. Also dissolved salts and dissolved gases, liquid hydrocarbons, perhaps some natural-gas condensate and/or crude oil. Mercury, very small amounts of mercury primarily in elemental form, naturally occurring radioactive material, natural gas may contain radon, and the produced water may contain dissolved traces of radium, which can accumulate within piping and processing equipment. This can render piping and equipment radioactive over time, the raw natural gas must be purified to meet the quality standards specified by the major pipeline transmission and distribution companies. Those quality standards vary from pipeline to pipeline and are usually a function of a pipeline systems design, in general, the standards specify that the natural gas, Be within a specific range of heating value
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