1.
Pope Benedict IV
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Pope Benedict IV was Pope from 1 February 900 to his death in 903. He was the son of Mammalus, a native of Rome, the tenth-century historian Flodoard, who nicknamed him the Great, commended his noble birth and public generosity. In 901, after the Carolingian Emperors had disappeared, Benedict followed the example of Pope Leo III, in his reign, he also excommunicated Baldwin II of Flanders for murdering Fulk, Archbishop of Reims. He died in Rome during the summer of 903 and was buried in front of St Peters Basilica and this article incorporates text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article Pope Benedict IV by Horace K. Mann, a publication now in the public domain. In Ghisalberti, Alberto M. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, in, Massimo Bray, Enciclopedia dei Papi, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, Vol.2, Rome,2000, OCLC313581688, pp. 54–58. Rudolf Schieffer, Benedikt IV in, Lexicon of the Middle Ages, Vol.1, Artemis & Winkler, Munich/Zurich 1980, ISBN 3-7608-8901-8, Col.1858. Papa Benedikto IV katika Kamusi Elezo ya Kikatoliki Encyclopædia Britannica Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes
2.
Pope Sergius III
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Pope Sergius III was Pope from 29 January 904 to his death in 911. He was pope during a period of violence and disorder in central Italy. He also actively participated in the farcical Cadaver synod that condemned the pontificate of Formosus, although Sergius was actually elected, a rival candidate, Pope John IX, was also elected. With Lambert’s support, John was successfully installed as pope, and one of his first acts was to convene a synod which excommunicated Sergius and his followers. Sergius was then exiled by Lambert, fleeing to his see at Caere. Putting himself at the head of a faction of the nobility, Theophylact revolted against Christopher, Sergius accepted, and with the armed backing of Adalbert II, he entered Rome, by which stage Christopher had already been cast into prison by Theophylact. Sergius was then consecrated Pope on 29 January 904, all real power now devolved onto Theophylact, and Sergius essentially became his puppet. Perhaps the first clear sign of shift in power was the fate of Sergius’ two predecessors, Pope Leo V and the Antipope Christopher. According to the pro-Formosan Eugenius Vulgarius, Sergius ordered both men to be strangled in prison sometime in early 904 and that both men were murdered during Sergius’ pontificate appears probable, although other accounts state that Christopher at least was allowed to retire to a monastery. Given where the power lay, it seems more likely that either Theophylact gave the orders directly. For the remainder of his pontificate, Sergius promoted his family and members of his party to positions of authority. Pope Sergius III convoked a synod which annulled all the ordinations of Formosus and it was alleged that Sergius managed to get the consent of the Roman clergy at the synod by threatening them with exile, violence or through the use of bribery. The ruling was reversed again after his death. For centuries it was believed that Sergius then had the corpse of Formosus exhumed once more, tried, found guilty again. However, the source for this was Liutprand of Cremona, who placed the cadaver synod in the pontificate of Sergius III, instead of Stephen VI. ”Sergius rebuilt the Lateran Palace, which had been shattered by an earthquake in 896. Sergius refurbished it with objects, images and crucifixes, and decorated its newly built walls with frescos, in 905 he provided funds to the Church of Silva Candida, which had been devastated by a Saracen raid. He also helped with the rebuilding of Nonantola Abbey, which had suffered attacks from the Magyars, Sergius, like his predecessors, continued to defend the Filioque clause of the Nicene Creed, which was at odds with the position of the eastern church. Almost a century later, this led to the removal of Sergius’s name from the Diptychs by Patriarch Sergius II of Constantinople
3.
Ardea, Lazio
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Ardea is an ancient town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome,35 kilometres south of Rome and about 4 kilometres from todays Mediterranean coast. The economy is based on agriculture, although, starting from the 1970s. Ardea is one of the most ancient towns in western Europe, founded about in the 8th century BC was the capital of the Rutuli, mentioned in the Aeneid. After the Roman conquest, Ardea was most often mentioned in connection with the Via Ardeatina, one of the consular roads, in 509 BC Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the king of Rome sought unsuccessfully to take the town by storm, and then commenced a siege of the town. However the siege was interrupted by the revolution resulted in the overthrow of the king. One of the leaders of the revolution, Lucius Junius Brutus, came to the camp of the Roman army at Ardea, in 443 BC the Volscians laid siege to Ardea. The siege was broken by Roman troops under the leadership of Marcus Geganius Macerinus. During the Second Punic War, it was one of the few cities that refused military support to Rome, in the 3rd-2nd centuries BC it decayed until, in the Imperial Age, it was scarcely populated at all. The 1st century agricultural writer Columella possessed estates there, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Ardea was abandoned. It returned to only after the 9th century AD. Its castle in 1118 housed Pope Gelasius II and was later contended among various feudal barons of the area, in 1419 Pope Martin V assigned it to his kinsmen, the Colonna family, who sold it in 1564 to the Cesarini. In 1816 it became a frazione of Genzano, remains of the ancient city include the old defensive agger, dating to the 7th century BC and later updated to larger walls. Archaeological excavations have brought to four temples, of unknown dedication. Part of the pavement of a basilica have also found in the area of the ancient Forum. Other sights include, The Church of Santa Marina, erected in 1191 by Cencio Savelli, the interior, on a single nave, was originally entirely frescoed. Romanesque Church of San Pietro Apostolo, which was a possession of the monks of San Paolo Fuori le Mura of Rome and it incorporates a former watchtower used to counter Saracen attacks, now turned into a bell tower. It has 15th-century frescoes and a 16th-century wooden crucifix, the Giardini della Landriana, designed by Russell Page. Giacomo Manzù Museum, housing some 400 works of the artist, tor San Lorenzo, a tower in the eponymous seaside frazione
4.
Papal States
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The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
5.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
6.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
7.
Antipope Christopher
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Christopher held the papacy from October 903 to January 904. As such, he is now considered an antipope by the Catholic Church, little is known about the life of Christopher, the lack of reliable, consistent sources make it difficult to establish a concise biography. It is believed that he was a Roman, and that his fathers name was Leo and he was cardinal-priest of the title of St. Damasus when he became Pope. His predecessor, Leo V, was deposed and imprisoned, most likely around October 903, as it is believed that Leo died in prison, Christopher may be regarded as Pope after his death. However, the account of Auxilius of Naples says that Sergius III murdered both Leo V and Christopher, an eleventh-century Greek document says that Christopher was the first pope to state that the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Father and from the Son. However, the document claims that Christopher made this profession to Sergius, at that time, however, Nicholas Mystikos was Patriarch of Constantinople, making the account historically suspect. Christopher was driven from the papacy by Pope Sergius III, hermannus Contractus contends that Christopher was compelled to end his days as a monk. However, the historian Eugenius Vulgarius says he was strangled in prison, some hold that Christopher was a legitimate pope, regardless of the illegitimate means by which he appears to have ascended to the throne. His name is included in all major catalogues of the popes through the twentieth century. He was, moreover, acknowledged as pope by his successors, for example, in confirming the privileges of the Abbey of Corbie in France, Leo IX mentioned the preceding grants of Benedict and Christopher. This privilege is the one of Christophers acts which is extant. However, he has not been considered a legitimate pope since the first half of the 20th century and has been erased from the Annuario pontificios list of popes and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope Christopher
8.
Canon (priest)
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A canon is a member of certain bodies subject to an ecclesiastical rule. This way of life grew common in the eighth century, in the eleventh century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, in the Roman Catholic Church, the members of the chapter of a cathedral or of a collegiate church are canons. Depending on the title of the church, several languages use specific titles, e. g. in German Domherr or Domkapitular in a Dom, Stiftsherr in a prelature that has the status of a Stift. One of the functions of the chapter in the Roman Catholic Church was to elect a Vicar Capitular to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese. All canons of the Church of England have been secular since the Reformation, mostly, however, they are ordained, that is, priests or members of the clergy. Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches, a canon is a member of the chapter of priests, headed by a dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate churches. The dean and chapter are the body which has legal responsibility for the cathedral. The title of Canon is not a permanent title and when no longer in a position entitling preferment, however, it is still given in many dioceses to senior parish priests as a largely honorary title. It is usually awarded in recognition of long and dedicated service to the diocese, honorary canons are members of the chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. They are entitled to call themselves canon and may have a role in the administration of the cathedral, in some Church of England dioceses, the title Prebendary is used instead of canon when the cleric is involved administratively with a cathedral. Honorary canons within the Roman Catholic Church may still be nominated after the Second Vatican Council, on the demise of the Kingdom of France this honour became transferred to the Presidents of the Republic, and hence is currently held by François Hollande. This applies even when the French President is not Catholic, as is the case with the atheist Hollande, the proto-canon of the papal basilica of Saint Mary Major is the King of Spain, currently Felipe VI. The rank of lay canon is especially conferred upon diocesan chancellors and it has traditionally been said that the King of England is a canon or prebendary of St David’s Cathedral, Wales. However, this is based on a misconception, the canonry of St Mary’s College, St David’s became the property of the Crown on the dissolution of the monasteries. The Sovereign was never a canon of St David’s, even as a layman, though he or she may occupy the first prebendal stall, a canon professor is a canon at an Anglican cathedral who also holds a university professorship. Section 2 of the Church of England Measure 1995 was passed for the purpose of enabling Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. Historically, the chair in Greek at the university was also a canon professorship and this canonry was transferred to the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in 1940
9.
Bologna
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Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
10.
Papal bull
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A Papal bull is a specific kind of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after the seal that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the register of bulls, by the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the bulls now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, a Papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, Papal bulls have carried a seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side. Papal bulls were issued by the Pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature. Papyrus seems to have used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century. Popularly, the name is used for any Papal document that contains a metal seal, today, the bull is the only written communication in which the Pope will refer to himself as Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei. For example, when Pope Benedict XVI issued a decree in bull form, while Papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A Papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the Pope, the body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting, it was often very simple in layout. For the most solemn bulls, the Pope signed the document himself, following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the seal, which was usually made of lead. On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by a ring of such beads. On the reverse was the name of the issuing Pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters PP, for Pastor Pastorum
11.
San Lorenzo in Damaso
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The Minor Basilica of St. Lawrence in Damaso or simply San Lorenzo in Damaso is a parish and titular church in central Rome, Italy that is dedicated to St. Lawrence, deacon and martyr. It is incorporated into the Palazzo della Cancelleria, which enjoys the extraterritoriality of the Holy See, archaeological evidence suggests the site, like those of many churches in Rome, may have formerly housed a pagan temple. The first documentary evidence of a church at this site is the reference in the synod of Pope Symmachus of AD499 of a Titulus Damasi, according to tradition, in the AD 380s a basilica church was erected by Pope Damasus I in his own residence. This church is one of many in Rome dedicated to St. Lawrence, including the ancient and then extra-urban Basilica di San Lorenzo Fuori le Mura. The original basilica of San Lorenzo in Damaso was demolished by Cardinal Raffaele Riario, the architect of the basilica, like that of the Palace of the Chancellery, is unknown. Titi also independently attributed reconstruction of the basilica to Bramante, the last restoration was necessary after a fire damaged the basilica in 1944. The inscriptions in the basilica are valuable illustrations of the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the Cardinal Priest of the Titulus S. Laurentii in Damaso is Antonio Rouco Varela, Archbishop of Madrid, Spain. The interior decoration was begun by commissions of the resident of the Palace, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, cavaliere dArpino painted the walls of the right counter-facade. The main altar hosts the painting of Saints and Coronation of St. Mary by Federico Zuccari, below the altar are the relics of Pope St. Eutychian and Pope St. Damasus I. To the left of the altar is a copy of a statue of St. Hippolytus of Rome, tradition holds that St. Lawrence instigated the conversion of St. Hippolytus to the Catholic Faith. This copy was commissioned for the basilica by Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, immediately to the right of the entrance is the memorial to Alessandro Valtrini, a minister of Pope Urban VIII, that Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed in 1639. The second vestibule has statues of St. Francis Xavier and St. Charles Borromeo by Stefano Maderno, to the right of the entrance is a chapel designed by Nicola Salvi and commissioned by Cardinal Tommaso Ruffo in the late 18th century. The ceiling is frescoed with Glory of San Nicola by Corrado Giaquinto, philip Neri and Nicolò was painted by Sebastiano Conca. To the left of the entrance is the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, the altarpiece is the Last Supper by Vincenzo Berrettini. Inside the basilica, the first chapel to the right of the nave has a 19th-century monument to Prince Camillo Massimi and his wife, by Filippo Gnaccarini and Pietro Tenerani, respectively. The second chapel to the right has the tomb of Pellegrino Rossi, Pope Pius IX, by Pietro Tenerani. His murder in 1848 in the adjacent Palace was one of the events led to the ensconcement of the Pope in the Vatican City. The first chapel to the left has the tomb and funerary monument of Cardinal Ludovico Trevisan, Patriarch of Aquileia, the second chapel to the left contains the tomb of Fra Annibal Caro by Giovanni Antonio Dosio
12.
Antipope
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At times between the 3rd and mid-15th century, antipopes were supported by a fairly significant faction of religious cardinals and secular monarchs and kingdoms. Persons who claim to be pope, but have few followers, hippolytus of Rome is commonly considered to be the earliest antipope, as he headed a separate group within the Church in Rome against Pope Callixtus I. Hippolytus was reconciled to Callixtuss second successor, Pope Pontian, eusebius quotes from an unnamed earlier writer the story of Natalius, a 3rd-century priest who accepted the bishopric of a heretical group in Rome. Natalius soon repented and tearfully begged Pope Zephyrinus to receive him into communion, the period in which antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the popes and the Holy Roman Emperors of the 11th and 12th centuries. The emperors frequently imposed their own nominees to further their own causes, the popes, likewise, sometimes sponsored rival imperial claimants in Germany to overcome a particular emperor. The Pisan line was named after the town of Pisa, Italy, to end the schism, in May 1415, the Council of Constance deposed antipope John XXIII of the Pisan line. Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line resigned in July 1415, in 1417, the Council also formally deposed antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, but he refused to resign. Afterwards, Pope Martin V was elected and was accepted everywhere except in the small, the scandal of the Western Schism created anti-papal sentiment and fed into the Protestant Reformation at the turn of the 16th century. The following table gives the names of the antipopes included in the list of popes and antipopes in the Annuario Pontificio, with the addition of the names of Natalius, an asterisk marks those who were included in the conventional numbering of later Popes who took the same name. More commonly, the antipope is ignored in later papal regnal numbers, for example, there was an Antipope John XXIII, for the additional confusion regarding Popes named John, see Pope John. The uncertainty that in some cases results has made it advisable to abandon the assignation of successive numbers in the list of the popes, the Catholic Encyclopedia places him in its List of Popes, but with the annotation, Considered by some to be an antipope. Other sources classify him as an antipope and those with asterisks were counted in subsequent Papal numbering. Many antipopes created cardinals, known as quasi-cardinals, and a few created cardinal-nephews, in modern times various people claim to be pope and, though they do not fit the technical definition of antipope, are sometimes referred to as such. They are usually leaders of sedevacantist groups who view the See of Rome as vacant, a significant number of these have taken the name Peter II, owing to its special significance. From the point of view of the Roman Catholic Church, they are schismatics, the following were elected by allegedly faithful Catholics, none of whom was a cardinal, Popes of the Legio Maria, based in western Kenya, Timothy Joseph Blasio Atila. David Bawden, elected in Kansas, USA, another conclave, this time held in Assisi, Italy, elected the South African Victor von Pentz, an ex-seminarian of the Society of St Pius X, as Pope Linus II in 1994. Linus took up residence in Hertfordshire, England, Pope of the True Catholic Church, Lucian Pulvermacher, elected in Montana, USA. Mirko Fabris, elected in Zagreb, Croatia, joaquín Llorens, elected in Elx, Spain
13.
Vestararius
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The vestararius was the manager of the medieval Roman Curia office of the vestiarium, responsible for the management of papal finances as well as the papal wardrobe. Along with the highest financial officers arcarius and the sacellarius, the vestararius was one of the three most important staff officials of the Lateran Palace. The vestararius was also responsible for the written financial archives and accounts, by 813, the vestararius was seated beside the pope in the Palace in giving judgement and in 875 was sent as an embassy to the Holy Roman Emperor. His wife, Theodora, held the position of vestararissa. The financial administration of the papacy as a whole began to be referred to as a camera in 1017, the last known reference to the office of vestararius appears in 1033. There is no evidence of continuity between the vestararius and the camerarius, which is referred to for the first time in 1099. Either office may have existed during this period, or the responsibilities may have fallen to some third office, papal Revenues in the Middle Ages
14.
Bartolomeo Platina
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Bartolomeo Sacchi, known as Platina after his birthplace, and commonly referred to in English as Bartolomeo Platina, was an Italian Renaissance humanist writer and gastronomist. Platina started his career as a soldier employed by condottieri, before gaining long-term patronage from the Gonzagas, including the young cardinal Francesco, for whom he wrote a family history. He studied under the Byzantine humanist philosopher John Argyropulos in Florence, Platina was born at Piadena, near Cremona. He first enlisted as a soldier, and was then appointed tutor to the sons of the Marquis Ludovico III Gonzaga, task previously held by Iacopo da San Cassiano. In 1457, he went to Florence, and studied under the Greek scholar Argyropulos, in 1462 he proceeded to Rome, probably in the suite of Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga. After Pius II had reorganized the College of Abbreviators, and increased the number to seventy, Platina, probably in the summer of 1465 Platina composed De honesta voluptate et valetudine. The cookbook also happens to contain the oldest recorded usage of cannabis in cooking, when Paul II abolished the ordinances of Pius, Platina with the other new members was deprived of his office. Angered by this, he wrote a pamphlet insolently demanding from the pope the recall of his restrictions, when called upon to justify himself he answered with insolence and was imprisoned in the Castel SantAngelo, being released after four months on condition that he remain at Rome. In February 1468, with twenty other humanists, he was again imprisoned on suspicion of heresy. The latter charge was dropped for lack of evidence, while they were acquitted on the former, however, members of the Roman Academy were found guilty of immorality. After his release on July 7,1469, he expected to be again in the employ of Paul II, in it he paints his enemy as cruel, and an archenemy of science. For centuries it influenced historical opinions until critical research proved otherwise, in other places party spirit is evident, especially when he treats of the condition of the Church. Notwithstanding, his Lives of the Popes is a work of no small merit, Platina felt the need of critical research, but shirked the examination of details. By the end of 1474 or the beginning of 1475 Platina offered his manuscript to Pope Sixtus IV, the popes acceptance may cause surprise, but it is probable he was ignorant of its contents except insofar as it concerned his own pontificate up to November,1474. After the death of Giovanni Andrea Bussi, Bishop of Aleria, the pope appointed Platina librarian with a salary of 120 ducats. He also instructed him to make a collection of the privileges of the Roman Church. This collection, whose value is acknowledged by all the annalists, is preserved in the Vatican archives. Besides his principal work Platina wrote several others of importance, notably
15.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
16.
Catholic Encyclopedia
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The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed to give its readers full and authoritative information on the cycle of Catholic interests, action. The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company, a company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedias Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company, in 1912 the companys name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the projects lifetime. The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Roman Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and it records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. The volumes came out sequentially the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912, The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of The Messenger, on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1,1908 and this review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. A first supplement was published in 1922, a supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated commemorative volume was awarded to patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published in 1967, and then in 2002. The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers states that, The work is entirely new, the editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston, under United States copyright law, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. Knight founded the website New Advent to house the undertaking, volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997, in 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent website. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is a transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words. Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons
17.
Papal name
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A papal name is the regnal name taken by a pope. Both the head of the Catholic Church, usually known as the Pope, as of 2016 Francis is the Catholic Pope, and Tawadros II or Theodoros II is the Coptic Pope. This article discusses and lists the names of Catholic Popes, another article has a list of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria. While popes in the early centuries retained their names after their accession to the papacy. This first started in the century and became customary in the 10th century. Since 1555, every pope has taken a papal name and it is customary when referring to popes to translate the regnal name into local languages. Thus, for example, Papa Franciscus, is Papa Francesco in Italian, Papa Francisco in his native Spanish, the official style of the Catholic Pope in English is His Holiness Pope. Holy Father is another often used for popes. The official title of the leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is Pope of Alexandria, the Successor of St. Mark the Evangelist, Holy Apostle and Martyr, on the Holy Apostolic Throne of the Great City of Alexandria. He is considered to be Father of Fathers, Hierarch of all Hierarchs Honorary titles attributed to the Hierarch of the Alexandrine Throne are The Pillar and Defender of the Holy, Catholic, Apostolic Church and of the Orthodox Faith. The Dean of the Great Catechetical School of Theology of Alexandria, the Ecumenical Judge of the Holy Apostolic and Catholic Church. The Thirteenth among the Holy Apostles, during the first centuries of the church, the bishops of Rome continued to use their baptismal names after their elections. In the 10th century clerics from beyond the Alps, especially Germany and France, acceded to the papacy, the last pope to use his baptismal name was Marcellus II in 1555, a choice that was even then quite exceptional. Names are freely chosen by popes, and not based on any system, names of immediate or distant predecessors, mentors, saints, or even family members—as was the case with John XXIII—have been adopted. John Paul I was also the first pope in almost 1,100 years since Lando in 913 to adopt a name that had not previously been used. After John Paul Is sudden death a month later, Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected and, wishing to continue his predecessors work, Benedict XVIs own reign, which ended with his resignation on 28 February 2013, also lasted less than 8 years. Saint Peter was the first Pope, no Pope of Rome has chosen the name Peter II, since the 1970s some antipopes, with only a minuscule following, took the name Pope Peter II. Probably because of the controversial fifteenth-century antipope known as Pope John XXIII, immediately after John XXIIIs election as pope in 1958, it was not known if he would be John XXIII or XXIV, he decided that he would be known as John XXIII
18.
Pope emeritus
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Catholics trace the origins of the office of bishop to the apostles, who it is believed were endowed with a special charism by the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. Catholics believe this special charism has been transmitted through a succession of bishops by the laying on of hands in the sacrament of Holy Orders. Bishops are collectively known as the College of Bishops and can hold such additional titles as archbishop, cardinal, patriarch, as of 2009 there were approximately 5,100 bishops total in the Latin and Eastern churches of the Catholic Church. The traditional role of a bishop is to act as head of a diocese or eparchy, dioceses vary considerably in geographical size and population. Within his own diocese a Latin Church bishop may use pontifical vestments and regalia, but may not do so in another diocese without, at least, See, Appointment of Catholic bishops Article 401. A diocesan bishop is entrusted with the care of a local Church and he is responsible for teaching, governing, and sanctifying the faithful of his diocese, sharing these duties with the priests and deacons who serve under him. He serves as the shepherd of the diocese and has responsibility for the pastoral care of all Catholics living within his ecclesiastical and ritual jurisdiction. He is obliged to celebrate Mass every Sunday and Holy Day of Obligation with the intention of praying for those in his care, assign clergy to their posts in various institutions, Latin Catholic bishops also must make regular ad limina visits to the Holy See every five years. Only a bishop has authority to confer the sacrament of holy orders, in the Latin Church the minor orders were abolished after the Second Vatican Council. The sacrament of Confirmation is normally administered by a bishop in the Latin Church, in the case of receiving an adult into full communion with the Catholic Church the presiding priest will administer Confirmation. In the Eastern Catholic Churches, Confirmation is normally administered by priests as it is given at the time as baptism. It is only within the power of the bishop or eparch to bless churches and altars, although he may delegate another bishop, or even a priest. On Holy Thursday Latin Catholic bishops preside over the Mass of the Chrism, though Oil of the Sick for the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is blessed at this Mass, it may also be blessed by any priest in case of necessity. Only a bishop may consecrate Chrism, in the Eastern Catholic Churches chrism is consecrated solely by heads of churches sui juris and diocesan bishops may not do so. Prior to the Second Vatican Council, it was also the prerogative of the bishop to consecrate the paten, one of the changes implemented since the Council, is that a simple blessing is now said and it may be given by any priest. In both Western and Eastern Catholic churches, any priest can celebrate the Mass or Divine Liturgy, a celebret may be issued to travelling priests so that they can demonstrate to pastors and bishops outside of their own diocese that they are in good standing. However, even if a priest does not possess such a document, in the East an antimension signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose omophorion the priest at a local parish is serving. To preside at matrimony ceremonies, Latin Church priests and deacons must have appropriate jurisdiction or delegation from a competent authority, in the Eastern tradition, the clergy not only witness the exchange of vows but must impart a blessing for a valid marriage to have taken place
19.
Papal renunciation
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A papal renunciation occurs when the reigning pope of the Roman Catholic Church voluntarily steps down from his position. As the reign of the pope has conventionally been from election until death, before the 21st century, only five popes unambiguously resigned with historical certainty, all between the 10th and 15th centuries. Additionally, disputed claims of four popes having resigned date between the 3rd and 11th centuries, a disputed case may have involved an antipope. Additionally, a few popes during the saeculum obscurum were deposed, the later development of canon law has been in favor of papal supremacy, leaving no recourse to remove a pope involuntarily. The most recent pope to resign was Benedict XVI, who vacated the Holy See on 28 February 2013 at 19,00 UTC and he was the first pope to do so since Gregory XII in 1415. Despite its common usage in discussion of papal renunciations, the abdication is not used in the official documents of the Church for renunciation by a pope. Both the 1983 Code and the 1917 Code make explicit that there is no individual or body of people to whom the pope must manifest his renunciation. During the saeculum obscurum several popes were deposed or coerced into renunciation by political, John X is considered to have been deposed by some, but he seems to have died in prison before his successor Leo VI was elected anyway. As another example, consider the story of John XII, Leo VIII, John XII had been invalidly deposed by the Emperor Otto in 963, never renouncing his claim. Leo VIII was set up as an antipope by Otto at this time, however, John XII won back his rightful place in 964. When John XII died in 964, Benedict V was elected, however, Otto wanted Leo VIII put back on the papal throne and, using military might, forced Benedict to abdicate later that same summer, Benedicts renunciation is considered valid. Leo VIII is then considered the pope until his death in 965. The first historically unquestionable papal renunciation is that of Benedict IX in 1045. Then, in 1045, having regained the papacy for a few months, in order to rid the Church of the scandalous Benedict, Gregory himself resigned in 1046 because the arrangement he had entered into with Benedict could have been considered simony. Gregory was followed by Clement II, and when Clement died, Benedict IX returned to be elected to the papacy for a third time and he thus reigned as pope for three non-consecutive terms, and resigned three separate times. A well-known renunciation of a pope is that of Celestine V, after only five months of pontificate, he issued a solemn decree declaring it permissible for a pope to resign, and then did so himself. He lived two years as a hermit and then prisoner of his successor Boniface VIII and was later canonised. Celestines decree, and Boniface concurring, ended any doubt among canonists about the possibility of a valid papal renunciation, before resigning, he formally convened the already existing Council of Constance and authorized it to elect his successor
20.
Pope-elect Stephen
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Pope-elect Stephen was a Roman priest elected pope in March 752 to succeed Zachary, he died of a stroke a few days later, before being consecrated a bishop. Therefore, he is not listed as a pope in the Annuario Pontificio, in 745, Pope Zachary had made him a cardinal-priest, with the titulus of San Crisogono, the same titulus later held by Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine, who became Pope Stephen IX. The regnal numbering of popes named Stephen has changed over the centuries, regnal numbering was not used for popes until the 10th century, and any numbering attached to earlier popes has been applied posthumously. Until the 10th century, from 752 to 942, eight men who bore the name Stephen, including this priest Stephen, were elected pope, but only seven reigned as pope. The first pope to take the name Stephen after regnal numbering became customary was called Stephen IX during his lifetime and signed all his documents Stephanus Papa Nonus, Latin for Pope Stephen IX. Some writers, but not all, consequently increased the numbering of later Popes of that name and this Pope-elect Stephens name was removed from the list of popes in the Annuario Pontificio in 1961. Divergent usage led to the use of a numbering for these popes. This practice is found in the Catholic Encyclopedia, the Annuario Pontificio, Stephen Vicedomino de Vicedominis List of 10 shortest-reigning popes Pope John XX
21.
Papal selection before 1059
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There was no fixed process for papal selection before 1059. Popes, the bishops of Rome and the leaders of the Catholic Church, were appointed by their predecessors or secular rulers. The practice of papal appointment during this period would give rise to the jus exclusivae. Furthermore, the frequent requirement of approval of elected popes significantly lengthened periods of sede vacante. There is no consensus on when and on what terms Saint Peter arrived in Rome. Moreover, Peter was never referred to as a pope or even a bishop. This anecdote makes clear that the choice of bishop was the concern for the entire Christian community of Rome. Fabian can reliably be regarded as a victim of the persecution of Emperor Decius, the next available evidence comes from the schism between Novatian and Cornelius, both elected bishop by their own factions, and both writing to Cyprian, bishop of Carthage for support. Mark was the first to designate the bishop of Ostia as the first among the consecrators of the new bishop of Rome, even with this new title, however, the method of selection of the bishop of Rome remained much the same. Both the clergy and the laity continued to participate in the selection, other trends can be observed, as well, such as father-to-son succession between Pope Anastasius I and Pope Innocent I. Emperor Honorius stepped in to resolve the schism between Eulalius and Pope Boniface I, siding with Eulalius first and then Boniface I. The Roman Senate disliked the lack of election and denounced Felix, affirming a decree of Pope Anastasius II, Boniface II was supported only by a minority of the clergy, with the larger share supporting Dioscorus, with only Dioscoruss death halting the schism. In fact, Athalaric himself was able to engineer the election of Pope Silverius, upon his invasion of Italy, Justinian I forced Silverius to abdicate and in his place installed Pope Vigilius, a former papal legate to Constantinople. Justinian next appointed Pope Pelagius I, holding only an election to replace Vigilius. Afterwards, Justinian was content with power of approval of the pope, justinians successors continued this practice for over a century. The continuing power of appointment of the Byzantine emperor can be seen in the legend of Pope Gregory I writing to Constantinople and this abated factionalism for the next four successions, each resulting in quick elections and imperial approval. However, Pope Severinus was forced to wait 20 months for approval in 640. So Pope Martin I refused to wait, insisting on being consecrated only days after his election and this resulted in his abduction by Constans II to Constantinople in 653, where he was tried and sentenced to exile
22.
Bishops of Rome under Constantine I
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Constantine Is relationship with the four Bishops of Rome during his reign is an important component of the history of the Papacy, and more generally the history of the Catholic Church. None of this, however, has much to do with the popes, who did not even attend the Council, in fact. The Donation of Constantine, an 8th-century forgery used to enhance the prestige, the legend of the Donation claims that Constantine offered his crown to Sylvester I, and even that Sylvester baptized Constantine. In reality, Constantine was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia, who, Sylvester was succeeded by Mark and Julius I during the life of Constantine. Although the Donation never occurred, Constantine did hand over the Lateran Palace to the bishop of Rome, the gift of the Lateran probably occurred during the reign of Miltiades, Sylvester Is predecessor, who began using it as his residence. Old St. Peters was begun between 326 and 330 and would have three decades to complete, long after the death of Constantine. In spite of the Diocletian Persecution, Christians constituted approximately one-tenth of the population of the Roman Empire at the time of Constantines rise to power. Christianity was legalized by Galerius, who was the first emperor to issue an edict of toleration for all religious creeds including Christianity in April 311. It was without any single dominant ruling officer, its elders or leaders sharing responsibility, by the eve of the conversion of Constantine, there were more than two dozen of these religious community-centers or tituli. The Roman church was a community, and its bishop exercised little influence outside its members in the time of Constantine. Constantine was the first Roman Emperor to embrace Christianity, although he continued in his pre-Christian beliefs. He and co-Emperor Licinius bestowed imperial favor on Christianity through the Edict of Milan promulgated in 313, after the Edict of Milan, the church adopted the same governmental structure as the Empire, geographical provinces ruled by bishops. These bishops of important cities therefore rose in power over the bishops of lesser cities, Miltiades was pope at the time of Constantines victory, and Constantine gifted to Miltiades the Lateran Palace, where he relocated, holding a synod in 313. Turning to Constantine was a move because he had not yet been baptized. Constantine therefore referred the matter to Miltiades, requiring him to collaborate with three bishops from Gaul, eamon Duffy calls this the first direct intervention by an emperor in the affairs of the church. Miltiades died, and his successor, Silvester I, did not travel to Arles, the Arles synod gave Silvester I somewhat of a nod by asking him to circulate their decisions to the other bishops, although he had no part in the process. During Silvester Is reign, construction began on the Lateran Basilica, Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, Silvester did not attend the first ecumenical council, the First Council of Nicaea, but sent two priests as his representatives, the Western bishops of Carthage and Milan were also in attendance. Ariuss followers did poorly at Nicaea, and the Nicene Creed that was adopted was squarely against their Christological position, the Arians were silenced, not persuaded by the Council, and the controversy in the larger Christian community was not resolved
23.
Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
24.
Pope Linus
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Linus pronunciation was, according to several early sources, the second Bishop of Rome, and is listed by the Catholic Church as the second pope. According to other sources, Pope Clement I was the second pope, according to the Catholic Churchs Annuario Pontificio, however. Among those believed by the Catholic Church to have held the position of pope, only Peter, Linus, the Oxford Dictionary of Popes interprets Irenaeus as classifying Linus as the first bishop of Rome. Tertullian too wrote of Clement as the successor of Peter, jerome classified Clement as the fourth bishop of Rome after Peter, adding that, most of the Latins think that Clement was second after the apostle. The Apostolic Constitutions denote that Linus, who was consecrated by Paul, was the first bishop of Rome and was succeeded by Clement, who was ordained and consecrated by Peter. Cletus is considered Linuss successor by Irenaeus, and the others cited above, a man named Linus is mentioned in the closing greeting of the Second Epistle to Timothy. In that epistle, Linus is noted as being with Paul in Rome near the end of Pauls life, irenæus stated that this is the same Linus who became Bishop of Rome, a view that is generally still accepted. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Linus was an Italian born in Volterra in the Tuscany region and his fathers name was recorded as Herculanus. The Apostolic Constitutions name his mother as Claudia and it gives the date of his death as 23 September, the date on which his feast is still celebrated. His name is included in the Roman Canon of the Mass, the statement made in the same source, that Linus suffered martyrdom, cannot be proved and is improbable. For between Nero and Domitian there is no mention of any persecution of the Roman Church, the Roman Martyrology does not list Linus as a martyr. A tomb found in St. Peters Basilica in 1615 by Torrigio was inscribed with the letters LINVS, however a note by Torrigio shows that these were merely the last five letters of a longer name. A letter on the martyrdom of Peter and Paul was once attributed to him, List of Catholic saints List of popes Louise Ropes Loomis, The Book of Popes. I SOMMI PONTEFICI ROMANI, The Roman Pontiffs Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope St. Linus
25.
Pope Anacletus
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Pope Anacletus, also known as Cletus, was the third Bishop of Rome, following Saint Peter and Pope Linus. Anacletus served as pope between c.79 and his death, c, the name Cletus in Ancient Greek means one who has been called, and Anacletus means one who has been called back. The Roman Martyrology mentions the Pope in question only under the name of Cletus, the Annuario Pontificio gives both forms as alternatives. Eusebius, Saint Irenaeus, Saint Augustine and Optatus all suggest that both refer to the same individual. St. Cletus/Anacletus was traditionally understood to have been a Roman who served as pope for twelve years, the Annuario Pontificio states, For the first two centuries, the dates of the start and the end of the pontificate are uncertain. It gives the years 80 to 92 as the reign of Pope Cletus/Anacletus, other sources give the years 77 to 88. According to tradition, Pope Anacletus divided Rome into twenty-five parishes, one of the few surviving records concerning his papacy mentions him as having ordained an uncertain number of priests. He died and was buried next to his predecessor, Saint Linus, near the grave of St. Peters and his name is included in the Roman Canon of the Mass. The Tridentine Calendar reserved 26 April as the feast day of Saint Cletus, who the church honoured jointly with Saint Marcellinus, and 13 July for solely Saint Anacletus. In 1960, Pope John XXIII, while keeping the 26 April feast, although the day of his death is unknown, Saint Cletus continues to be listed in the Roman Martyrology among the saints of 26 April. List of Catholic saints List of popes Donald Attwater and Catherine Rachel John, The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, 3rd edition, New York, louise Ropes Loomis, The Book of Popes. ISBN 1-889758-86-8 (Reprint of the 1916 edition, richard P. McBrien, Lives of the Popes. ISBN 0-06-065304-3 This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. Writings attributed to Pope Anacletus/Cletus The Society of Pope Saint Anacletus, an Independent Catholic association in the United States
26.
Pope Clement I
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Pope Clement I, also known as Saint Clement of Rome, is listed by Irenaeus and Tertullian as Bishop of Rome, holding office from 88 to his death in 99. He is considered to be the first Apostolic Father of the Church, few details are known about Clements life. Clement was said to have been consecrated by Saint Peter, early church lists place him as the second or third bishop of Rome after Saint Peter. Tertullian considered Clement to be the successor of Peter. In one of his works, Jerome listed Clement as the bishop of Rome after Peter. Clement is put after Linus and Cletus/Anacletus in the earliest account, that of Irenaeus, Clements only genuine extant writing is his letter to the church at Corinth in response to a dispute in which certain presbyters of the Corinthian church had been deposed. He asserted the authority of the presbyters as rulers of the church on the ground that the Apostles had appointed such. His letter, which is one of the oldest extant Christian documents outside of the New Testament, was read in church, along with other epistles and these works were the first to affirm the apostolic authority of the clergy. A second epistle,2 Clement, was attributed to Clement, in the legendary Clementine Literature, Clement is the intermediary through whom the apostles teach the church. According to tradition, Clement was imprisoned under the Emperor Trajan, thereafter he was executed by being tied to an anchor and thrown into the sea. Clement is recognized as a saint in many Christian churches and is considered a saint of mariners. He is commemorated on 23 November in the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity his feast is kept on 24 or 25 November. Starting in the 3rd and 4th century, tradition has identified him as the Clement that Paul mentioned in Philippians 4,3, a fellow laborer in Christ. The 2nd-century Shepherd of Hermas mentions a Clement whose office it was to communicate with other churches, most likely, the Liber Pontificalis, which documents the reigns of popes, states that Clement had known Saint Peter. It also states that he wrote two letters and that he died in Greece in the year of Emperor Trajans reign. A large congregation existed in Rome c,58, when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans. His Captivity Epistles, as well as Mark, Luke, Acts, Paul and Peter were said to have been martyred here. Nero persecuted Roman Christians after Rome burned in 64, and the congregation may have suffered persecution under Domitian
27.
Pope Evaristus
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Pope Evaristus is accounted as the fifth Bishop of Rome, holding office from c.99 to his death c. He was also known as Aristus and he is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. Little is known about St. Evaristus, according to the Liber Pontificalis, he came from a family of Greek Ioudaioi living in Bethlehem. He was elected during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, the time of the general persecution. Eusebius, in his Church History IV, I, stated that Evaristus died in the 12th year of the reign of Emperor Trajan after holding the office of bishop of the Romans for eight years. He is said by the Liber Pontificalis to have divided Rome into several titles, assigning a priest to each, and appointed seven deacons for the city. He is usually accorded the title of martyr, however, there is no confirmation of this, as Pope Evaristus is listed without that title in the Roman Martyrology and it is probable that Evaristus was buried near Saint Peters tomb in the Vatican. It is also probable that John the Apostle died during the beginning of Evaristus reign. List of Catholic saints List of popes Writings attributed to Pope St Evaristus Patron Saints Index, Pope Saint Evaristus Catholic Online – Saints & Angels, St. Evaristus Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Evaristus
28.
Pope Alexander I
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Pope Alexander I can also refer to Pope Alexander I of Alexandria. Pope Alexander I was the Bishop of Rome from c.107 to his death c, the Holy Sees Annuario Pontificio identifies him as a Roman who reigned from 108 or 109 to 116 or 119. Some believe he suffered martyrdom under the Roman Emperor Trajan or Hadrian, according to the Liber Pontificalis, it was Alexander I who inserted the narration of the Last Supper into the liturgy of the Mass. However, the article on Saint Alexander I in the 1907 Catholic Encyclopedia, written by Thomas Shahan, judges this tradition to be inaccurate, some sources consider these attributions unlikely. It is certainly possible, however, that Alexander played an important part in the development of the Church of Romes emerging liturgical. A later tradition holds that in the reign of Emperor Hadrian, Alexander I converted the Roman governor Hermes by miraculous means, Saint Quirinus of Neuss, who was Alexanders supposed jailer, and Quirinus daughter Saint Balbina were also among his converts. Alexander is said to have seen a vision of the infant Jesus and his remains are said to have been transferred to Freising in Bavaria, Germany in AD834. Some editions of the Roman Missal identified with Pope Alexander I the Saint Alexander that they give as commemorated, together with Saints Eventius and Theodulus, see, for instance, the General Roman Calendar of 1954. But nothing is known of three saints other than their names, together with the fact that they were martyred and were buried at the seventh milestone of the Via Nomentana on 3 May of some year. The Roman Martyrology lists them as Eventius, Alexander and Theodulus, List of Catholic saints List of popes Benedict XVI. Port Washington, NY, Kennikat Press,1971, fortescue, Adrian, and Scott M. P. Reid. The Early Papacy, To the Synod of Chalcedon in 451, the Drama of the Lost Disciples. ISBN 1-889758-86-8 Pope St. Alexander I] Encyclopaedia Britannica, Saint Alexander I
29.
Pope Sixtus I
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Pope Sixtus I was the Bishop of Rome from c.115 to his death c. He succeeded Pope Alexander I and was in turn succeeded by Pope Telesphorus, in the oldest documents, Xystus is the spelling used for the first three popes of that name. Pope Sixtus I is also the sixth Pope after Peter, leading to questions whether the name Sixtus might be fictitious, the Holy Sees Annuario Pontificio identifies him as a Roman who served from 117 or 119 to 126 or 128. According to the Liberian Catalogue of popes, he served the Church during the reign of Hadrian a consulatu Negro et Aproniani usque Vero III et Ambibulo, that is, from 117 to 126. Eusebius states in his Chronicon that Sixtus I was pope from 114 to 124, while his Historia Ecclesiastica, using a different catalogue of popes, all authorities agree that he reigned about ten years. Sixtus I instituted several Roman Catholic liturgical and administrative traditions, like most of his predecessors, Sixtus I was believed to have been buried near Saint Peters grave on Vatican Hill, although there are differing traditions concerning where his body lies today. He was a Roman by birth, and his fathers name was Pastor, alban Butler states that Clement X gave some of his relics to Cardinal de Retz, who placed them in the Abbey of St. Michael in Lorraine. The Xystus who is commemorated in the Catholic Canon of the Mass is Xystus II and his feast is celebrated on 6 April. List of Catholic saints List of popes Image of Pope Saint Sixtus as seen on a fresco at Chalivoy-Milon in the Berry, Pope St. Sixtus I CE Sixtus I. in the Ecumenical Lexicon of Saints Collected works in Migne Patrologia Latina
30.
Pope Telesphorus
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Pope Saint Telesphorus was the Bishop of Rome from c.126 to his death c. 137, during the reigns of Roman Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius and he was of Greek ancestry and born in Terranova da Sibari, Calabria, Italy. Telesphorus is traditionally considered as being the seventh Roman bishop in succession after Saint Peter, the Liber Pontificalis mentions that he had been an anchorite monk prior to assuming office. According to the testimony of Irenæus, he suffered a glorious martyrdom, although most early popes are called martyrs by sources such as the Liber Pontificalis, Telesphorus is the first to whom Irenaeus, writing considerably earlier, gives this title. Eusebius places the beginning of his pontificate in the year of the reign of Emperor Hadrian. In Roman Martyrology, his feast is celebrated on 5 January, unlike Victor, however, Telesphorus remained in communion with those communities that did not follow this custom. The Carmelites venerate Telesphorus as a saint of the order since some sources depict him as a hermit living on Mount Carmel. The town of Saint-Télesphore, in the part of Canadas Quebec province, is named after him. List of Catholic saints List of popes Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John, port Washington, NY, Kennikat Press,1971. Fortescue, Adrian, and Scott M. P. Reid, the Early Papacy, To the Synod of Chalcedon in 451. ISBN 1-889758-86-8 The Works of Pope Telesphorus Pope St. Telesphorus Catholic Encyclopedia Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Telesphorus
31.
Pope Hyginus
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Pope Hyginus was the Bishop of Rome from c.138 to c. Tradition holds that during his papacy he determined the various prerogatives of the clergy and he also decreed that all churches be consecrated. He is said to have died a martyr under the persecution of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, the chronology of the early bishops of Rome cannot be determined with any degree of exactitude today. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Hyginus was a Greek by birth, irenaeus says that the Gnostic Valentinus came to Rome in Hyginuss time, remaining there until Anicetus became pontiff. How many of these took place during the time of Hyginus is not known. The Liber Pontificalis also relates that this pope organized the hierarchy and this general observation recurs also in the biography of Pope Hormisdas, but has no historical value. According to Louis Duchesne, the writer referred to the lower orders of the clergy. The ancient sources contain no information as to his having died a martyr, at his death he was buried on the Vatican Hill, near the tomb of St. Peter. His feast is celebrated on 11 January, three letters attributed to him have survived. List of Catholic saints List of popes Opera Omnia Chisholm, Hugh, fontes Latinae de papis usque ad annum 530 Liber pontificalis
32.
Pope Pius I
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Pope Saint Pius I is said to have been the Bishop of Rome from c.140 to his death c. 154, according to the Annuario Pontificio and his dates are listed as 142 or 146 to 157 or 161, respectively. Pius is believed to have born at Aquileia, in Northern Italy. His father was an Italian called Rufinus, who was also a native of Aquileia according to the Liber Pontificalis, according to the 2nd century Muratorian Canon and the Liberian Catalogue, that he was the brother of Hermas, author of the text known as The Shepherd of Hermas. The writer of the text identifies himself as a former slave. This has led to speculation that both Hermas and Pius were freedmen, however Hermas statement that he was a slave may just mean that he belonged to a low-ranking plebeian family. According to Catholic tradition, St Pius I governed the Church in the middle of the 2nd century during the reigns of the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He is held to be the successor of Saint Peter. Although credited with ordering the publication of the Liber Pontificalis, compilation of that document was not started before the beginning of the 6th century and he is also said to have built one of the oldest churches in Rome, Santa Pudenziana. Saint Justin taught Christian doctrine in Rome during the pontificate of St Pius I. The heretics Valentinus, Cerdon, and Marcion visited Rome during that period, Catholic apologists see this as an argument for the primacy of the Roman See during the 2nd century. Pope Pius I is believed to have opposed the Valentinians and Gnostics under Marcion, there is some conjecture that he was a martyr in Rome, a conjecture that entered earlier editions of the Roman Breviary. Pius Is feast day is 11 July, in the Tridentine Calendar it was given the rank of Simple and celebrated as the feast of a martyr. The rank of the feast was reduced to a Commemoration in the 1955 General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII and the General Roman Calendar of 1960. List of Catholic saints List of popes This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. Lives of the Saints, For Every Day of the Year, edited by Rev. Hugo Hoever, new York, Catholic Book Publishing Co
33.
Pope Anicetus
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Pope Anicetus was the Bishop of Rome from c.157 to his death in 168. According to the Annuario Pontificio, the start of his papacy may have been 153 and his name is Greek for unconquered. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Anicetus was a Syrian from the city of Emesa, according to Irenaeus, it was during his pontificate that the aged Polycarp of Smyrna, a disciple of John the Evangelist, visited Rome to discuss the celebration of Passover with Anicetus. The two did not agree on a date, but Anicetus conceded to St. Polycarp. The controversy was to grow heated in the following centuries, the Christian historian Hegesippus also visited Rome during Anicetuss pontificate. This visit is often cited as a sign of the importance of the Roman See. Anicetus actively opposed the Gnostics and Marcionism, Liber Pontificalis records that Anicetus decreed that priests are not allowed to have long hair. According to legend, St. Anicetus suffered martyrdom during the reign of the Roman Co-Emperor Lucius Verus,16,17 and 20 April are all cited as the date of his death, but 20 April is currently celebrated as his feast day. Before 1970, the chosen was 17 April. The Liber Pontificalis states he was buried in the cemetery of Callistus, List of Catholic saints List of popes Quartodeciman Campbell, Thomas Joseph. Saints and Sinners, A History of the Popes, Yale University Press,2001, p.13. ISBN 0-300-09165-6 Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. Chronicle of the Popes, The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present, Thames & Hudson,2002, Anicetus in the Ecumenical Lexicon of Saints Collected works of Migne Patrologia Latina
34.
Pope Soter
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Pope Soter was the Bishop of Rome from c.167 to his death c. According to the Annuario Pontificio, the dates may have ranged from 162–168 to 170–177 and he was born in Fondi, Campania, today Lazio region, Italy. Soter is known for declaring that marriage was only as a sacrament blessed by a priest. His name, from Greek σωτήρ saviour, would be his baptismal name, Saint Soters feast day is celebrated on 22 April, as is that of Saint Caius. It has often been supposed that all the earliest Popes suffered martyrdom, the book detailing the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar states, There are no grounds for including Saint Soter and Saint Caius among the martyrs. The Montanist movement, which originated in Asia Minor, made its way to Rome and Gaul in the half of the 2nd century. Its nature did not diverge so much from the orthodoxy of the time for it to initially be labeled heresy. During the violent persecution at Lyon, in 177, local confessors wrote from their prison concerning the new movement to the Asiatic, the bearer of their letter to the pope was the presbyter Irenaeus, soon to become Bishop of Lyon. When the Roman church took its stand against Montanism is not precisely known. Another ancient source states that Holy Soter, Pope of the City, wrote against them a book, as did the master, against these wrote the priest Tertullian of Carthage. Who in all ways wrote well, wrote first and wrote incomparably, in this alone did reprehensibly, at Rome, the Gnostics and Marcionites continued to preach against the Catholic Church. List of Catholic saints List of popes
35.
Pope Eleutherius
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Pope Eleuterus, also known as Eleutherius, was the Bishop of Rome from c.174 to his death. According to the Liber Pontificalis, he was a Greek born in Nicopolis in Epirus and his contemporary Hegesippus wrote that he was a deacon of the Roman Church under Pope Anicetus, and remained so under Pope Soter, whom he succeeded around 174. The 6th-century recension of Liber Pontificalis known as the Felician Catalog includes additional commentary to the earlier entry on Eleuterus. Such a decree might have been issued against early continuations of Jewish dietary law and against similar laws practiced by the Gnostics and Montanists. It is also possible, however, that the editor of the attributed to Eleuterus a decree similar to another issued around the year 500 in order to give it greater authority. Another addition credited Eleuterus with receiving a letter from Lucius, King of Britain or King of the Britons, no earlier accounts of this mission have been found. It is now considered to be a pious forgery, although there remains disagreement over its original purpose. Duchesne dated the entry a little later to the pontificate of Boniface II around 530, the first Englishman to mention the story was Bede and he seems to have taken it, not from native texts or traditions, but from The Book of the Popes. The account, however, dates this baptism to AD167, in the 12th century, more details began to be added to the story. Geoffrey of Monmouths pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain goes into detail concerning Lucius. The 12th-century Book of Llandaf placed the court of Lucius in southern Wales and names his emissaries to the pope as Elfan, an echo of this legend penetrated even to Switzerland. In this way Lucius, the missionary of the Swiss district of Chur. Harnack suggests that in the document which the compiler of the Liber Pontificalis drew his information, the name found was not Britanio, now this is the name of the fortress of Edessa. The king in question is, therefore, Lucius Ælius Septimus Megas Abgar IX, of Edessa, according to the Liber Pontificalis, Pope Eleutherius died on 24 May and was buried on the Vatican Hill near the body of St. Peter. Later tradition has his body moved to the church of San Giovanni della Pigna, in 1591, his remains were again moved to the church of Santa Susanna at the request of Camilla Peretti, the sister of Pope Sixtus V. His feast is celebrated on 26 May, List of popes List of Catholic saints
36.
Pope Victor I
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Pope Victor I was a bishop of Rome, and hence a pope, in the late second century. He was from a Berber origin. The dates of his tenure are uncertain and he was the first bishop of Rome born in the Roman Province of Africa—probably in Leptis Magna. He was later considered a saint and his feast day is celebrated on 28 July as St Victor I, Pope and Martyr. The primary sources vary over the dates assigned to Victor’s episcopate, Eusebius puts his accession in the tenth year of Commodus, which is accepted by Lipsius as the correct date. Jerome’s version of the Chronicle puts his accession in the reign of Pertinax, or the first year of Septimius Severus, while the Armenian version puts it in the seventh year of Commodus. Finally, Eusebius in his History states Zephyrinus succeeded him about the year of Severus. Lipsius, considering Victor in connection with his successors, concludes that he held office between nine and ten years, and therefore gives as his dates 189–198 or 199. According to a writer quoted by Eusebius, Victor excommunicated Theodotus of Byzantium for teaching that Christ was a mere man. However, he is best known for his role in the Quartodeciman controversy, prior to his elevation, a difference in dating the celebration of the Christian Passover/Easter between Rome and the bishops of Asia Minor had been tolerated by both the Roman and Eastern churches. Despite this disapproval, the feeling was that this divergent tradition was not sufficient grounds for excommunication. List of Catholic saints List of popes Josef Rist, Pope St. Victor I CE Pope St. Victor I
37.
Pope Zephyrinus
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Pope Zephyrinus was bishop of Rome or pope from 199 to his death in 217. His predecessor was Pope Victor I, upon his death on 20 December 217, he was succeeded by his principal advisor, Pope Callixtus I. During the 17-year pontificate of Zephyrinus, the young Church endured severe persecution under the Emperor Severus until his death in the year 211, to quote Alban Butler, this holy pastor was the support and comfort of the distressed flock. According to St. Optatus, Zephyrinus also combated new heresies and apostasies, chief of which were Marcion, Praxeas, Valentine and the Montanists. Although he was not physically martyred for the faith, his suffering – both mental and spiritual – during his pontificate have earned him the title of martyr, zephyrinuss predecessor Pope Victor I had excommunicated Theodotus the Tanner for reviving a heresy that Christ only became God after his resurrection. Theodotus followers formed a separate heretical community at Rome ruled by another Theodotus, the Money Changer, natalius, who was tortured for his faith during the persecution, was persuaded by Asclepiodotus to become a bishop in their sect in exchange for a monthly stipend of 150 denarii. Natalius then reportedly experienced several visions warning him to abandon these heretics
38.
Pope Callixtus I
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Pope Callixtus I, also called Callistus I, was the bishop of Rome from c.218 to his death c. He lived during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, eusebius and the Liberian catalogue gave him five years of episcopate. He was martyred for his Christian faith and is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church, according to the tale, Callixtus jumped overboard to avoid capture but was rescued and taken back to his master. Philosophumena claims that, denounced as a Christian, Callixtus was sentenced to work in the mines of Sardinia and he was released with other Christians at the request of Hyacinthus, a eunuch presbyter, who represented Marcia, the favourite mistress of Emperor Commodus. At this time his health was so weakened that his fellow Christians sent him to Antium to recuperate, in 199, Callixtus was ordained a deacon by Pope Zephyrinus and appointed superintendent of the Christian cemetery on the Appian Way. That place, which is to this day called the Catacombs of St. Callixtus, Emperor Julian the Apostate, writing to a pagan priest, said, Christians have gained most popularity because of their charity to strangers and because of their care for the burial of their dead. In the third century, nine Bishops of Rome were interred in the Catacomb of Callixtus and these catacombs were rediscovered by the archaeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi in 1849. In 217, when Callixtus followed Zephyrinus as Bishop of Rome and he fought with success the heretics, and established the practice of absolution of all sins, including adultery and murder. As a consequence also of doctrinal differences, Hippolytus was elected as a bishop of Rome. The Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere was a titulus of which Callixtus was the patron, the 4th-century basilica of Ss Callixti et Iuliani was rebuilt in the 12th century by Pope Innocent II and rededicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. According to the apocryphal Acts of Saint Callixtus, Asterius, a priest of Rome, recovered the body of Callixtus after it had been tossed into a well and buried Callixtus body at night. Asterius was arrested for this action by the prefect Alexander and then killed by being thrown off a bridge into the Tiber River. He was buried in the cemetery of Calepodius on the Aurelian Way and his anniversary is given by the 4th-century Depositio Martirum, the Roman Catholic Church celebrates his optional memorial on 14 October. His relics were transferred in the 9th century to Santa Maria in Trastevere, List of Catholic saints List of popes Kelly, J. N. D. Bishop Callistus I. of Rome, A Martyr or a Confessor, in Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum/Journal of Ancient Christianity 18, p. 390-419
39.
Pope Urban I
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Pope Urban I was Bishop of Rome or pope from 222 to 23 May 230. He was born in Rome and succeeded Pope Callixtus I, who had been martyred and it was previously believed for centuries that Urban I was also martyred. However, recent historical discoveries now lead scholars to believe that he died of natural causes, much of Urbans life is shrouded in mystery, leading to many myths and misconceptions. Despite the lack of sources he is the first Pope whose reign can be definitely dated, two prominent sources do exist for Urbans pontificate, Eusebius history of the early Church and also an inscription in the Coemeterium Callisti which names the Pope. Urban ascended to the Chair of Saint Peter in the year of the Roman Emperor Elagabalus assassination and it is believed that Urbans pontificate was during a peaceful time for Christians in the Empire as Severus did not promote the persecution of Christianity. Urban is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church and it is believed that the schismatic Hippolytus was still leading a rival Christian Congregation in Rome, and that he published the Philosophumena, an attack on Pope Urbans predecessor Callixtus. Urban is said to have maintained the policy of Callixtus when dealing with the schismatic party. Due to the freedoms the Christian community had during Severus reign the Church in Rome grew. It had been believed that he was buried in the Coemetarium Praetextati where a tomb was inscribed with his name, however, when excavating the Catacomb of Callixtus Italian archaeologist Giovanni de Rossi uncovered the lid of a sarcophagus which suggested that Pope Urban was in fact buried there. De Rossi also found a list of martyrs and confessors who were buried at St. Callistus, de Rossi therefore concluded that the Urban buried in the Coemetarium Praetextati was another bishop and Pope Urban was located in Catacomb of St. Callistus. Therefore, it is possible that Pope Urban is indeed buried in the Coemetarium Praetextati, as no contemporary accounts of Urbans pontificate exist there have been many legends and acts attributed to him which are fictitious or difficult to ascertain the factual nature of. The legendary Acts of St. Cecilia and the Liber Pontificalis both contain information on Urban, although of doubtable accuracy, chaucer had him a character in his Second Nuns Tale in the Canterbury Tales. A story that was included in the Catholic Churchs Breviary states that Saint Urban had many converts among whom were Tiburtius and his brother Valerianus. Tradition credits Saint Urban with the miracle of toppling an idol through prayer and this event is believed to have led to Saint Urban being beaten and tortured before being sentenced to death by beheading. A further belief, now known as an invention from the century, was that Urban had ordered the making of silver liturgical vessels. Urban is found in pieces of artwork usually in one of two forms. Often he is found sitting wearing the Papal Tiara, Papal robes, otherwise Urban may be portrayed wearing Papal garb and a Bishops Mitre while holding a bible and a bunch of grapes. An image of Pope Saint Urbanus is on a 12th-century fresco at Chalivoy-Milon in the Berry Art Gallery, other less common depictions of Pope Urban are, after his beheading, with the papal tiara near him
40.
Pope Pontian
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Pope St. Pontian, was the Bishop of Rome from 21 July 230 to 28 September 235. In 235, during the persecution of Christians in the reign of the Emperor Maximinus the Thracian, Pontian was arrested and he resigned to make the election of a new pope possible. Pontians pontificate was relatively peaceful under the reign of the Emperor Severus Alexander, according to early church historian Eusebius of Caesarea, the next emperor, Maximinus, overturned his predecessors policy of tolerance towards Christianity. Both Pope Pontian and the Antipope Hippolytus of Rome were arrested and exiled to labor in the mines of Sardinia, in light of his sentence, Pontian resigned as bishop on 28 September 235, so as to allow an orderly transition in the Church of Rome. This action ended a schism that had existed in the Roman Church for eighteen years and he was beaten to death with sticks. Neither Hippolytus nor Pontian survived, reconciling with one another there before their deaths, Pope Fabian had the bodies of both Pontian and Hippolytus brought back to Rome in 236 or 237 and buried in the papal crypt in the Catacomb of Callixtus on the Appian Way. The slab covering his tomb was discovered in 1909, on it is inscribed in Greek, Ποντιανός Επίσκ. The inscription Μάρτυρ, MARTUR had been added in another hand, pontians feast day was previously celebrated on 19 November, but since 1969 both he and Hippolytus are commemorated jointly on 13 August. List of Catholic saints List of popes Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope St. Pontian
41.
Pope Anterus
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Pope Anterus was the Bishop of Rome from 21 November 235 to his death in 236. He succeeded Pope Pontian, who had been deported from Rome to Sardinia, Anterus was the son of Romulus, born in Petilia Policastro, Calabria. He is thought to have been of Greek origin, and his name may indicate that he was a freed slave and he created one bishop, for the city of Fondi. Some scholars believe he was martyred, because he ordered greater strictness in searching into the acts of the martyrs, other scholars doubt this and believe it is more likely that he died in undramatic circumstances during the persecutions of Emperor Maximinus the Thracian. He was buried in the crypt of the Catacomb of Callixtus. His ashes had been removed to the Church of Saint Sylvester in the Campus Martius and were discovered on 17 November 1595, List of popes List of Catholic saints
42.
Pope Fabian
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Fabian was the Bishop of Rome from 10 January 236 to his death in 250, succeeding Anterus. He is famous for the nature of his election, in which a dove is said to have descended on his head to mark him as the Holy Spirits unexpected choice to become the next pope. It was also probably during his reign that the schism between the two corresponding Roman congregations of these leaders was ended and he was highly esteemed by Cyprian, Novatian refers to his nobilissima memoriae, and he corresponded with Origen. One authority refers to him as Flavian, the Liber Pontificalis, a fourth-century document that survives in later copies, says that he divided Rome into diaconates and appointed secretaries to collect the records of the martyrs. He is also said, probably without basis, to have baptized the emperor Philip the Arab, more plausible is the report in the Liberian Catalogue that he sent out seven apostles to the Gauls as missionaries. He died a martyr at the beginning of the Decian persecution and is venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church, Fabians feast day is commemorated on January 20, the same as Saint Sebastian, in whose church his sepulcher lies in Rome. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Fabian was a noble Roman by birth, nothing more is known about his background. The legend concerning the circumstances of his election is preserved by the fourth-century writer Eusebius of Caesarea, after the short reign of Pope Anterus, Fabian had come to Rome from the countryside when the new papal election began. Although present, says Eusebius, Fabian was in the mind of none, while the names of several illustrious and noble churchmen were being considered over the course of thirteen days, a dove suddenly descended upon the head of Fabian. To the assembled electors, this strange sight recalled the scene of the descent of the Holy Spirit on Jesus at the time of his baptism by John the Baptist. The congregation took this as a sign that he was marked out for this dignity, during Fabians reign of 14 years, there was a lull in the storm of persecution which had resulted in the exile of both Anterus predecessor Pontian and the antipope Hippolytus. Fabian had enough influence at court to effect the return of the bodies of both of these martyrs from Sardinia, where they had died at hard labor in the mines. According to the sixth-century historian Gregory of Tours Fabian sent out the apostles to the Gauls to Christianise Gaul in A. D.245 and he also condemned Privatus, the originator of a new heresy in Africa. The Liber Pontificalis says that Fabian divided the Christian communities of Rome into seven districts, Eusebius adds that he appointed seven subdeacons to help collect the acta of the martyrs—the reports of the court proceedings on the occasion of their trials. There is also a tradition that he instituted the four minor orders, Porter, lector, exorcist. However most scholars believe these offices evolved gradually and were instituted at a later date. With the advent of Emperor Decius, the Roman governments tolerant policy toward Christianity temporarily ended, Decius ordered leading Christians to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome by offering incense to the cult images of deities which represented the Roman state. This was unacceptable to many Christians, who, while no longer holding most of the laws of the Old Testament to apply to them, took the commandment against idolatry with deadly seriousness
43.
Pope Cornelius
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Pope Cornelius was the Bishop of Rome from 6 or 13 March 251 to his martyrdom in 253. Many Christians refused and were martyred, while others partook in the sacrifices in order to save their own lives, two schools of thought arose after the persecution. Under this philosophy, the way to re-enter the church would be re-baptism. The opposing side, including Cornelius and Cyprian the Bishop of Carthage, instead they thought that the sinners should only need to show contrition and true repentance to be welcomed back into the church. In hopes that Christianity would fade away, Decius prevented the election of a new pope, however, soon afterwards Decius was forced to leave the area to fight the invading Goths and while he was away the elections for pope were held. In the 14 months without a pope, the leading candidate, Novatian believed that he would be elected, however Cornelius was unwillingly elected the twenty-first pope in March 251. Novatian was very angry not only that he was not elected pope and he thus proclaimed himself the antipope to Cornelius, driving a schism through the church. Corneliuss next action was to convene a synod of 60 bishops to restate himself as the rightful pope, also addressed in the synod was that Christians who stopped practising during Emperor Deciuss persecution could receive communion only after doing penance. The verdict of the synod was sent to the Christian bishops, most notably the bishop of Antioch, the letters that Cornelius sent to surrounding bishops provide knowledge of the size of the church during the period. His letters also inform that Cornelius had a staff of over 150 clergy members, from these numbers, it has been estimated that there were at least 50,000 Christians in Rome during the papacy of Pope Cornelius. In June 251, Decius was killed in battle with the Goths, persecution began again in June 252, and Pope Cornelius was exiled to Centumcellae, Italy, where he died in June 253. The Liberian catalogue lists his death as being from the hardships of banishment, however, later sources claim he was beheaded. Cornelius is not buried in the chapel of the popes, but in a catacomb. This suggests that Cornelius did not come from a wealthy family. A letter from Cornelius while in exile mentions an office of exorcist in the church for the first time, canon law has since then required each diocese to have an exorcist. St. Cornelius is not mentioned much in most texts, when he is referenced, it seems to be in conjunction with his anti-pope Novatian, who eventually founded his own church with his own bishops, his predecessor St Fabian, or his successor St. Lucius. His papacy was short, reigning two years, three months, and ten days, and little was probably circulated at the due to the persecution in Christian centers. Over time, St. Cornelius seems to have been overlooked and passed over for other great Catholic popes whose papacies lasted longer, had political power
44.
Pope Lucius I
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Pope Lucius I was the Bishop of Rome from 25 June 253 to his death in 254. He was banished soon after his consecration, but gained permission to return and he was mistakenly classified as a martyr in the persecution of Valerian, which did not begin until after Lucius death. A Danish legend held that the demons of Isefjord feared nothing but the skull of Lucius I, and when this skull was taken to Denmark, it brought peace, and Lucius was declared patron of Zealand. The skull was preserved as a national relic until carbon dating proved that it did not date back as far as his time. St. Lucius was born in Rome at a date, nothing is known about his family except his fathers name. He was elected probably on 25 June 253 and died on 5 March 254 and he is praised in several letters of St. Cyprian for condemning the Novationists for their refusal to readmit to communion Christians who repented for having lapsed under persecution. For his faith in Christ he suffered exile and acted as a confessor of the faith, with moderation and prudence. His feast did not appear in the Tridentine Calendar of Pope Saint Pius V, in 1602, it was inserted under the date of 4 March, into the General Roman Calendar. With the insertion in 1621 on the date of the feast of Saint Casimir. In spite of what is stated in the Liber Pontificalis. The persecution of Valerian in which he was said to have been martyred is known to have started later than March 254 and his tombstone is still extant in the catacomb of Callixtus. His relics were brought to the church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, along with the relics of St. Cecilia. His head is preserved in a reliquary in St. Ansgars Cathedral in Copenhagen and this relic was brought to Roskilde around the year 1100, after St. Lucius had been declared patron of the Danish region Zealand. The skull remained in Roskilde Cathedral until 1908, when it was moved to Saint Ansgars Cathedral while the property of Copenhagens National museum, Pope St. Lucius head is among the few relics to have survived the Reformation in Denmark. However the Norwegian researcher Øystein Morten started wondering if St. Lucius skull might have mixed up with the skull of the Norwegian king Sigurd Jorsalfar. This skull had also kept in the Danish National Museum collection in the 1800s until it was donated to Oslo University in 1867. So the skull in question never belonged to St. Lucius, the results also rule out that it may have belonged to the crusader king Sigurd. List of Catholic saints List of popes This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Pope Stephen I
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Pope Stephen I was the bishop of Rome from 12 May 254 to his death in 257. Of Roman birth but of Greek ancestry, he became bishop after serving as archdeacon of Pope Lucius I, the controversy arose in the context of a broad pastoral problem. During the Decian persecution some Christians had purchased certificates attesting that they had made the sacrifices to the Roman gods. Others had denied they were Christians while yet others had in fact taken part in pagan sacrifices and these people were two called lapsi. The question arose that if they later repented, could they be readmitted to communion with the church, stephens view eventually won broad acceptance in the Latin Church. However, in the Eastern Churches this issue is still debated and he is also mentioned as having insisted on the restoration of the bishops of León and Astorga, who had been deposed for unfaithfulness during the persecution but afterwards had repented. As late as the 18th century, what was said to be the chair was preserved, St Stephen Is feast day in the Roman Catholic Church is celebrated on 2 August. In 1839, when the new feast of St Alphonsus Mary de Liguori was assigned to 2 August, Pope Saint Stephen I is the patron of Hvar and of Modigliana Cathedral. List of Catholic saints List of popes Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope St. Stephen I, St. Stephen, Pope and Martyr, Butlers Lives of the Saints His writings
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope Leo V". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
