1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
3.
Andhra Pradesh
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Andhra Pradesh is one of the 29 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of the country. The state is the eighth largest state in India covering an area of 162,968 km2, as per 2011 Census of India, the state is tenth largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants. On 2 June 2014, the portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana. In accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act,2014, Hyderabad will remain the de jure capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of not exceeding 10 years. The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati, which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA, the Gross State Domestic Product of the state in the 2016–2017 financial year at current prices stood at ₹6,800.3 billion. The state has a coastline of 974 km with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km2 territorial waters, the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat. It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west, Chhattisgarh in the north, Odisha in the north-east, Karnataka in the west, Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east. A small enclave of 30 km2 of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh is composed of two regions, Coastal Andhra, located along the Bay of Bengal, and Rayalaseema, in the inland southwestern part of the state. These two regions comprise 13 districts, with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015, a 30% growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year. The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the worlds most visited religious sites, a tribe named Andhra has been mentioned in the Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana. According to Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, the Andhras left north India, archaeological evidence from places such as Amaravati, Dharanikota and Vaddamanu suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan Empire. Amaravati might have been a centre for the Mauryan rule. After the death of emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE, the Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan region from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas have been mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jatiya and Andhra-bhrtya in the Puranic literature, Dharanikota along with Amaravathi was the capital of the later Satavahanas. Amaravathi became a trade and pilgrimage centre during the Satavahana rule. According to the Buddhist tradition, Nagarjuna lived here, possibly in second, Andhra Ikshvakus were one of the earliest recorded ruling dynasties of the Guntur-Krishna regions of Andhra Pradesh. They ruled the eastern Andhra country along the Krishna river during the half of the second century CE. Puranas called Andhra Ikshvakus Shri Parvatiya Andhras, archaeological evidence has suggested that the Andhra Ikshvakus immediately succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna river valley
4.
Chittoor district
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Chittoor district, is a district in Rayalaseema region of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The district headquarters is located at Chittoor and it has a population of 4,170,468 according to 2011 census of India. Chittoor district has many temples including Tirupati, Kanipakam and Sri Kalahasti temples. It lies in the Poini river valley of southernmost Andhra Pradesh along the Chennai – Bangalore section Chennai-Mumbai highway and it is a major market centre for mangoes, grains, sugarcane, and peanuts. The district derived its name from its headquarters Chittoor, later in the Apri111960319 villages of chittoor district were added into the then Kanchipuram districtand Thiruvallur districts of Tamil Nadu through the demands of Ma. Chandragiri, an area of Tirupati served as fourth capital of Vijayanagar empire. Chittoor is a part of Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, the district occupies an area of 15,359 square kilometres. Chittoor district lies extreme south of the Andhra Pradesh state approximately between 12°37′ - 14°8′ north latitudes and 78°3′ - 79°55′ east longitudes, thirty percent of the total land area is covered by forests in the district. Mango and tamarind groves surround the city of Chittoor, and cattle are raised in the district, the important rivers in the district are Ponnai and Swarnamukhi rivers which originate in eastern ghats. Other rivers include Kusasthali, Beema, Bahuda, Pincha, Kalyani, Araniyar, none of the rivers are perennial. This is because of the altitude of the western parts compared to the eastern parts. The summer temperatures touches 46 °C in the eastern parts whereas in the parts it ranges around 36° to 38 °C. Similarly the winter temperatures of the parts are relatively low ranging around 12 °C to 14 °C. Chittoor district receives a rainfall of 918.1 mm. The South West Monsoon and North East Monsoon are the sources of rainfall for the district. On average the district receives 438.0 mm of rainfall through the South West Monsoon and 396.0 mm from North East Monsoon, the rainfall received by the district in the years 2002 and 2003 are 984.2 mm and 934 mm respectively. According to the 2011 census Chittoor district has a population of 4,170,468 and this gives it a ranking of 47th in India and 6th in its state. The district has a density of 275 inhabitants per square kilometre
5.
Tirupati
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Tirupati is a city in Chittoor district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a corporation and the headquarters of Tirupati mandal. As of 2011 census, it had a population of 374,260 and it is the seventh most urban agglomerated city in the state, with a population of 459,985. Tirupati is also home to educational institutions and universities. For the year 2012-13, Indias Ministry of Tourism named Tirupati as the Best Heritage City, Tirupati has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Smart Cities Mission by Government of India. As per the book Symposium written by Dr. Jagannatha Rao, tri is a Sanskrit word referring to Lord of Tripathy of the sacred hill. In Dravidian translation, Tiru means sacred and also referred to as Goddess Lakshmi, Tirumala According to Varaha Purana, during Treta Yugam, Lord Sri Rama resided here along with Sita Devi and Lakshmana on his return from Lankapuri. The town was a centre of Vaishnavism around the 5th century A. D. during which it was praised by Alvars. The temple rites were formalised by the Vaishnavite saint Ramanujacharya in the 11th century AD, Tirupati survived the Muslim and British invasions. During the early 1300s Muslim invasion of South India, the deity of Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, the temple was built and upgraded in parts by various kingdoms. During the 15th century, Sri Tallapaka Annamacharya sung many songs in praise of the town in Telugu. He compared it to be divine, including the rocks, streams, trees, animals, with the growing importance of Upper Tirupati, a village formed at the present day Kapilatheertham Road area and was named kotturu. It was later shifted to the vicinity of Govindarajaswamy Temple which was consecrated around the year 1130 CE, later the village grew into its present-day form around Govindaraja Swamy Temple which is now the heart of the city. It has now gained a lot of popularity as a tourism place, in 1932, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple was handed over to Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams by the TTD Act of 1932. The fourth World Telugu Conference, a conference for furtherance of Telugu language, was conducted at Tirupati during December,2012 for three days. Tirupati is located at 13. 65°N79. 42°E /13.65,79.42 in the Chittoor District of South Indian State of Andhra Pradesh and it lies at the foot of Seshachalam Hills of Eastern Ghats which were formed during Precambrian era. One of its suburbsTirumala, which is the home to Sri Venkateswara Temple, is located within the hills. Tirupati Urban agglomeration includes Tirupati and its suburbs Tirumala, Tiruchanur, Chandragiri, Tirupati is surrounded by Srikalahasti towards the East, Puttur towards the South, Poothalapattu towards the west and the Seshachalam hills towards the North
6.
Garbhagriha
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Garbhagriha or Garbha gruha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides the murti of the primary deity of the temple. Literally the word means womb chamber, from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb, only priests are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain. The Garbhagriha is located in a Hindu temple which is worshipped at by Hindus, in temples with a spire or vimana, this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru, the garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection, generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotees mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the garbha grha may be restricted to priests who perform the services there, the inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. More often garbhagriha is square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium, in the centre is placed the image of the deity. But sometimes, for the temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular, for example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi. The present structure of most of these temples is a vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha-mandapa. George Michell, Monuments of India Temple architecture Parts of a North Indian Temple
7.
Venkateswara
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Venkateswara, also known as Śrīnivāsa, Bālājī, Veṅkaṭā, Venkata Ramana and Veṅkaṭācalapati, Govindha is a form of the Hindu god Vishnu. Venkateswaras most prominent shrine is the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple located in Tirupathi, Venkateswara literally means Lord of Venkata. The word is a combination of the words Venkata and isvara, according to the Brahmanda and Bhavishyottara Puranas, the word Venkata means destroyer of sins, deriving from the Sanskrit words vem and kata. Thirumalai finds mention in Sangam literature, where Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, known as thinais, based on the mood, the season, tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity and mentions Thirumaal as presiding in Mullai region- the forests. Tirumala hill is located in the town of Tirumala, where Tirumala Venkateswara Temple is located on this hill. The ancient Tamil texts describe the Venkata as the northernmost part of Tamilakam, according to the Tirumala sthala Purana, the legend of Venkateswara is as follows, Once, sages headed by Kashyapa began to perform a fire sacrifice on the banks of the Ganges. Sage Narada visited them and asked them why they were performing the sacrifice, unable to answer, the sages approached Sage Bhrigu to determine the worthy patron god among the Trimurti, the Hindu trinune gods. Bhrigu first went to Satyaloka, the abode of the god Brahma, at Satyaloka, he found Brahma reciting the four Vedas in praise of Vishnu, with each of his four heads, and attended upon by his consort Saraswati. Brahma did not notice Bhrigu offering obeisance, the angry sage cursed Brahma and left Satyaloka. He then reached Kailash, the abode of the god Shiva, Bhrigu found Shiva deep in meditation with his wife Parvati by his side. Feeling ignored, Bhrigu cursed Shiva too and left for Vaikuntha, at Vaikuntha, Vishnu was resting on the serpent Shesha with his consort Lakshmi in service at his feet. Bhrigu was infuriated and kicked Vishnu on his chest, the place of Lakshmi in Vishnus body, to pacify the sage, Vishnu held his legs and pressed them gently. He squeezed the extra eye in Bhrigus foot - the symbol of his egotism, the sage realized his folly and apologized to Vishnu. There upon, Bhrigu concluded that Vishnu was supreme of the Trimurti, Lakshmi was angered by Vishnus action of placating Bhrigu who had kicked her place in Vishnus body and thus insulted her. She abandoned her heavenly abode and resided in Karavirapur on earth, taking pity on Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva assumed the forms of a cow and its calf to serve him. Lakshmi in the form of a cowherdess sold the cow and calf to the king of the Chola country, the Chola king sent them to graze on the Venkata Hill along with his herd of cattle. Discovering Vishnu on the ant-hill, the cow provided its milk, meanwhile, at the palace, the cow was not yielding any milk, for which the Chola queen chastised the royal cow herder severely. To find out the cause of lack of milk, the cow herder followed the cow secretly, angered by the conduct of the cow, the cow herder flung his axe to harm the cow
8.
Alamelu
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Alamelu also known as Alamelu manga and Padmavati, is a Hindu devi. Believed to be a form of Lakshmi, the Hindu devi of wealth and good fortune, the name Padmavati is Sanskrit for she who emerged from lotus. The most prominent shrine of Padmavathi is Sri Padmavathi Ammavari Temple situated at Tiruchanur, tradition dictates that every pilgrim to Tirupati must offer obeisance at this temple after visiting the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple. Alamelu Manga is a deity in Hinduism worshipped as an aspect of Goddess Lakshmi. Sri Alamelumanga is the figure for staunch Sri Vaishnavites in particular. Nammalwar in his Thiruvaymozhi says agalakillEn iRaiyum enRu * alarmEl mangkai uRai mArbA, ** nigaril amarar munik kaNangkaL virumbum * thiruvEngkadaththAnE. * pugal onRillA adiyEn * un adik kIzh amarndhu pugundhEnE, the sentence agalakillEn iRaiyum enRu * alarmEl mangkai uRai mArbA. which translates as Goddess Laxsmi will not away from your heart, always stay with you. Poet Sri Annamacharya, was a devotee of Sri Alamelu Mangamma. Most of his output is either inspired or centers around the deity. Many of the most famous and popular Kritis of Annamacharya personify her benevolence and grace, the name Alamelu Manga or Alaru+melu+Manga is a old Telugu term which translates conjoint of the words Alaru and Melu, Manga means lady in pure Telugu. In Alamelu manga is the goddess Lakshmi, the name Alamelu has traditionally been a popular one in South India. Apart from that name, several variations are popular
9.
Abhayamudra
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The Abhayamudrā gesture of fearlessness is a mudrā that is the gesture of reassurance and safety, which dispels fear and accords divine protection and bliss in many Indian religions. The right hand is held upright, and the palm is facing outwards and this is one of the earliest mudrās found depicted on a number of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain images. The abhayamudrā represents protection, peace, benevolence and the dispelling of fear, the Hindu god Nataraja is depicted with the second right hand making the Abhaya Mudra, bestowing protection from both evil and ignorance to those who follow the righteousness of dharma. In Thailand and Laos, this mudra is associated with the walking Buddha, the abhayamudrā was probably used before the onset of Buddhism as a symbol of good intentions proposing friendship when approaching strangers. In the art of Gandhara, it is present when showing the action of preaching and it was also used in China during the Northern Wei and Sui eras of the 4th and 7th centuries. The gesture was used by Gautama Buddha when attacked by an elephant, subduing it as shown in several frescos, in Mahayana Buddhism, deities often paired it with another mudrā using the other hand. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend
10.
Vaikuntha Ekadashi
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Vaikuntha Ekadashi is the Shukla paksha Ekadashi that occurs during the month in the Hindu calendar. Vaishnavism culture believes that ‘Vaikuntha Dwaram’ or ‘the gate to Lords Inner Sanctum’ is opened on this day, the Margashirsha shukla paksha ekadashi in lunar calendar is known as a Mokshada Ekadashi. Special prayers, yagnas, discourses and speeches are arranged at Vishnu temples across the world on this auspicious day, according to the Vishnu Purana, fasting on Vaikuntha Ekadashi is equivalent to fasting on the remaining 23 Ekadashis of the year. However, according to Vaishnava tradition fasting is mandatory on all Ekadashi of both Shukla paksha and Krishna paksha, fasting on Ekadashi is considered holier than any other religious observation. Vishnu opened the gate of Vaikuntham for two demons in spite of their being against him and they also asked for the boon that whoever listens to their story and sees the image of Vishnu coming out of the door, called Vaikunth Dwar, will reach Vaikunth as well. Temples all over India make a kind of structure on this day for devotees to walk through. According to Padma Purana, the energy of Vishnu slayed the demon Muran. This happened on the day of lunar month during the suns journey in the Dhanurrashi or Dhanu Rashi. Impressed by the act, Vishnu names her as Ekadashi and gives her the boon that those who worship Ekadashi on the day of her victory over Muran would reach Vaikunth, Vaikuntha Ekadashi is one of the important and auspicious days for Hindus. It occurs in the Hindu calendar, in the month of Margashirsha, when observed, it bestows liberation from the cycle of birth and death. The significance of Vaikuntha Ekadashi is mentioned in the Padma Purana, the legend says that the Devas were unable to bear the tyranny of Muran, a demon, approached Shiva, who directed them to Vishnu. A battle ensued between Vishnu and the demon and Vishnu realized that a new weapon was needed to slay Muran, in order to take rest and create a new weapon, Vishnu retired to a cave named for the goddess Haimavati in Bhadrikashrama. When Muran tried to slay Vishnu, who was sleeping, the power that emerged from Vishnu burned Muran to ashes with her glance. Vishnu, who was pleased, named the goddess Ekadashi and asked her to claim a boon, Ekadashi, instead, beseeched Vishnu that people who observed a fast on that day should be redeemed of their sins. Vishnu thus declared that people who observed a fast on that day and worshipped Ekadashi, thus came into being the first Ekadashi, which was a Dhanurmasa Shukla Paksha Ekadashi. The demon Muran stands for the Rajasic and Tamasic qualities in people, attributed to lust, passion, inertia, when one conquers these tendencies, one attains the purity of mind, Satva, indispensable for attaining of moksha, the liberation or realization of the self. For realizing the self as pure awareness, purity of mind is required, fasting helps to keep at bay tendencies which could be triggered by intake of certain foods. Keeping vigil in the night is symbolic of awareness, or being watchful of the contents of the mind, when the mind is looked at, it becomes still
