1.
Bayer
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Bayer AG, German pronunciation, ) is a German multinational chemical, pharmaceutical and life sciences company. It is headquartered in Leverkusen, where its sign is a landmark. Bayers primary areas of business include human and veterinary pharmaceuticals, consumer products, agricultural chemicals and biotechnology products. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the companys motto is science for a better life. Bayers first and best known product was aspirin, there is a dispute about what scientist at Bayer made the most important contributions to it, Bayer trademarked the name heroin for the drug diacetylmorphine and marketed it as a cough suppressant and non-addictive substitute for morphine from 1898 to 1910. Bayer also introduced phenobarbital, prontosil, the first widely used antibiotic and the subject of the 1939 Nobel Prize in Medicine, the antibiotic Cipro, in 2014 Bayer bought MSDs consumer business, with brands such as Claritin, Coppertone and Dr. Scholls. Its BayerCropscience business develops genetically modified crops and pesticides and its materials science division makes polymers like polyurethanes and polycarbonate. Bayer was founded in Barmen in 1863 and it was part of IG Farben, the worlds largest chemical and pharmaceutical company, from 1925 to 1952, and then again became an independent company. The company played a key role in the Wirtschaftswunder during the early Cold War, Bayer acquired Schering in 2006 and announced its acquisition of Monsanto in 2016, the merger is still pending approval. Bayer AG was founded in Barmen, Germany in 1863 by Friedrich Bayer and his partner, the companys corporate logo, the Bayer cross, was introduced in 1904. It consists of the horizontal word BAYER crossed with the vertical word BAYER, an illuminated version of the logo is a landmark in Leverkusen, the location of Bayer AGs headquarters. Bayers first major product was acetylsalicylic acid, a modification of salicylic acid or salicin and it is now widely used in the US, UK, and France for all brands of the drug. However, it is still a trademark of Bayer in more than 80 other countries, including Canada, Mexico, Germany. As of 2011, approximately 40 thousand tons of aspirin are produced each year and 10 to 20 billion tablets are taken in the U. S. alone each year for prevention of cardiovascular events. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a health system. There has been controversy over the roles played by Bayer scientists in the development of aspirin, Arthur Eichengrün, a Bayer chemist, claimed to be the first to discover an aspirin formulation which did not have the unpleasant side effects of nausea and gastric pain. Eichengrün also claimed that he invented the name aspirin and was the first person to use the new formulation to test its safety, Bayer contends that aspirin was discovered by Felix Hoffmann to alleviate the sufferings of his father, who had arthritis. Various sources support the conflicting claims, most mainstream historians attribute the invention of aspirin to Felix Hoffmann and/or Arthur Eichengrün
2.
Nitrous oxide
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Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous, is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula N 2O. At room temperature, it is a colorless, odorless non-flammable gas, at elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry and its name laughing gas is due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants, Nitrous oxide occurs in small amounts in the atmosphere, but has been found recently to be a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with impact comparable to that of CFCs. It is estimated that 30% of the N 2O in the atmosphere is the result of human activity, Nitrous oxide can be used as an oxidizer in a rocket motor. This has the advantages over other oxidisers in that it is not only non-toxic, as a secondary benefit it can be readily decomposed to form breathing air. Its high density and low storage pressure enable it to be competitive with stored high-pressure gas systems. In a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard suggested nitrous oxide, Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several hybrid rocket designs. The combination of nitrous oxide with hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene fuel has been used by SpaceShipOne and it is also notably used in amateur and high power rocketry with various plastics as the fuel. Nitrous oxide can also be used in a monopropellant rocket, in the presence of a heated catalyst, N 2O will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen, at a temperature of approximately 1,070 °F. Because of the heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary as thermal autodecomposition becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this can provide a monopropellant specific impulse of as much as 180 s, while noticeably less than the Isp available from hydrazine thrusters, the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an option worth investigating. Nitrous oxide is said to deflagrate somewhere around 600 °C at a pressure of 21 atmospheres, at 600 psi for example, the required ignition energy is only 6 joules, whereas N 2O at 130 psi a 2500-joule ignition energy input is insufficient. In vehicle racing, nitrous oxide allows the engine to burn more fuel by providing more oxygen than air alone, the gas itself is not flammable at a low pressure/temperature, but it delivers more oxygen than atmospheric air by breaking down at elevated temperatures. Therefore, it is mixed with another fuel that is easier to deflagrate. Nitrous oxide is a strong oxidant roughly equivalent to hydrogen peroxide, Nitrous oxide is sometimes injected into the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject right before the cylinder to increase power. The technique was used during World War II by Luftwaffe aircraft with the GM-1 system to boost the output of aircraft engines. Originally meant to provide the Luftwaffe standard aircraft with superior high-altitude performance, accordingly, it was only used by specialized planes like high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft, high-speed bombers, and high-altitude interceptor aircraft
3.
Xenon
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Xenon is a chemical element with symbol Xe and atomic number 54. It is a colorless, dense, odorless gas found in the Earths atmosphere in trace amounts. Although generally unreactive, xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate, Xenon is used in flash lamps and arc lamps, and as a general anesthetic. The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer molecule as the lasing medium. Xenon is used to search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles, naturally occurring xenon consists of eight stable isotopes. More than 40 unstable xenon isotopes undergo radioactive decay, and the ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System. Radioactive xenon-135 is produced by beta decay from iodine-135, and is the most significant neutron absorber in nuclear reactors, Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers in September 1898, shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon. They found xenon in the left over from evaporating components of liquid air. Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον, neuter singular form of ξένος, meaning foreign, strange, in 1902, Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earths atmosphere to be one part in 20 million. During the 1930s, American engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high speed photography and this led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp in which light is generated by passing brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas. In 1934, Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method, in 1939, American physician Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of drunkenness in deep-sea divers. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, from his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic. Xenon was first used as an anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen, who used it with two patients. Xenon and the noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert. Since O2 and xenon have almost the same first ionization potential, on March 23,1962, he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate. Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe+−, but later revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon-containing salts. By 1971, more than 80 xenon compounds were known, in November 1989, IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms
4.
Opioid
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Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. Opioids are most often used medically to relieve pain, and by people addicted to opioids, opioids include opiates, an older term that refers to such drugs derived from opium, including morphine itself. Other opioids are semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs such as hydrocodone, oxycodone and fentanyl, antagonist drugs such as naloxone, the terms opiate and narcotic are sometimes encountered as synonyms for opioid. Opiate is properly limited to the alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy although some include semi-synthetic derivatives. In some jurisdictions all controlled drugs are classified as narcotics. The term can have pejorative connotations and its use is discouraged where that is the case. Primarily used for relief, including anesthesia they are also used to suppress cough, suppress diarrhea, treat addiction, reverse opioid overdose. Extremely strong opioids are approved only for use such as immobilizing large mammals. Opioids act by binding to receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system. These receptors mediate both the psychoactive and the effects of opioids. The side effects of opioids may include itchiness, sedation, nausea, respiratory depression, constipation, Tolerance and dependence will develop with continuous use, requiring increasing doses and leading to a withdrawal syndrome upon abrupt discontinuation. The euphoria attracts recreational use, and frequent, escalating recreational use of opioids typically results in addiction, accidental overdose or concurrent use with other depressant drugs commonly results in death from respiratory depression. Because of opioid drugs reputation for addiction and fatal overdose, most are controlled substances, illicit production, smuggling, and addiction to opioids prompted treaties, laws and policing which have realized limited success. In 2013 between 28 and 38 million people used opioids illicitly, in 2011 an estimated 4 million people in the United States used opioids recreationally or were dependent on them. Current increased rates of use and addiction are attributed to over-prescription of opioid medications. Conversely, fears about over-prescribing, exaggerated side effects and addiction from opioids are similarly blamed for under-treatment of pain, the term opioid originated in the 1950s. It combines opium + -oid meaning opiate-like, by the late 1960s, research found that opiate effects are mediated by activation of specific molecular receptors in the nervous system, which were termed opioid receptors. The definition of opioid was later refined to refer to substances that have activities that are mediated by the activation of opioid receptors
5.
Fentanyl
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Fentanyl is a potent, synthetic opioid pain medication with a rapid onset and short duration of action. It is a potent agonist at receptors in the brain. Fentanyl was first made by Paul Janssen in 1960, following the inception of pethidine several years earlier. Janssen developed fentanyl by assaying analogues of the related drug pethidine for opioid activity. The widespread use of fentanyl triggered the production of fentanyl citrate, following this, many other fentanyl analogues were developed and introduced into medical practice, including sufentanil, alfentanil, remifentanil, and lofentanil. As of 2012, fentanyl was the most widely used synthetic opioid in medicine, in 2013,1700 kilograms were used globally. Fentanyl is also used as a drug, leading to thousands of overdose deaths from 2000 to 2017. Deaths have also resulted from improper medical use, intravenous fentanyl is often used for anesthesia and analgesia. During anaesthesia it is used along with a hypnotic agent like propofol. Fentanyl may be included in a solution along with local anesthetic for neuraxial administration and it is also administered in combination with a benzodiazepine, such as midazolam, to produce sedation for procedures such as endoscopy, cardiac catheterization, and oral surgery. It is often used in the management of pain including cancer pain. Fentanyl transdermal patches are used in pain management. The patches work by slowly releasing fentanyl through the skin into the bloodstream over 48 to 72 hours, dosage is based on the size of the patch, since, in general, the transdermal absorption rate is constant at a constant skin temperature. Rate of absorption is dependent on a number of factors, body temperature, skin type, amount of body fat, and placement of the patch can have major effects. The different delivery systems used by different makers will also affect rates of absorption. Under normal circumstances, the patch will reach its full effect within 12 to 24 hours, thus and it is unclear if fentanyl gives pain relief to people with neuropathic pain. People with moderate to severe renal failure, troublesome side effects of oral morphine, hydromorphone, or oxycodone. Care must be taken to guard against the application of heat sources which in certain circumstances can trigger the release of too much medication
6.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
7.
Halothane
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Halothane, sold under the brandname Fluothane among others, is a general anesthetic. It can be used to start or maintain anaesthesia, one of its benefits is that it does not increase the production of saliva which can be particularly useful in those who are difficult to intubate. Side effects include an irregular heartbeat, decreased effort to breathe and it should not be used in people with porphyria or a history of malignant hyperthermia either in themselves or their family members. It is unclear whether use during pregnancy is harmful to the baby, halothane is a chiral molecule that is used as a racemic mixture. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, as of 2014 the wholesale cost in the developing world is about 22 to 52 USD for a 250 ml bottle. Its use in developed countries has been replaced by newer agents such as sevoflurane. It is no commercially available in the United States. It is a potent anesthetic with a MAC of 0. 74% and its blood/gas partition coefficient of 2.4 makes it an agent with moderate induction and recovery time. It is not a good analgesic and its muscle relaxation effect is moderate, in rare cases, repeated exposure to halothane in adults was noted to result in severe liver injury. This occurred in one in 10,000 exposures. The resulting syndrome was referred to as halothane hepatitis, and is thought to result from the metabolism of halothane to trifluoroacetic acid via oxidative reactions in the liver, about 20% of inhaled halothane is metabolized by the liver and these products are excreted in the urine. The hepatitis syndrome had a mortality rate of 30% to 70%, concern for hepatitis resulted in a dramatic reduction in the use of halothane for adults and it was replaced in the 1980s by enflurane and isoflurane. By 2005, the most common volatile anesthetics used were isoflurane, sevoflurane, however, by 2000, sevoflurane, excellent for inhalation induction, had largely replaced the use of halothane in children. Halothane sensitises the heart to catecholamines, so it is liable to cause cardiac arrhythmias, occasionally fatal and this seems to be especially problematic in dental anaesthesia. Like all the potent inhalational agents, it is a potent trigger for malignant hyperthermia. Similarly, in common with the potent inhalational agents, it relaxes uterine smooth muscle. People can be exposed to halothane in the workplace by breathing it in as waste gas, skin contact, eye contact. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 2 ppm over 60 minutes
8.
Chloroform
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Chloroform, or trichloromethane, is an organic compound with formula CHCl3. It is a colorless, sweet-smelling, dense liquid that is produced on a scale as a precursor to PTFE. It is also a precursor to various refrigerants and it is one of the four chloromethanes and a trihalomethane. The molecule adopts tetrahedral molecular geometry with C3v symmetry, the total global flux of chloroform through the environment is approximately 7005660000000000000♠660000 tonnes per year, and about 90% of emissions are natural in origin. Many kinds of seaweed produce chloroform, and fungi are believed to produce chloroform in soil and its half-life in air ranges from 55 to 620 days. Biodegradation in water and soil is slow, chloroform does not significantly bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms. Justus von Liebig carried out the cleavage of chloral. Eugène Soubeiran obtained the compound by the action of chlorine bleach on both ethanol and acetone, in 1834, French chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas determined chloroforms empirical formula and named it. In 1835, Dumas prepared the substance by the cleavage of trichloroacetic acid. Regnault prepared chloroform by chlorination of chloromethane, in 1842 Dr Robert Mortimer Glover in London discovered the anaesthetic qualities of chloroform on laboratory animals. In 1847, Scottish obstetrician James Y. Simpson was the first to demonstrate the properties of chloroform on humans. By the 1850s, chloroform was being produced on a basis by using the Liebig procedure. Today, chloroform — along with dichloromethane — is prepared exclusively, in industry, chloroform is produced by heating a mixture of chlorine and either chloromethane or methane. CDCl3 is a solvent used in NMR spectroscopy. Deuterochloroform is produced by the reaction, the reaction of acetone with sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite. The haloform process is now obsolete for the production of ordinary chloroform, deuterochloroform can also be prepared by the reaction of sodium deuteroxide with chloral hydrate, or from ordinary chloroform. The haloform reaction can also occur inadvertently in domestic settings, bleaching with hypochlorite generates halogenated compounds in side reactions, chloroform is the main byproduct. Chlorodifluoromethane is then converted into tetrafluoroethylene, the precursor to Teflon
9.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list
10.
Phenylacetic acid
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Phenylacetic acid, also known by various synonyms, is an organic compound containing a phenyl functional group and a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a solid with a disagreeable odor. Endogeneously, it is a catabolite of phenylalanine, as a commercial chemical, because it can be used in the illicit production of phenylacetone, it is subject to controls in countries including the United States and China. Synonyms include α-toluic acid, benzeneacetic acid, alpha tolylic acid, 2-phenylacetic acid, Phenylacetic acid has been found to be an active auxin, found predominantly in fruits. However, its effect is weaker than the effect of the basic auxin molecule indole-3-acetic acid. In addition the molecule is produced by the metapleural gland of most ant species. This compound may be prepared by the hydrolysis of benzyl cyanide, Phenylacetic acid is used in some perfumes and it is also used in penicillin G production and diclofenac production. This compound is then secreted by the patients body and its also used in the illicit production of phenylacetone, which is used in the manufacture of methamphetamine
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. PMID 4148526.
