1.
Yuba City, California
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Yuba City is a city in Northern California and the county seat of Sutter County, California, United States. The population was 64,925 at the 2010 census, Yuba City is the principal city of the Yuba City Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Sutter County and Yuba County. The metro areas population is 164,138 and it is the 21st largest metropolitan area in California ranked behind Redding and Chico. Its metropolitan statistical area is part of the Greater Sacramento CSA, the unemployment rate in the Yuba City MSA was 14.9 percent in September 2012, down from a revised 15.8 percent in August 2012, and below the year-ago estimate of 16.4 percent. This compares with an unemployment rate of 9.7 percent for California and 7.6 percent for the nation during the same period. The unemployment rate was 14.0 percent in Sutter County, the Maidu people were settled in the region when they were first encountered by Spanish and Mexican scouting expeditions in the early 18th century. One version of the origin of the name Yuba is that one of these expeditions, wild grapes were seen growing by a river, and so it was named Uba. At the same time, another town was developing on the bank of the Feather River. By 1852, Yuba City, was a landing, had one hotel, a grocery store. Yuba City was chosen as county seat for Sutter County, CA in 1854, the same year, however, voters decided that Nicolaus would be a better location, and the county seat was moved there. County voters returned to their first choice of Yuba City two years later, in 1856, and it has remained the county seat since, Yuba City saw its first major influx of population after World War II, pushing residential areas west and south from the citys original center. Orchards were turned into areas as new homes were built for people migrating to the city. In December 1955, a series of storms dropped torrential rain throughout northern California, the deluge caused all the rivers in the region to overflow their banks and to break through levees. The Christmas Eve levee break at Yuba City was particularly disastrous, with 38 people losing their lives, according to Dick Brandt, manager of the Yuba County airport in 1955, between 550 and 600 Sutter County residents were rescued from the floodwater by helicopter. On March 14,1961, a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress carrying nuclear weapons, flying near Yuba City encountered a pressurization problem, as such, more fuel than expected was used, and the aircraft ran out of fuel. It crashed before meeting with a tanker aircraft, the pilot gave the bailout command, and the crew egressed at 10,000 ft, except for the pilot, who ejected at 4,000 ft, while avoiding a populated area. The weapons, two Mark 39 thermonuclear bombs were destroyed on impact though no explosion took place, and there was no release of material as a result. Twenty-seven students and one adult chaperone died and twenty-three students were seriously injured, Yuba City has been home to a significant Muslim population, including Pakistani Americans descended from c.1902 immigrants
2.
Imperial Valley
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The Imperial Valley lies in Californias Imperial County. It is located in southeastern Southern California, and is the site of an area largely centered on the city of El Centro. The Valley is bordered by the Colorado River to the east and, in part, farther west lies the San Diego and Imperial County border. S. State of California and Baja California, the culture of the area blends those of the United States and Mexico, due to its regional history and geographic location along the international border. The Imperial Valley economy is based on agriculture, Imperial Valley was so named by the Imperial Land Company, in hopes of attracting settlers. Having done that it is now the home of the El Centro metropolitan area, locally, the terms Imperial Valley and Imperial County are used synonymously. The Imperial Valley extends southward for 50 miles from the end of the Salton Sea into Mexico. Part of a trough stretching from the Coachella Valley to the Gulf of California and its hot desert climate is characterized by daily temperature extremes. It was once part of the Gulf of California, from which it was cut off by the deposits of the Colorado River Delta Fan as it carved out the Grand Canyon. Bordered by sand dunes and barren mountains, it was uninhabited until 1901, flood-waters in 1905–07 destroyed the irrigation channels and created the Salton Sea now filled by the New River and irrigation run-off. The rivers in the part of the Salton Sea river basin flow south to north. The valley is bordered by the Colorado River to the east and, in part, farther west lies the border with San Diego County and to the south the international boundary between the US state of California and Baja California, Mexico. To the north is the boundary with the Inland Empires Riverside County and its Coachella Valley, during winter months the Valley averages more than eight hours of sunshine a day, receiving the most sunlight of any place in the United States. Historically, the lowest minimum temperature recorded in the Imperial Valley was 16 °F on January 22,1937. The highest maximum temperature recorded was 121 °F on July 28,1995. The lowest maximum temperature was 42 °F, recorded on January 24,1949, the highest monthly mean temperature was 95.9 °F, recorded in August 1969 and the lowest mean temperature was 42.3 °F in February 1939. The 85-year average annual rainfall is 2.93 inches with June being the driest month, the only recorded snowfall in the Valley occurred on December 12,1932. Snow began falling at 8,45 p. m. in the southwest portion of Imperial Valley,4 inches of snow was reported that day
3.
Punjabi Americans
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Punjabi Americans, are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in the Punjab, a region in northern South Asia. Sikhs have been a part of the American populace for more than 130 years, at the turn of the 19th century, the state of Punjab of British India was hit hard by British practices of mercantilism. Many Sikhs emigrated to the United States, and began arriving to work on farms in California and they traveled via Hong Kong to Angel Island, California, the western counterpart to Ellis Island in New York. Due to discrimination from Anglo Americans many early Punjabi immigrants in California married Mexican Americans, Punjabi farmers were also able to circumvent laws prohibiting their ownership of property by operating through American bankers. Most Sikhs started life in America as farm laborers, with eventually becoming landowners. In 1956, Dalip Singh Saund became the first East Indian-born person to be elected to the United States House of Representatives, at present Amarjit Singh Buttar is perhaps the only turbaned Sikh who holds elected public office. He was elected in December 2001 to the Vernon, Connecticut Board of Education for a four-year term and he has also been recently selected as the Chairman of the Board. Many Punjabi Americans have become successful in technology-related fields, Vinod Dham helped to develop the Pentium processor while Vinod Khosla and Sabeer Bhatia co-founded Sun Microsystems and Hotmail respectively. Aneesh Chopra served as the first Chief Technology Officer of the United States, appointed by President Barack Obama
4.
Punjabis
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The Punjabis, or Punjabi people, are an ethno-linguistic group associated with the Punjab, who speak Punjabi, an Indo-Aryan language. Punjab literally means the land of five waters (Persian, panj āb, Punjab is often referred to as the breadbasket in both Pakistan and India. The coalescence of the tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab into a broader common Punjabi identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE. Traditionally, Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic, geographical and cultural, integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections. More or less all Punjabis share the cultural background. Historically, the Punjabi people were a group and were subdivided into a number of clans called biradari or tribes. However, Punjabi identity also included those who did not belong to any of the historical tribes, the 1947 independence of India and Pakistan, and the subsequent partition of Punjab, is considered by historians to be the beginning of the end of the British Empire. The UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were displaced during the partition, to date, this is considered the largest mass migration in human history. Until 1947, the province of Punjab was ruled by a coalition comprising the Indian National Congress, the Sikh-led Shiromani Akali Dal, however, the growth of Muslim nationalism led to the All India Muslim League becoming the dominant party in the 1946 elections. As Muslim separatism increased, the opposition from Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs increased substantially, communal violence on the eve of Indian independence led to the dismissal of the coalition government, although the succeeding League ministry was unable to form a majority. Partition was accompanied by violence on both sides, claiming the lives of hundreds of thousands of people. West Punjab was virtually cleansed of its Hindu and Sikh populations, by the 1960s, Indian Punjab underwent reorganisation as demands for a linguistic Punjabi state increased. The Hindi-speaking areas were formed into the states of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana respectively, in the 1980s, Sikh separatism combined with popular anger against the Indian Armys counter-insurgency operations led to violence and disorder in Indian Punjab, which only subsided in the 1990s. Political power in Indian Punjab is contested between the secular Congress Party and the Sikh religious party Akali Dal and its allies, the Bharatiya Janata Party, Indian Punjab remains one of the most prosperous of Indias states and is considered the breadbasket of India. Subsequent to partition, West Punjabis made up a majority of the Pakistani population, today, Punjabis continue to be the largest ethnic group in Pakistan, accounting for half of the countrys population. They reside predominantly in the province of Punjab, neighbouring Azad Kashmir in the region of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjabis are also found in large communities in the largest city of Pakistan, Karachi, located in the Sindh province. Punjabis in India can be found in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, large communities of Punjabis are also found in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir and in Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. In Delhi, Punjabis make up half of the population of Pakistan
5.
Punjab
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The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Mexican Americans
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Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior
8.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
9.
Punjabi culture
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The culture of the Punjab encompasses the spoken language, written literature, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions, values and history of the Punjabi people. The term Punjabi can mean both a person who lives in Punjab and also a speaker of the Punjabi language and this name originates from the Persian language panj, and ab. Combined together the word becomes Panjab or Punjab-land of the five rivers, indus River, and the five other rivers to the south that eventually all join it or merge into it later downstream in the Punjab valley. All the rivers start and flow out of the Himalayas and these other five rivers are Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas River and Sutlej River. The culture of Punjab in the Middle Ages was extremely dependent upon an individuals caste, community, religion. An array of cultures can be found historically, the main cultures that arose in the Punjab during the Medieval Age at the beginning of this era was of strong Indo-Aryan dominance. The Brahmins and Khatris were once a group living in the Punjab who practised Hinduism. They were descended from the Vedic people who brought Indo-European language and their culture was based on their religious beliefs, which could be described as identical to that of Hindus living across North India today. The second strongest emergent cultural identity was Jat-Gujjar culture, based on pastoralism, agriculture and ancestor worship, most of the Western region are descended from Gujjars, whereas the Eastern region is ethnically Jat. Islamic traditions were incorporated into Punjabi Muslims lives, in the 20th century, the majority of the people are Sikhs practicing Sikhism since the 16th century. Due to the number of Punjabi people distributed throughout the world, especially Pakistan and India, many people are increasingly experiencing the culture. Glimpses of traditional Punjabi culture can be seen in the Western world (e. g. the U. S. the UK, the EU, Canada, Australia, Africa, naturally people influence each other wherever they settle and live. These immigrants influenced the people of Punjab and, in turn, were influenced by the prevailing culture of the Punjab. Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that is listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favourite. Punjabi music is used by musicians in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi classical music is becoming popular in the west. Owing to the history of the Punjabi culture and of the Punjabi people there are many dances, normally performed at times of celebration, including harvests, festivals. The particular background of the dances can be non-religious and religious, the overall style can range from the high energy bhangra mens dance to the more reserved jhumar, the gidha womens dance
10.
Mexican cuisine
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Mexican cuisine is primarily a fusion of indigenous Mesoamerican cooking with European, especially Spanish, elements added after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century. The staples are native foods, such as corn, beans, avocados, tomatoes, and chili peppers, along with rice, which was brought by the Spanish. Europeans introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals, dairy products. African and Asian influences were introduced into the mixture during this era as a result of African slavery in New Spain. Over the centuries, this resulted in regional cuisines based on conditions, such as those in Oaxaca, Veracruz. Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure, the most important example of this connection is the use of mole for special occasions and holidays, particularly in the South and Center regions of the country. For this reason and others, traditional Mexican cuisine was inscribed in 2010 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO, Mexican cuisine is as complex as any other world cuisine, such as those of China, France, Italy and Japan. It is created mostly with ingredients native to Mexico, as well as those brought over by the Spanish conquistadors, vegetables play an important role in Mexican cuisine. Common vegetables include zucchini, cauliflower, corn, potatoes, spinach, swiss chard, mushrooms, jitomate, green tomato, other traditional vegetable dishes include chile rellenos, huitlacoche, huauzontle, and nopalitos to name a few. European contributions include pork, chicken, beef, cheese, herbs and spices, tropical fruits such as guava, prickly pear, sapote, mangoes, bananas, pineapple and cherimoya are popular, especially in the center and south of the country. It has been debated how much Mexican food is still indigenous, however, the basis of the diet is still corn and beans, with chile pepper as a seasoning, as they are complementary foods. Despite the introduction of wheat and rice to Mexico, the basic starch remains corn in almost all areas of the country, while it is eaten fresh, most corn is dried, treated with lime and ground into a dough called masa. This dough is used fresh and fermented to make a wide variety of dishes from drinks to tamales, sopes. However, the most common way to eat corn in Mexico is in the form of a tortilla, tortillas are made of corn in most of the country, but other versions exist, such as wheat in the north or plantain, yuca and wild greens in Oaxaca. The other basic ingredient in all parts of Mexico is the chile pepper, Mexican food has a reputation for being very spicy, but its seasoning can be better described as strong. Many dishes also have subtle flavors, chiles are used for their flavors and not just their heat, with Mexico using the widest variety. If a savory dish or snack does not contain chile pepper, hot sauce is usually added, the importance of the chile goes back to the Mesoamerican period, where it was considered to be as much of a staple as corn and beans. In the 16th century, Bartolomé de las Casas wrote that without chiles, even today, most Mexicans believe that their national identity would be at a loss without chiles
11.
Punjabi cuisine
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Punjabi cuisine is associated with food from the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. This cuisine has a tradition of many distinct and local ways of cooking. One is a form of tandoori cooking that is now famous in other parts of India, UK, Canada. The local cuisine of Punjab is heavily influenced by the agriculture, locally grown staple foods form the major part of the local cuisine. Distinctively Punjabi cuisine is known for its rich, buttery flavours along with the extensive vegetarian, main dishes include Sarson da saag and makki di roti. Basmati rice is the variety of Punjab and many varieties of rice dishes have been developed with this variety. The cooked rice is known as Chol in the Punjabi language, Many vegetable and meat based dishes are developed for this type of rice. There are many styles of cooking in Punjab, in the villages many people still employ the traditional infrastructure for cooking purposes. This includes wood-fired and masonry ovens, in the past many people employed wood-burning stoves. But this method is dying out, one derivation from this type of cooking is the tandoori style of cooking commonly known as tandoor. In India, tandoori cooking is traditionally associated with Punjab as Punjabis embraced the tandoor on a regional level and this style of cooking became popular in the mainstream after the 1947 partition when Punjabis resettled in places such as Delhi. In rural Punjab, it is common to have communal tandoors, Punjab is a major producer of wheat, rice and dairy products. These products also form the diet of the Punjabi people. The state of Punjab has one of the highest capita usage of products in India. Therefore, dairy products form an important component of Punjabi diet, clarified butter, sunflower oil, paneer and butter are used in Punjabi cooking. Clarified butter is most often used as the variant ghee, some north Punjab villages have also developed a local cheese variant known as dhaag, but the tradition of making dhaag is dying out. Food additives and condiments are added to enhance the flavor of the food. The most common additives is vinegar, Food coloring as additive is used in sweet dishes and desserts
12.
Chicken curry
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Curry chicken is a common delicacy in South Asia, Southeast Asia, as well as in the Caribbean. Outside South Asia, chicken curry is made with a pre-made spice mixture known as curry powder. Indian cuisine has an amount of regional variation, with many variations on the basic chicken curry recipe. Indian chicken curry typically starts with whole spices, heated in oil, a sauce is then made with onions, ginger, garlic, and tomatoes, and powdered spices. Bone-in pieces of chicken are then added to the sauce, in South India, coconut and curry leaves are also popular ingredients. Chicken curry is usually garnished with leaves, and served with rice or roti. Even within the country, there are variations among regions, in Northern India, there the delicacy may be extra cooked with extra spice. Additionally, one can find the dish in several shops as well as five-star restaurants. Depending on the style of preparation, some versions may be sweeter while others will have a more creamier taste to them due to the use of butter. This dish was introduced to Trinidad and Tobago by indentured Indian workers, at that time, the dish was very similar to the chicken curry dish of India, consisting mostly of sauce with few chicken pieces. However, poultry in Trinidad and Tobago was so readily available, as Trinidadians continued to find their own identity in the world, new curry chicken type dishes began forming. Curry goat and curry duck have become widely popular, curry chicken and its derivatives are also popular in Suriname, Guyana, Jamaica, Grenada, and other Caribbean territories with Indian and South Asian influence. There are many types of curry in South East Asia. Different countries, as well as the different communities within these countries, malaysian curry chicken is usually cooked in coconut milk and often contain potatoes, and there are dry and wet versions. In Thailand, chicken may be cooked in curry, red curry or other varieties of Thai curry. Country Captain Chicken is a chicken dish flavored with curry powder. The Hobson-Jobson Dictionary states the following, COUNTRY-CAPTAIN and this is in Bengal the name of a peculiar dry kind of curry, often served as a breakfast dish. We can only conjecture that it was a dish at the table of the skippers of ‘country ships, ’ who were themselves called ‘country captains
13.
Roti
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It is also consumed in parts of South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, the southern Caribbean, particularly in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Grenada, Barbados and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Its defining characteristic is that it is unleavened, Indian naan bread, by contrast, is a yeast-leavened bread. A kulcha in Indian cuisine is an accompaniment, made of processed flour leavened with yeast. Various types of roti are integral to South Asian cuisine, the word roti is derived from the Sanskrit word रोटिका, meaning bread. It is also known as maani in Sindhi and phulka in Punjabi, many variations of flat breads are found in many cultures across the globe, from the Indian subcontinent to the Americas. The traditional flat bread originating from the Indian subcontinent is known as roti and it is normally eaten with cooked vegetables or curries, it can be called a carrier for curries or cooked vegetables. It is made most often from wheat flour, cooked on a flat or slightly concave iron griddle called a tawa, like breads around the world, roti is a staple accompaniment to other foods. In Iran, the two variants of this bread are called khaboos and lavash and these two breads are quite similar to other rotis. In Sri Lanka, probably the most popular type of roti is pol roti, made of flour, kurakkan flour. Sometimes, chopped green chillies and onion are added to the mixture before cooking and these are usually thicker and harder than other roti types. They are usually eaten with curries, or some types of sambol or lunu miris, another variety of roti popular in Sri Lanka is Kottu roti. Kottu roti is made up of paratha or godamba roti, paratha/godamba roti is cut into small pieces. These pieces are small in size and rectangular or square in shape, then on a square heating pan, vegetables, onions are allowed to be fried. Then eggs, cooked meat or fish are added to fried vegetables, finally the pieces of cut paratha is added. All these ingredients are mixed using two pieces of steel. A peculiar sound is made while the mixing is done. It is said that the first person who innovated kottu roti to save the remaining. paratha at his restaurant made this noise to attract patrons to make them aware of the new delicacy. Depending upon what ingredients are used, there are vegetable, egg, chicken, beef, mutton, godamba roti is another variety of roti that is found in many restaurants in Sri Lanka
14.
Curry
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Curry is a dish originating in the cuisine of the Indian subcontinent. The common feature is the use of combinations of spices or herbs. The use of the term is limited to dishes prepared in a sauce. Curry dishes prepared in the states of India may be spiced with leaves from the curry tree. There are many varieties of dishes called curries, such dishes are called by specific names that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods. Traditionally, spices are used whole and ground, cooked or raw, and they may be added at different times during the cooking process to produce different results. Curry powder, a commercially prepared mixture of spices, is largely a Western creation, such mixtures are commonly thought to have first been prepared by Indian merchants for sale to members of the British Colonial government and army returning to Britain. Dishes called curry may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, additionally, many instead are entirely vegetarian, eaten especially among those who hold ethical or religious proscriptions against eating meat or seafood. Curries may be dry or wet. Dry curries are cooked with very little liquid which is allowed to evaporate, wet curries contain significant amounts of sauce or gravy based on yoghurt, cream, coconut milk, coconut cream, legume purée, or broth. The first curry recipe in English was published in 1747 by Hannah Glasse, archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food. Black pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia and has known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 16th century, influenced some curries, Curry was introduced to English cuisine starting with Anglo-Indian cooking in the 17th century as spicy sauces were added to bland boiled and cooked meats. The 1758 edition of Hannah Glasses The Art of Cookery contains a recipe To make a currey the Indian way, Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809, and has been increasingly popular in Great Britain, with major jumps in the 1940s and the 1970s. During the 19th century, curry was also carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry, since the mid-20th century, curries of many national styles have become popular far from their origins, and increasingly become part of international fusion cuisine. It is usual to distinguish broadly between northern and southern styles of Indian cuisine, recognising that within those categories are innumerable sub-styles and variations. The distinction is made with reference to the staple starch, wheat in the form of unleavened breads in the north, rice in the east, rice. Bengali cuisine, which refers to the cuisine of Bangladesh and the West Bengal state of India, includes curries, including seafood, Mustard seeds and mustard oil are added to many recipes, as are poppy seeds
15.
Punjabi Hindus
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Punjabi Hindus are a group of people that follow the Hindu religion and have their roots and origin in the Punjab region of the Indian Subcontinent. In India, most Punjabi Hindus are concentrated in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Jammu, Chandigarh, Himachal pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and some part of Rajasthan, Gujrat. Hinduism has been prevalent in Punjab since historical times before the arrival of Islam, some of the influential Sikh figures such as Guru Nanak, Banda Singh Bahadur, Bhai Mati Das, all originated from Hindu families of Punjab. Many of Punjabs Hindus converted to Sikhism, in fact, Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas. Many modern day cities in Indian Punjab and Pakistani Punjab are still named from that period like Lahore, Jalandhar, Chandigarh, examples of Punjabi Hindus include the former Prime ministers of India I. K. Gujral and Gulzari Lal Nanda and former Indian cricketer Kapil Dev, the regions of Azad Kashmir and Jammu have also been historically associated with the Punjab. The Punjab is the Sapta Sindhu region mentioned in the Rig Veda, the modern name of the Vipasa, Beas is thought to be a corruption of Veda Vyasa, the author of the Mahabharata. Among the classic books that were wholly or partly composed in this region are the following, the Brahmins of this region are called Saraswata after the legendary Saraswati river region, once known for the ashramas of the rishis. In 1941, the Muslims were in majority in Punjab. The Hindus made 29.1 per cent of the total, the Sikhs 14.9 per cent, Christians 1.9 per cent, and others 1.3 per cent. Such a distribution was significantly different from that obtaining in 1881, when the Hindus made 43.8 per cent of the population, the Sikhs 8.2 per cent. The Muslims, at 47.6 per cent, were short of an absolute majority. Evidently, that there was a fall in the percentage share of the Hindus while the Muslims. The Christians also recorded an increase in their numbers. Peshawar, North West Frontier Province, Capital of Kanishka, the Kushan ruler, North West Frontier Province, Founded by a son of Bharata, brother of Sri Rama, according to the Ramayana, Punjab, Also founded by a son of Bharata. Multan, Punjab, Pilgrimage site of the legendary Sun temple, rawalpindi, Punjab, city founded by Bappa Rawal, from the Sisodiya clan of Mewar Rajputs and ancestor of Rana Pratap Singh. Lahore, Punjab, city founded by Lava, son of Sri Rama according to the Bichitra Natak. Amritsar, Punjab, It is believed that the hermitage of Sage Valmiki, Valmiki is said to have composed the great epic at this very spot
16.
Sikh
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A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region of Northwestern Indian subcontinent. The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य or शिक्ष, Sikh properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhism has seldom sought converts, most Sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the United Kingdom, therefore recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. Male Sikhs have Singh, and female Sikhs have Kaur as their middle or last name, initiated male and female Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban. The greater Punjab region is the homeland of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, was born to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Gobind Singh initiated five people from a variety of backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare to form the Khalsa. During the period of Mughal rule in India several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule, after defeating the Afghan, Mughal and Maratha invaders, the Misls were formed, under Sultan-ul-Quam Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms, after the annexation of the Sikh kingdom by the British, the latter recognized the martial qualities of the Sikhs and Punjabis in general and started recruiting from that area. During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British and this resulted in heavy recruiting from Punjab to the colonial army for the next 90 years of the British Raj. The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army, the British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India including Punjab. This included formation in 1873 and 1879 of the First and Second Singh Sabha respectively, the Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice. The later part of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement or the Gurdwara Reform Movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, the months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab
17.
Cremation
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Cremation is the combustion, vaporization and oxidation of cadavers to basic chemical compounds, such as gases, ashes and mineral fragments retaining the appearance of dry bone. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite as an alternative to the interment of a dead body in a coffin. Cremated remains, which do not constitute a risk, may be buried or interred in memorial sites or cemeteries, or they may be retained by relatives. Cremation is not an alternative to a funeral, but rather an alternative to burial or other forms of disposal, some families prefer to have the deceased present at the funeral with cremation to follow, others prefer that the cremation occur prior to the funeral or memorial service. In many countries, cremation is usually done in a crematorium, some countries, such as India and Nepal, prefer different methods, such as open-air cremation. Cremation dates from at least 20,000 years ago in the record, with the Mungo Lady. Alternative death rituals emphasizing one method of disposal of a body—inhumation, cremation, in the Middle East and Europe, both burial and cremation are evident in the archaeological record in the Neolithic era. Cultural groups had their own preferences and prohibitions, the ancient Egyptians developed an intricate transmigration of soul theology, which prohibited cremation. This was also widely adopted used by Semitic peoples, the Babylonians, according to Herodotus, embalmed their dead. Early Persians practiced cremation, but this became prohibited during the Zoroastrian Period, phoenicians practiced both cremation and burial. From the Cycladic civilisation in 3000 BCE until the Sub-Mycenaean era in 1200–1100 BCE, Cremation appeared around the 12th century BCE, constituting a new practice of burial, probably influenced by Anatolia. Until the Christian era, when inhumation again became the burial practice. Romans practiced both, with cremation generally associated with military honors, in Europe, there are traces of cremation dating to the Early Bronze Age in the Pannonian Plain and along the middle Danube. The custom became dominant throughout Bronze Age Europe with the Urnfield culture, in the Iron Age, inhumation again becomes more common, but cremation persisted in the Villanovan culture and elsewhere. Homers account of Patroclus burial describes cremation with subsequent burial in a tumulus, similar to Urnfield burials, criticism of burial rites is a common form of aspersion by competing religions and cultures, including the association of cremation with fire sacrifice or human sacrifice. Hinduism and Jainism are notable for not only allowing but prescribing cremation, Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture, considered the formative stage of Vedic civilization. The Rigveda contains a reference to the practice, in RV10.15.14. Cremation remained common, but not universal, in both ancient Greece and ancient Rome, according to Cicero, in Rome, inhumation was considered the more archaic rite, while the most honoured citizens were most typically cremated—especially upper classes and members of imperial families
18.
Punjabi Muslims
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Punjabi Muslims are a linguistic, geographic and religious group living in the region of Punjab, found between eastern Pakistan and northern India. Forming the majority of the Punjabi identity at large, Punjabi Muslims are those who profess Islam, with a population of more than 90 million, they are the largest ethnic group in Pakistan and the third largest ethnic Muslim community in the world. The majority of Punjabi Muslims are adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam, a minority adheres to Shia and other sects, including the Ahmadiyya community which originated in Punjab. The homelands of Punjabi Muslims are mainly concentrated in the Pakistani province of Punjab and they have a worldwide diaspora, with significant communities in North America and the United Kingdom, and large expatriate populations in the Middle East. Punjab literally means the land of five waters, Punjab is often referred to as the breadbasket in both Pakistan and India. The coalescence of the tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab into a broader common Punjabi identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE. Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada, Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 5000 years old. The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa, the Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilization. The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the Vedic civilization along the length of the Indus River and this civilization shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and Afghanistan. Punjab was part of the ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Achaemenids, Macedonians, Mauryas, Kushans, Guptas, Hindu Shahi, Gurjara-Pratihara. Agriculture flourished and trading cities grew in wealth, due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from the west and witnessed centuries of foreign invasions by the Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans. The city of Taxila, founded by son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram and it was reputed to house the oldest university in the world, Takshashila University. One of the teachers was the great Vedic thinker and politician Chanakya, Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the Maurya Empire. It is a UN World Heritage site, valued for its archaeological, the northwestern part of the South Asia, including Punjab, was repeatedly invaded or conquered by various foreign empires, such as those of Tamerlane, Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan. However, Alexander had to encounter and reduce the tribes on the border of Punjab before entering the luxuriant plains, having taken a northeasterly direction, he marched against the Aspii, who offered vigorous resistance, but were subdued. Alexander then marched through Ghazni, blockaded Magassa, and then marched to Ora and Bazira, turning to the northeast, Alexander marched to Pucela, the capital of the district now known as Pakhli. He entered Western Punjab, where the ancient city of Nysa was situated, a coalition was formed against Alexander by the Cathians, the people of Multan, who were very skillful in war. Alexander invested many troops, eventually killing seventeen thousand Cathians in this battle, Alexander left Punjab in 326 B. C. and took his army to Persia and Susa
19.
Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
20.
Indian immigration to Mexico
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Indian Mexicans are Mexican citizens who are descendants of migrants from the nation of India. According to the Indian Ministry of External Affairs, there are about 2,000 Indians living in Mexico as of March 2011, in 1923, immigration of ethnic Indians was secretly prohibited. The ban was kept confidential in order to avoid problems with the British Empire. This ban, along with similar bans based on ethnicity, was eliminated by a 1947 law that prohibited racial discrimination, most of the Indians in Mexico are recent arrivals in the country and almost all of them have settled in Mexico City. Mexico has a policy with regard to the grant of its citizenship. The spouse of a Mexican national would not face any problem in acquiring local citizenship. Although a few of the NRIs have married Mexicans, they have retained their Indian citizenship, the Indians in this country are mainly businessmen or professionals. Many of them work with one or other organization or a multinational corporation. There are also some academicians and scientists among them and they have helped to bring about greater mutual understanding between India and their host country. Some of the Indians work for ISPAT Mexicana which is part of the Laxmi Mittal group, the Indian presence in Mexico has been greatly appreciated as fifty other business ventures have invested around US$1.58 billion in the country around 1994 to 2000. The Indian community in Mexico has no divisive factions in it, the main Indian community organisation is the Indian Womens Association of Mexico in Mexico City. It celebrates important festivals and organises cultural programmes, a Sai Baba temple, a Vaishnav temple, and a Gurudwara have also been constructed by Sangam Organisation in Mexico City
21.
Cherokee freedmen controversy
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The Cherokee Freedmen Controversy is an ongoing political and tribal dispute between the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma and descendants of the Cherokee Freedmen regarding the issue of tribal citizenship. After the American Civil War, the Cherokee Freedmen became citizens of the Cherokee Nation in accordance with a treaty made with the United States in 1866. In the early 1980s, the Cherokee Nation administration amended citizenship rules to direct descent from an ancestor listed on the Cherokee By Blood section of the Dawes Rolls. The change stripped descendants of the Cherokee Freedmen of citizenship and voting rights unless they satisfied this new criterion, Chad Corntassel Smith, then-Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, called for an emergency election to amend the constitution in response to the ruling. After a petition was circulated, an election held on March 3,2007 resulted in a constitutional amendment that disenrolled the Cherokee Freedmen descendants. The 2007 constitutional amendment was voided in Cherokee Nation district court on January 14,2011, the ruling excluded the Cherokee Freedmen descendants from voting in the special run-off election for Principal Chief. This allowed the Freedmen descendants to vote in the special election, both sides filed complaints in federal court in Tulsa, Oklahoma in July 2012, the Cherokee say the 1866 treaty does not require them to give full citizenship to the Freedmen. The Freedmen continue to full rights. The US Appeals Court upheld tribal sovereignty but said the cases had to be combined and it suggested that the 1866 treaty limited the right of the tribe to exclude Cherokee Freedmen descendants from citizenship and sent it back to the US District Court. On May 5,2014 in Washington, DC, oral arguments were made in the first hearing on the merits of the case, the US District Court has stated it will issue a ruling in 2016. Freedmen is one of the given to emancipated slaves and their descendants after slavery was abolished in the United States following the American Civil War. In this context, Cherokee Freedmen refers to the African-American men and women who were slaves of the Cherokee before. It includes the descendants of the slaves, as well as those born in unions between formerly enslaved or enslaved African Americans and Cherokee tribal members. After their emancipation and subsequent citizenship, the Cherokee Freedmen and their descendants had to struggle to be accepted as a part of the Cherokee Nation. Joseph Brown was elected as the first Cherokee Freedman councilman in 1875, followed by Frank Vann in 1887, Joseph Stick Ross was elected to the council in 1893. Born into slavery and owned by Principal Chief John Ross before his familys emancipation, several companies and landmarks were named after him, including Stick Ross Mountain in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. Leslie Ross, Sticks great-grandson, says, He knew sign language and spoke Cherokee and he was a trapper and a farmer and a rancher. And he was sheriff at one time, too and he was pretty renowned in Tahlequah
22.
Chindian
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Chindian is an informal term used to refer to a person of both Chinese and Indian ancestry. There are a number of Chindians in Malaysia and Singapore. In Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of interracial marriages occur between Chinese and Indians, the offspring of such marriages are informally known as Chindian. The Malaysian government, however, considers them to be an unclassified ethnicity, the government of Singapore classifies them as their fathers ethnicity. According to government statistics,2. 4% of Singapores population are multiracial, the highest number of interethnic marriages was in 2007, when 16. 4% of the 20,000 marriages in Singapore were interethnic, again mostly between Chinese and Indians. Singapore only began to allow persons to register two racial classification on their identity cards in 2010. Parents may choose which of the two is listed first, more than two races may not be listed even if the person has several different ethnicities in their ancestry. Indians have been living in Hong Kong long before the partition of India into the nations of India and they migrated to Hong Kong as traders, police officers and army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to what is now Pakistan and these local Indians were not completely accepted by either the Chinese or Indian communities. In Guyana, many Indian women marry Chinese men due to the lack of Chinese women in the days of settlement. Indian women and children were brought alongside Indian men as coolies while Chinese men made up 99% of Chinese coolies, the contrast with the female to male ratio among Indian and Chinese immigrants has been compared by historians. In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women due to both a lack of Chinese women and higher numbers of Indian women on the island. The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children sired by Chinese men and these Chinese were mostly traders. It was much more common for Chinese and Indians to intermarry than within their own group. Intermarriage between people of between different Chinese and Indian language groups is rare, it is so rare that the cases of intermarriage between Cantonese and Hakka can be individually named, similarly, intermarriage between Hakka Chinese and Indians hardly occurs. Indian women were married by indentured Chinese men in Trinidad. Few Chinese women migrated to Trinidad while the majority of Chinese migrants were men, the migration of Chinese to Trinidad resulted in intermarriage between them and others. Chinese in Trinidad became relatively open to having martial relations with other races, some Chinese convicts deported from the Straits Settlements were sent to be jailed in Madras in India. In 186^ seven of them got away and it was days before they were apprehended by the Tahsildar. On 28 July in the year twelve others broke out during a very stormy night
23.
Hapa
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Hapa is a term for a person of mixed ethnic heritage. The term originates in Hawaii from the Hawaiian word for half, part, in Hawaii, the word refers to any person of mixed ethnic heritage, regardless of the specific mixture. In California, the term has recently used for any person of part Asian Pacific American descent. Therefore, there are two concurrent usages, the term hapa comes from a Hawaiian word that denotes a part or fragment of something, itself a loan from the English word half. When applied to people, this denotes that such people are of mixed descent, used without qualification, hapa is often taken to mean part White and is shorthand for hapa haole. The term can be used in conjunction with other Hawaiian racial, examples of this is hapa haole. Pukui states that the meaning of the word haole was foreigner. Therefore, all non-Hawaiians can be called haole, in practical terms, however, the term is used as a racial description for Caucasians, with the specific exclusion of Portuguese. Portuguese were traditionally considered to be a race in Hawaii. Some see the use of the term as a misappropriation of Hawaiian culture, others take a stronger stand in discouraging its usage and misuse as they consider the term to be vulgar and racist. The term clearly had racist origins, it was used as a term equivalent to other similar terms such as half-breed. It was initially used to degrade mixed-race children of plantation guest workers in Hawaii from the Philippines, China, Japan and Korea in the early part of the 20th century. Hapa-haole also is the name of a type of Hawaiian music in which the tune, styling, and/or subject matter is Hawaiian, but the lyrics are partly, mostly, or entirely in English. Hapa haole is also used for Hawaiian-language hula songs that are partly in English, Yoo, Grace J. Multiracial Asians and Pacific Islanders. In Chen, Wen-Chu, Yoo, Grace J. Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, Journal articles Bernstein, Mary, De la Cruz, Marcie. Explaining Identity as a Goal of the Multiracial Hapa Movement, of Childrens Plates, Melting Pots, Tossed Salads and Multiple Consciousness, Tales from a Hapa Haole. UCLA Asian Pacific American Law Journal, the space in between, Issues for multiracial student organizations and advising. Re-Mix, Rethinking the use of Hapa in Mixedrace Asian/Pacific Islander American Community Organizing, how the Hawaiian word hapa came to be used by people of mixed heritage Hapa Happy Hour podcast
24.
Irish Quebecers
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Irish Quebecers are residents of the Canadian province of Quebec who have Irish ancestry. In 2006, there were 406,085 Quebecers who identified themselves as having partial or exclusive Irish descent in Quebec, in 2006, there were 406,085 Quebecers who identified themselves as Irish representing 5. 5% of the population. This represents an increase from the 1996 count of 313,660 and they are spread more or less uniformly across the province. In the Montreal region, there are 161,235 people of declared Irish heritage, Irish culture and community organizations are mostly kept alive by the English-speaking population such as the United Irish Societies of Montreal. Many others have assimilated into the French-speaking majority population, the longest-running Saint Patricks Day parade in Canada is held each year in Montreal, Quebec. The parades have been held since 1824 and have been organized by the United Irish Societies of Montreal since 1929. However, St. Patricks Day itself has been celebrated in Montreal as far back as 1759 by Irish soldiers in the Montreal Garrison during the British conquest of New France. In the seventeenth century, Irish residing in France were among those sent to colonize the Saint Lawrence Valley in New France, after the Reformation, Irish Catholic nobility, soldiers, and clergy would serve Catholic Monarchs in France, Spain, and the Low Countries. Nearly 35,000 Irish served in the French military in the seventeenth century, by 1700 there were approximately one hundred Irish-born families among the 2,500 families registered in New France, along with an additional thirty families of mixed Irish and French backgrounds. Only 10 colonists had arrived from Ireland directly, in the early eighteenth century, many Irish Catholics arrived from New England seeking to practice their religion more freely. During the Seven Years War, French authorities also encouraged desertion among the Irish serving in the British army in North America, most of these Irish soldiers, settlers, and deserters assimilated into French-Canadian society. Most of these emigrants would come to cities in Lower Canada, establishing Irish communities in Montreal, in Quebec, most Irish Catholics settled close to the harbour in the Lower Town working in the shipyards and on the wharves. By 1830, they constituted 7,000 of 32,000 inhabitants, the Montreal population was more transient, attracted to labor in large construction projects such as the Lachine Canal before moving on to Upper Canada and the United States. In 1825 Irish Catholics and Protestants constituted about 3,000 people out of a city population of 25,000 and were about equal in number. Irish Catholics in formed distinctive neighbourhoods in the portion of the city. Irish Catholic settlers also opened up new areas in the recently surveyed Eastern Townships, the Ottawa valley. Irish from Quebec would also settle in Saint Sylvestre and Saint Patrick in the Beauce region of southeastern Quebec, Irish became heavily involved in political life and newspaper publishing in Montreal. Many Irish leaders were involved in the Parti Canadien, Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society, the society vigorously defended the colonial government during the rebellion
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Punjabi diaspora
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The Punjabi diaspora refers to the descendants of ethnic Punjabis who emigrated out of the Punjab region to the rest of the world. Punjabis are one of the largest ethnic groups in both the Pakistani and Indian diasporas, the Punjabi diaspora numbers around 10 million, mainly concentrated in Britain, North America, Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Punjabis migrated to Australia from other parts of the Punjabi diaspora, the Majority were Sikh & Hindu Punjabis instead of Muslims being the majority. 85% of Indo-Canadians in British Columbia are Punjabi Sikhs, including former premier of British Columbia, in the Gulf states, the largest group among Pakistani expatriates are the Punjabis. Among Hong Kong Indian adolescents, Punjabi is the most common other than Cantonese. The Punjabis were influential in the military, and in line with the British military thinking of the time Punjabi Sikhs, Punjabi Hindus and Punjabi Muslims formed two separate regiments. The regiments were as follows, Punjab regiment,25,000 soldiers Sikh Regiment,10,000 soldiers In 1939, Punjabis dominated Hong Kongs police force until the 1950s. From the 2006 Government by-census results, it shows a population of roughly 20,444 Indians, Most Kenyan Asians are Gujaratis, but the second largest group are Punjabis. Although most Malaysian Indians are Tamils, there were also many Punjabis that immigrated to Malaysia, according to Amarjit Kaur as of 1993 there were 60,000 Punjabis in Malaysia. Robin Cohen estimates the number of Malaysian Sikhs as 30,000, recent figures state that there are 130,000 Sikhs in Malaysia. In New Zealand, Punjabis are one of the largest group of Indian New Zealanders, the third largest group among Indo-Singaporeans in 1980 were Punjabis, at 7. 8% of the Indo-Singaporean population. There is Punjabi Society Singapore for Punjabis to celebrate their festivals, in the United Kingdom, around two-thirds of direct migrants from South Asia were Punjabi. The remaining third is mostly Gujarati and Bengali and they form a majority of both the South Asian British Sikh and Hindu communities. Most twice-migrants were also Punjabi or Gujarati, the earliest South Asian immigrants to the United States were Punjabis, who mostly immigrated to the West Coast, particularly California. Half of Pakistani Americans are Punjabis, 85% of the early Indian immigrants to the US were Sikhs, although they were branded by White Americans as Hindoos. 90% of Indians who settled in the Central Valley of California were Punjabi Sikhs
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Sikh diaspora
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The Sikh diaspora is the modern Punjabi Sikh migration from the traditional area of the Punjab region. Sikhism is a religion but welcomes converts, the Punjab region being the historic homeland of Sikhism. The Sikh diaspora is largely a subset of the Punjabi diaspora, the starting point of the diaspora is commonly accepted to have begun after the fall of the Sikh Empire in 1849 and the Empires subsequent annexation into the British Raj. The most famous personification of the Sikh diaspora was the first, Maharajah Duleep Singh, since Duleep Singhs exile, the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, however the destination for Punjabi Sikh migrants has changed during the ensuing 150 years. The development of the Punjabi Sikh diaspora concept has given diaspora Sikhs a conscious political and cultural identity, with approximately 20 million worldwide, the Sikhs are adherents to the fifth largest organized religion in the world, Sikhism. The Sikhs make up 0. 39% of the population of which approximately 83% live in India. Of the Indian Sikh community 19.6 million, i. e. 76% of all Indian Sikhs, live in the northern Indian State of Punjab and this gives the Sikhs, as an organized political grouping, a relatively recent history of around 400 years. Migrations of Sikhs during the era of the Gurus were limited to the boundaries of modern-day India and Pakistan, the development of the Sikh Confederacy and the development of the Sikh Empire, led to Sikhs migrating to conquered parts of their empire such as Ladakh and Peshawar. However these migrations were limited, transitory and unsustained, depending on the Empires fluctuating boundaries, during the time of the Sikh Empire, there was a net cultural immigration, with Napoleonic and British influences vying for the ear of the then Sikh Maharajah Ranjit Singh. With respect to the Sikh diaspora, the most important political aspect of this period was the establishment of a Sikh homeland. Sikh migration from the Punjab began in earnest in the half of the 19th century when the British Raj had successfully completed its annexation of the Punjab. The pivotal action in the British annexation was the exile of the then eleven-year-old Maharaja, Duleep Singh. Although a largely secular figure who did little for the Sikh body politic, the Sikhs made tremendous contributions to Punjab from 1857 to 1947. Sikhs founded the city of Rawalpindi, Sikh agricultural and entrepreneurial skills brought prosperity to Sheikhupura, Sialkot, Jhelum, Multan, Sargodha, Gujrat, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jullundar. Lahore, the capital of undivided Punjab, had thriving Sikh neighborhoods, the era of peace and prosperity turned into a nightmare in 1947. The partition of Punjab between India and Pakistan was a tragedy for Sikhs. The Sikh communities were practically wiped out from Lahore, Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Lyallpur, Jhelum, Gujrat, Sargodha, Sheikhupura, the birthplace of Sikhism, Nankana Sahib, was split away in West Punjab. Millions of Sikhs fled to freedom and safety in East Punjab in India, on the other hand, in East Punjab many Sikhs took revenge and slaughtered a great number of the Muslim population of Amritsar, Ludhiana, and Qadian in just three months
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Hispanic and Latino Americans
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Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, the predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country. Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans, hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565, after Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, the terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity, people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry, others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread. The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some, the U. S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions, one definition of Latino is a Latin male in the United States. This is the oldest and the definition used in the United States. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas, under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U. S. Census Bureau and OMB, a later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term Latino-Americano, the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino, a Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic, while the U. S. Census Bureaus definition of Hispanic is limited to Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term
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Cuban Americans
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Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York City, about 3,000 in New Orleans, and 2,000 in Key West. The year 1869 marked the beginning of one of the most significant periods of emigration from Cuba to the United States, the exodus of hundreds of workers and businessmen was linked to the manufacture of tobacco. It was an exodus of skilled workers, precisely the class in the island that had succeeded in establishing a free labor sector amid a slave economy. The manufacture of snuff by the Cuban labor force, became the most important source of income for Key West between 1869 and 1900. Tampa was added to such efforts, with a migration of Cubans. However, the half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant, in the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban government had established a grammar school in Key West to help preserve Cuban culture. There, children learned folk songs and patriotic hymns such as La Bayamesa, in 1885, Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his cigar operations from Key West to the town of Tampa, Florida to escape labor strife. Ybor City was designed as a company town, and it quickly attracted thousands of Cuban workers from Key West. West Tampa, another new cigar manufacturing community, was founded nearby in 1892, both Ybor City and West Tampa were instrumental in Cubas eventual independence. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to their native land, several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U. S. occurred in the early 20th century
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Dominican Americans
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Dominican Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from the Dominican Republic. Although their emigration began in the century, thousands of Dominicans passed through the gates of Ellis Island in the 19th. The most recent movement of emigration to the United States began in the 1960s, in 2010, there were approximately 1.41 million people of Dominican descent in the US, including both native and foreign-born. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic group in the United States, the first recorded person of Dominican descent to migrate into what is now known as the United States, outside of New Spain, was sailor-turned-merchant Juan Rodriguez. He arrived on Manhattan in 1613 from his home in Santo Domingo and he also became the first Dominican, the first Latino and the first person with European and African ancestry to settle in what is present day New York City. Dominican emigration to the United States continued throughout the centuries, recent research from the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute has identified some 5,000 Dominican immigrants who were processed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924. With increased emigration, Dominican diaspora communities have sprouted in New York metro area, New Jersey, Boston metro area, Providence, South Florida, Dominican emigrant communities have similar settlement patterns to that of the Puerto Rican population. Almost half of all the Dominican Americans today arrived since the 1990s, there has been another surge of immigration in recent years as immigration from Mexico has declined, which allowed more backlogged Dominican applicants to obtain legal residence. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic or Latino American group, after Mexican Americans, Stateside Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, as of 2010, the five largest concentrations of Dominican Americans are in New York, New Jersey, Florida, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Rhode Island is the state where Dominicans are the largest Hispanic group. Dominicans are the most dominant Hispanic group in most of southeastern New England, Dominicans are also starting to be pretty dominant in many areas in North Jersey and the Lower Hudson Valley. The 2010 Census estimated the nationwide Dominican American population at 1,414,703, about 41% of Dominican Americans live in New York City alone. Many of New Yorks Dominicans live in the boroughs of the Bronx and Manhattan, there are also large populations in other parts of New York State, including Long Island and the Hudson Valley. S. There are smaller and growing Dominican populations in states like Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Texas, however, in both cities, Dominicans make up only a plurality of the Hispanic population. Since 1980, the Census Bureau has asked US residents to classify their race separately from their Hispanic or Latino origin, in 2010,29. 6% of Dominican Americans responded that they were white, while 12. 9% considered themselves black. A majority of 57. 5% chose the category Other race, in New York City, Dominican entrepreneurs have carved out roles in several industries, especially the bodega and supermarket and taxi and black car industries. Over two dozen Dominican Americans are elected local or state legislators, mayors or other in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. A1997 Dominican law, which took effect in 2004, allows Dominicans living abroad to retain their Dominican citizenship and voting rights even if they become citizens of another country
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Puerto Ricans in the United States
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Puerto Ricans, either born in the island or in the states, are American citizens. At 10 percent of the Latino population in the United States, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group nationwide, and comprise 1. 5% of the entire population of the United States. Although the 2010 Census counted the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States at 4.6 million, more recent estimates show the Puerto Rican population to be over 5 million, as of 2012. The portmanteau Nuyorican refers to Puerto Ricans and their descendants in the New York City metropolitan area, important Puerto Rican institutions have emerged from this long history. ASPIRA was established in New York City in 1961 and is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States, the government of Puerto Rico has a long history of involvement with the stateside Puerto Rican community. In July 1930, Puerto Ricos Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division, also part of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, was created in 1948, the strength of stateside Puerto Rican identity is fueled by a number of factors. Since 1898, Puerto Rico has been under the control of the United States, even during Spanish rule, Puerto Ricans settled in the US. However, it was not until the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 that a significant influx of Puerto Rican workers to the US began, with its 1898 victory, the United States acquired Puerto Rico from Spain and has retained sovereignty since. The 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act made all Puerto Ricans US citizens, freeing them from immigration barriers, the massive migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland United States was largest in the early and late 20th century, prior to its resurgence in the early 21st century. U. S. political and economic interventions in Puerto Rico created the conditions for emigration, by concentrating wealth in the hands of US corporations, policymakers promoted colonization plans and contract labour programs to reduce the population. US employers, often with government support, recruited Puerto Ricans as a source of labour to the United States. Puerto Ricans migrated in search of jobs, first to New York City, and later to other cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia. New York City neighborhoods such as East Harlem in Upper Manhattan, the South Bronx, between the 1950s and the 1980s, large numbers of Puerto Ricans migrated to New York, especially to Brooklyn, the Bronx, Spanish Harlem and Loisaida neighborhoods of Manhattan. Labor recruitment was the basis of this particular community, in 1960, the number of stateside Puerto Ricans living in New York City as a whole was 88%, with most living in East Harlem. They helped others settle, find work, and build communities by relying on social networks containing friends, there are significant Puerto Rican communities in all five boroughs. The Puerto Rican population in East Harlem and New York City as a whole remains the poorest among all migrant groups in US cities, as of 1973, about 46. 2% of the Puerto Rican migrants in East Harlem were living below the federal poverty line. The struggle for legal work and affordable housing remains fairly low, New York Citys Puerto Rican community contributed to the creation of hip hop music, and to many forms of Latin music including Boogaloo, Salsa, Latin House, and Freestyle
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Nuyorican
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Nuyorican is a portmanteau of the terms New York and Puerto Rican and refers to the members or culture of the Puerto Rican diaspora located in or around New York City, or of their descendants. This term could be used for Puerto Ricans living in areas in the Northeast outside New York State. The term is used by Boricuas to differentiate those of Puerto Rican descent from the Puerto Rico-born. The term Nuyorican is also used to refer to the Spanish spoken by New York Puerto Ricans. An estimated 1,800,000 Nuyoricans are said to live in New York city, Nuyoricans are not considered Puerto Ricans by some island Puerto Ricans due to cultural differences, this is a very controversial topic amongst both groups of Puerto Ricans. Ethnic enclaves centered on Puerto Ricans include Spanish Harlem, Manhattan, Williamsburg, Brooklyn, many other variants developed along the way, including neoricano, neorican, and newyorican. Nuyorican itself dates at least from 1975, the date of the first public sessions of the Nuyorican Poets Café, some of the newer poets, Willie Perdomo, Flaco Navaja, Nancy Mercado, Emanuel Xavier, Edwin Torres J. L. It also can include those born in Puerto Rico who now live elsewhere in the United States. This changed from the meaning with the increase in travel back and forth to different parts of the United States. This distance created an identity that, while still somewhat identifying with the island. Puerto Ricans in other cities have coined similar terms, including Philly Rican for Puerto Ricans in Philadelphia, many Nuyoricans are second- and third-generation Puerto Rican Americans whose parents or grandparents arrived in the New York metropolitan area during the Gran Migración. The Gran Migración accelerated migration from Puerto Rico to New York during the 1940s and 1950s, today, there are fewer island-born Puerto Ricans than mainland-born Puerto Ricans in New York City. A prominent figure in movement was Miguel Piñero and Pedro Pietri
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Hispanos
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This article is about the descendants of Spanish and Mexican settlers in the US South. Not to be confused with Hispanic, the English translation of Hispano, for other uses of the term, see Hispano. Hispanos are people of colonial Spanish descent in what is today the United States who retained a predominantly Spanish culture, the distinction was made to compensate for flawed U. S. Census practices in the 1930s which used to characterize Hispanic people as non-white. They are mostly descendants of Spanish settlers, Mexicans who arrived during the Spanish colonial period and the Mexican period, some Hispanos differentiate themselves culturally from the population of Mexican Americans whose ancestors arrived in the Southwest after the Mexican Revolution. As the United States expanded westward, it annexed lands with a population of Spanish-speaking settlers. Prior to incorporation into the United States, Hispanos had enjoyed a status in the society of New Spain. In the US today, this group is associated with the state of Louisiana. While generally integrated into mainstream American societies, Hispanos have retained much of their colonial culture, many Hispanos also identify with later waves of Mexican immigrants that arrived after these lands became part of the US. Many Hispanos, particularly those of generations, identify more with the mainstream population. Most of them are Roman Catholic Christians
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Californio
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The Californio era was from the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the regions cession to the United States of America in 1848. Non-Spanish-speaking immigrants who 1) became naturalized Mexican citizens, 2) married Californios, such residents, by these actions, became eligible to own land and receive rancho grants from the Mexican government. Most such grants occurred after mission secularization in the 1830s, an even looser definition may include descendants of Californios, especially those who married other Californio descendants. The much larger population of non-Spanish-speaking indigenous peoples of California who lived in the prior to. Many Californios, however, were the California-born children of non-Spanish speakers who married Spanish speakers, such spouses usually also converted to the Catholic faith and, after Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, often became naturalized Mexican citizens. The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 Californio society were embodied in the presidios, missions. After secularization, the Mexican authorities divided most of the lands into new ranchos. The Spanish colonial and later Mexican national governments encouraged settlers from the northern and western provinces of Mexico, People from other parts of Latin America did settle in California. However, only a few official colonization efforts were ever undertaken—notably the second expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, children of those few early settlers and retired soldiers became the first Californios. Sporadic colonization efforts continued under Mexican rule, including the Hijar-Padres group of 1834, One genealogist estimated that, by 2004, between 300,000 and 500,000 Californians were descendants of Californios. Alta California was nominally controlled by a national-government appointed governor, the governors of California were at first appointed by the Viceroy, and after 1821 by the approximate 40 Mexican Presidents from 1821 to 1846. The costs of the minimum Alta California government were paid by means of a roughly 40–100% import tariff collected at the entry port of Monterey. The other center of Spanish power in Alta California was the Franciscan friars who, as heads of the 21 missions, none of the Franciscan friars were Californios, however, and their influence rapidly waned after the secularization of the missions in the 1830s. Governors had little support from far-away Mexico to deal with Alta Californians. Mexico-born governor Manuel Victoria was forced to flee in 1831, after losing a fight against an uprising at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass. As Californios matured to adulthood and increasingly assumed positions of power in the Alta California government, several times, Californio leaders attempted to break away from Mexico, most notably Juan Bautista Alvarado in 1836. Southern regional leaders, led by Pio Pico, made attempts to relocate the capital from Monterey to the more populated Los Angeles. Alvarado recruited a company of Tennessean riflemen, many of them former trappers who had settled in the Monterey Bay area, the company was led by another American, Isaac Graham, the Americans refused to fight against fellow Americans
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Hispanos of New Mexico
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Not to be confused with Hispanic, the English translation of Hispano. For other uses of the term, see Hispano, for most of its modern history, New Mexico belonged to Spain and later Mexico. Like some of the Californios and Tejanos, most settlers in New Mexico were of Spanish ancestry, the descendants of the settlers make up an ethnic community of more than 340,000 in New Mexico, with others in southern Colorado. In Spanish, the predominant term for this group has always been Hispano, analogous to Californio. In New Mexico, the Spanish-speaking population was always greater than those of California. The term is used to differentiate those who settled the area early, around 1598 to 1848. It can also refer to anyone of Spanish or Indo-Hispanic descent native to the American Southwest, the settlers founded San Juan de los Caballeros, the first Spanish settlement in what was called the Kingdom of New Mexico, after the Valley of Mexico. Oñate also conquered the territories of the Pueblo peoples and he became the first governor of New Mexico. The exploitation of Spanish rule under Oñate caused nearly continuous attacks and reprisals from the nomadic Amer-Indian tribes on the borders, especially the Apache, Navajo, there were also major clashes between the Franciscan missionaries and secular and religious authorities. The colonists exploited Indian labor, as was typical in areas of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. In the 1650s, Governor Bernardo López de Mendizabal, and his subordinate Nicolas de Aguilar, enacted a law to force the settlers and Franciscans to pay Native Americans for their work. He opposed what he perceived to be the mistreatment of the Indians by the Franciscans and proposed to allow the Indians to preserve and to practice their culture, religion, the Franciscans protested the law and accused the governor before the Inquisition. Later he was tried in Mexico City, so, the Franciscans indirectly governed the New Mexico province. In the 1640s, the Native American groups that lived along the Rio Grande successfully rose against the Spanish colonizers in what known as the Pueblo Revolt. After forcing the flight of the settlers/invadors from New Mexico, they were able to follow their own customs, when they returned to the province in 1692, Don Diego de Vargas became the new governor of New Mexico. He entered the former bearing a image of La Conquistadora. The Native Americans were so intrigued by the statue of the Virgin Mary that they are reputed to have laid down their arms at the sight of it. At the time of Vargas arrival, New Mexico was under the jurisdiction of the Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara, however, in 1777 with the creation of the Provincias Internas it was included only in the jurisdiction of the Commandant-General
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Tejano
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The Tejano are residents of the state of Texas who are culturally descended from the original Spanish-speaking settlers of Texas and northern Mexico. They may be variously of Criollo Spanish or Mexican American heritage, historically, the Spanish term Tejano has been used to identify various groups of people. During the Spanish colonial era, the term was applied to Spanish settlers of the region now known as the state of Texas. Since the early 20th century, Tejano has been broadly used to identify a Texan Mexican American. It is also a used to identify natives, as opposed to newcomers. Latino people of Texas identify as Tejano if their families were living there before the area was controlled by Anglo Americans, a dilemma arose a few years ago debating if West Texas residents, were considered to be Tejanos. A board committee composed of Odessa and Midland members came to conclusion that people from West Texas are not considered Tejanos as they are categorized as Mexican American people, as early as 1519, Alonso Alvarez de Pineda claimed the area which is now Texas for Spain. The Spanish monarchy paid little attention to the province until 1685, in that year, the Crown learned of a French colony in the region and worried that it might threaten Spanish colonial mines and shipping routes. King Carlos II sent ten expeditions to find the French colony, between 1690 and 1693 expeditions were made to the Texas region, and they acquired better knowledge of it for the provincial government and settlers who came later. These populations shared certain characteristics, yet they were independent of one another, the main unifying factor was their shared responsibility for defending the northern frontier of New Spain. Some of the first settlers were Isleños from the Canary Islands and their families were among the first to reside at the Presidio San Antonio de Bexar in 1731. Soon after, they established the first civil government at La Villa de San Fernando, ranching was a major activity in the Bexar-Goliad area, which consisted of a belt of ranches that extended along the San Antonio River between Bexar and Goliad. The Nacogdoches settlement was located north and east. Tejanos from Nacogdoches traded with the French and Anglo residents of Louisiana, the third settlement was located north of the Rio Grande, toward the Nueces River. The ranchers there were citizens of Spanish origin from Tamaulipas and northern Mexico, in 1840 the northern Mexican states of Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas seceded from Mexico to establish la República del Río Grande with its capital in what is now Laredo, Texas. They did not maintain this status and became part of Mexico again, by 1821 at the end of the Mexican War of Independence, about 4,000 Tejano lived in Mexican Texas alongside a lesser number of foreign settlers. In addition, several thousand Mexicans lived in the areas of Paso del Norte and Nuevo Santander, incorporating Laredo, during the 1820s, many settlers from the United States and other nations moved to Mexican Texas, settling mostly in the eastern area. The passage of a colonization law encouraged immigration, granting them citizenship if they declared loyalty to Mexico
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Louisiana Creole people
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Louisiana Creole people, are persons descended from the inhabitants of colonial Louisiana during the period of both French and Spanish rule. The term creole was originally used by French settlers to distinguish persons born in Louisiana from those born in the country or elsewhere. As in many other societies around the world, creole was a term used to mean those who were native-born. It also came to be applied to African-descended slaves and Native Americans who were born in Louisiana, Louisiana Creoles share cultural ties, such as the traditional use of the French language and a predominance of practice of Catholicism. As more refugees were allowed in Louisiana, Haitian émigrés who had first gone to Cuba also arrived and these groups had strong influences on the city and its culture. Later immigrants to New Orleans, such as Irish, Germans and Italians, Louisiana Creoles are mostly Catholic in religion. Through the 19th century, most spoke French and were connected to French colonial culture. Only the small Spanish Creole communities of Saint Bernard Parish and Galveztown spoke Spanish and they have maintained cultural traditions from the Canary Islands, where their ancestors came from, to the present. The varieties of Louisiana Creoles shaped the culture, particularly in the southern areas around New Orleans. Louisiana is known as the Creole State, other enclaves of Creole culture have been located in south Louisiana, Frilot Cove, Bois Mallet, Grand Marais, Palmetto, Lawtell, Soileau and others. These communities have had a history of cultural independence. Another area where many creoles can be found is within the River Parishes, St. Charles, St. John, and St. James. Through both the French and Spanish regimes, parochial and colonial governments used the term Creole for ethnic French, parisian French was the predominant language among colonists in early New Orleans. Later the regional French evolved to contain local phrases and slang terms, the French Creoles spoke what became known as Colonial French. Because of isolation, the language in the colony developed differently from that in France and it was spoken by the ethnic French and Spanish and their Creole descendants. The commonly accepted definition of Louisiana Creole today is a person descended from ancestors in Louisiana before the Louisiana Purchase by the United States in 1803. An estimated 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century, Louisiana attracted considerably fewer French colonists than did its West Indian colonies. After the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, which lasted more than two months, the colonists had numerous challenges ahead of them in the Louisiana frontier
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Chicano
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Chicano or Chicana is a chosen identity of some Mexican Americans in the United States. The term Chicano is sometimes used interchangeably with Mexican-American, both names are chosen identities within the Mexican-American community in the United States. However, these terms have a range of meanings in various parts of the Southwest. The term became widely used during the Chicano Movement by Mexican Americans to express pride in a cultural, ethnic. Ultimately it was the experience of Mexican Americans in the United States which culminated in the creation of a Chicano identity. Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, however, a gunboat, the Chicana, was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the Rio Grande. The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this conversion from a passenger steamer. No particular explanation of the name is known. The origin of the word chicano is disputed, some claim it is a shortened form of Mexicano. In most cases the sh sound has been replaced with the h sound, the word Chicano would have also been affected by this change. Many Chicanos replace the ch with the x, forming Xicano. In the United States, some Mexican Americans choose the Xicano spelling to emphasize their indigenous ancestry, thus, a newly emigrated Nahuatl speaker in an urban center might referred to his cultural relatives in this country, different from himself, as mexicanos, shortened to chicanos. The Indians later referred to themselves as Meshicanos and even as Shicanos, however, Chicanos generally do not agree that chicamo was ever a word used within the culture, as its assertion is thus far entirely unsubstantiated. Therefore, most self-identifying Chicanos do not agree that Chicano was ever derived from the word chicamo, another hypothesis is that chicano derives from the indigenous population of Guanajuato, the Chichimecas, combined with the word Mexicano. An alternative idea is that it is a form of Chilango. A similar notion is that the word derives from Chichen Itza, Chicano would thus be a Hispanized word for Chichen and Mayans, rather than the Aztec or Nahua people. This seems dubious, as the term is not frequently used other than in reference to Mexican Americans, is not primarily used for Chilean-Americans. Thus far, explanations of the origins of the word remain inconclusive and this is an indication that the term originated as a self-identification
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Costa Rican Americans
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Costa Rican Americans are Americans of Costa Rican descent. The Costa Rican population at the 2010 Census was 126,418, Costa Ricans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the smallest Central American population. Costa Rican populations are prominent in the New York Metropolitan Area, additional areas with significant Costa Rican residents include New York City, Suffolk County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut. There are also groups of Costa Ricans in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, South Florida metropolitan area. There have never been waves of migration from Costa Rica to the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service records indicate that very few Costa Ricans have actually tried to enter the country illegally. This is because, unlike other Hispanic groups, they have not been forced to emigrate to the U. S. for political oppression or extreme economic circumstances. Most Costa Ricans living in the United States have settled in the U. S. for any of the reasons, they have married American citizens. Since 1931 only 57,661 Costa Ricans have immigrated to the United States, hence, the number of Costa Rican emigrants has been increasing very slowly. This is a different from the pattern of emigration from most other Central American countries. The other two countries in this region that have a slow rate of emigration are Belize and Panama. Costa Ricans tend to blend in the English-speaking population or form working and friendly relationships with other Hispanics. If both parents speak Spanish, chances are that the children will be raised bilingually, however, if only one parent speaks Spanish, the children usually grow up speaking only English. Therefore, they usually acculturate and assimilate rapidly, most of Costa Ricans who live in the US live in California, Florida, Texas, and the New York City / New Jersey area. There is a significant Costa Rican American population in the Chicago, Illinois, the geographical preferences of Costa Ricans become evident in the statistics from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, as consistent with the findings of the 1990 census. Jardines - intelligence officer Rosa Mendes - professional wrestler Candice Michelle - professional wrestler, model, actress Alexander Salazar - prelate Harry Shum, Jr. com