1.
Pure Food and Drug Act (band)
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Pure Food and Drug Act was a band that was formed in the early 1970s by Don Sugarcane Harris. The band began with Paul Lagos on drums, Larry Taylor on bass, Resnick was at that time experimenting with a one and two handed tapping technique which later became a standard guitarists tool. The group played small rooms in the Los Angeles area, such as the Troubadour, while the band was searching for a record deal, Larry Taylor allegedly began to tire of Dons constant lateness and irresponsibility and decided to continue his career with John Mayall. At the same time, Harvey Mandel, a Mayall alumnus, was brought in to beef up the accompaniment and to record label interest. To replace Taylor on bass, a newcomer, Victor Conte, was recruited from Common Ground. Conte went on to play in Tower of Power and with Herbie Hancock in his Monster Band, choice Cuts was the bands only album, recorded live in Seattle in 1972, but it was mostly unsuccessful. Allegedly because of Dons unreliable nature, the band rarely rehearsed, live performances included extended solos and improvised ensemble sections, and one song would often last 20 minutes or more. Various line-up changes took place until the band broke up a few years after releasing its first album, PFDA on Sugarcane Harris site Harvey Mandel Victor Conte latest news Randy Resnicks website
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59th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1905 to March 4,1907, during the fifth and sixth years of Theodore Roosevelts presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twelfth Census of the United States in 1900, both chambers had a Republican majority. June 8,1906, Antiquities Act June 29,1906, Hepburn Act June 30,1906, Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, ch. 3915,34 Stat.768 June 30,1906, Meat Inspection Act 1906, Senators are listed by class, and Representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below At this time, Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress, the count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Palmer, Charles A. Stillings Secretary of the Senate, Charles G. Bennett of New York, sergeant at Arms of the Senate, Daniel M. Ransdell of Indiana, elected February 1,1900. Chaplain of the Senate The Rev. Edward E. Hale, Unitarian, clerk of the House, Alexander McDowell of Pennsylvania, elected December 4,1905. Sergeant at Arms of the House, Henry Casson of Wisconsin, doorkeeper of the House, Frank B. Lyon of New York, elected December 4,1905, postmaster of the House, Joseph C. McElroy of Ohio, elected December 4,1905. Clerk at the Speaker’s Table, Asher C, hinds Chaplain, The Rev. Henry N. Couden, Universalist, elected December 4,1905. Biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress, archived from the original on June 1,2006. Archived from the original on June 1,2006, archived from the original on June 1,2006. Official Congressional Directory for the 59th Congress, 1st Session, official Congressional Directory for the 59th Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 59th Congress, 1st Session, official Congressional Directory for the 59th Congress, 2nd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 59th Congress, 2nd Session
3.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
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Gould Amendment
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The Gould Amendment sponsored by Rep. Samuel W. S. Congress. Amendatory and Supplemental Enactments To the Federal Food and Drug Act of 1906
5.
Weldon Brinton Heyburn
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Weldon Brinton Heyburn was a United States Senator from Idaho from 1903 to 1912. Born in southeastern Pennsylvania near Chadds Ford, southwest of Philadelphia and he attended the public schools there, the Maplewood Institute in Concordville, and the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. His brother, William Heyburn, eventually moved west to Louisville, Kentucky, Heyburn studied law under Edward A. Price and was admitted to the bar in 1876, when he commenced practice in Media, with the mining excitement in Colorado, he moved west to Leadville, where he practiced law for several years. In 1883, Heyburn moved to the Silver Valley of northern Idaho, Heyburn was a member of the convention that framed the constitution of the state in 1889. Heyburn was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for election in 1898 to the 56th Congress, in January 1903, Heyburn was elected by the Idaho Legislature to the U. S. Senate, defeating Democrat James Hawley,50 to 17. Boise attorney William Borah was the runner-up for the Republican nomination,28 to 22, others in the race were former Governor and Senator George Shoup, and Judge D. W. Standrod, both dropped out and gave their support to Heyburn. Heyburn was re-elected by the legislature January 1909, and was chairman of the Committee on Manufactures, during his career, he opposed Gifford Pinchots call for national forests because he didnt agree with the federal government controlling vast amounts of land in western states. He also fought Theodore Roosevelt on many of the Progressive Era ideas such as an 8-hour work day and he was interred in Pennsylvania at Birmingham Cemetery near West Chester, Pennsylvania, west of Philadelphia. Heyburn is best remembered for introducing the bill became the Pure Food. In the state of Idaho, the city of Heyburn in Minidoka County is named for him, as well as Mount Heyburn, a jagged peak in the Sawtooth Mountains. The mountain tops out at 10,299 feet above sea level, Heyburn State Park, the Northwests oldest state park, is in Benewah County at the southern end of Lake Coeur dAlene. It was created 109 years ago in 1908, Senator Heyburn had attempted to secure it as a national park, the legislature named it after Heyburn in 1911, while he was still in office. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
6.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
7.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
8.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
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A principal author of this law was Royal S. Copeland, a three-term U. S. In 1968, the Electronic Product Radiation Control provisions were added to the FD&C, the act has been amended many times, most recently to add requirements about bioterrorism preparations. The introduction of this act was influenced by the death of more than 100 patients due to a sulfanilamide medication where diethylene glycol was used to dissolve the drug and it replaced the earlier Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. The FDC Act has ten chapters, I, prohibited Acts and Penalties This section contains both civil law and criminal law clauses. Most violations under the act are civil, though repeated, intentional, notably, the FD&C Act uses strict liability due to the Dotterweich and Park Supreme Court cases. It is one of a small number of criminal statutes that does. Food There is a distinction in food adulteration between those that are added and those that are naturally present, general Authority 704 allows inspections of regulated entities. Inspection results are reported on Form 483, tobacco Products X. Miscellaneous The FD&C is perhaps best known by the consumer because of its use in the naming of food coloring additives, such as FD&C Yellow No.6. The Act made the certification of food color additives mandatory. Some food colorings are generally recognized as safe by the FDA, the FDA lists nine FD&C certified color additives for use in foods in the United States, and numerous D&C colorings allowed only in drugs for external application or cosmetics. Color additives derived from sources, such as vegetables, minerals or animals. Both artificial and naturally derived color additives are subject to standards of safety before their approval for use in foods. There are also D&C colors that are approved for use in pharmaceuticals for external application. The FFDCA requires producers of food additives to demonstrate to a certainty that no harm will result from the intended use of an additive. If the FDA finds an additive to be safe the agency issues a regulation specifying the conditions under which the additive may be safely used, the full definition, can be found in Section 201 of the FD&C Act, which provides for any additional exclusions. If no such evidence exists, they must state this fact clearly on their labeling, bottled water is regulated by the FDA as a food. The Agency has published identity standards for types of water, and regulations covering water processing and bottling, water quality, the FDA can and does inspect cosmetics manufacturing facilities to ensure that cosmetics are not adulterated. On May 28,1976, the FD&C Act was amended to include regulation for medical devices, the amendment required that all medical devices be classified into one of three classes, Class I, Devices that do not require premarket approval or clearance but must follow general controls
9.
Food Quality Protection Act
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The Food Quality Protection Act, or H. R.1627, was passed unanimously by Congress in 1996 and was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on August 3,1996. The EPA has cited this report as a catalyst for the creation of the FQPA, legislation similar to the FQPA was drafted and presented to Congress in 1995 but was never acted on. In 1996, the landscape had changed and new pressures to act on pesticide control reform surfaced. In 1991, a coalition of environmental groups sued the EPA for failing to enforce the Delaney clause, the Delaney clause, an amendment of the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act, banned all food that contained any trace amount of any pesticide that may cause cancer. Although the EPA argued that the legislation was outdated and should not apply to the current situation, the won in 1995. John Cady, president of the National Food Processors Association, praised the legislation for being. based on modern, the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 has the following requirements, The FQPA established a new safety standard that must be applied to all food commodities. In addition to the new standard the EPA now has to consider the risks pesticides might have for infants. The FQPA required the re-testing of all existing pesticide tolerance levels within 10 years, when assessing this risk the EPA is required to take into account the “aggregate risk” and the “cumulative exposure” to pesticides with similar mechanisms of toxicity. To do this the EPA is required to establish new science polices to assess the risks, the FQPA requires the EPA to set tolerances for pesticide uses that fall under section 18 of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act. The EPA has established guidance for assessing the risk for multiroute exposures to pesticide groups determined to have a common mechanism of toxicity. The Agency has also published guidance on determining whether chemicals share a common mechanism of toxicity, the risk calculation is based on dose addition, where individual pesticide exposure levels are scaled by their relative potency and then summed. Some key uncertainties in this include the possibility that relative potency changes with dose. Another caution is that the risk assessments are not complete environmental health evaluations of all chemical exposures. The FQPA mandates that the EPA expedite the approval of reduced risk pesticides, to be considered reduced risk pesticides must have a proven low-impact on human health, have low toxicity to non-target organisms and have a low potential to contaminate groundwater. The FQPA requires the EPA to establish a list of pests that are considered significant to public health, the EPA also provides waiver fees for the pesticides used on pests that are deemed of public health importance. The FQPA mandates the EPA to expedite the review of applications that are requesting the registration of antimicrobial products, the FQPA also exempts certain antimicrobial products from the container provisions in the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act. The FQPA requires the conduction of food consumption surveys that track food consumption, the FQPA mandates the collection of pesticide residue and use data. The FQPA mandated the promotion of integrated pest management solutions, the FQPA requires that pesticide registration be reviewed periodically, with a goal of once every 15 years
10.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
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Consumer protection
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The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. They may also provide protection for those most vulnerable in society. Consumer protection laws are a form of government regulation that aim to protect the rights of consumers, for example, a government may require businesses to disclose detailed information about products—particularly in areas where safety or public health is an issue, such as food. A consumer is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production. Consumer protection can also be asserted via non-government organizations and individuals as consumer activism, Consumer protection law or consumer law is considered an area of law that regulates private law relationships between individual consumers and the businesses that sell those goods and services. Its a way of preventing fraud and scams from service and sales contracts, bill collector regulation, pricing, utility turnoffs, consolidation, the following lists consumer legislation at the nation-state level. In the EU member states Germany and the United Kingdom there is also the applicability of law at the EU level to be considered, in Australia, the corresponding agency is the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission or the individual State Consumer Affairs agencies. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission has responsibility for consumer protection regulation of financial services, however, in practice it does so through privately run EDR schemes such as the Financial Ombudsman Service. Germany as a state of the European Union is bound by the consumer protection directives of the European Union. A minister of the cabinet is responsible for consumer rights. In the current cabinet of Angela Merkel, this is Heiko Maas.84,71 BVerwGE 183), in India The Consumer protection act,1986 is governing consumer protection. Appeal could be filed to the State Consumer Disputes Redress Commissions, in recent years, many effective judgment have been passed by some state and National Consumer Forums. The Sale of Goods Act of 1930 act provides some safeguards to buyers of goods if goods purchased do not fulfill the express or implied conditions, the Civil Code in Taiwan contains five books, General Principles, Obligations, Rights over Things, Family, and Succession. The second book of the Code, the Book of Obligations, the Consumer Protection Commission of Executive Yuan serves as an ombudsman supervising, coordinating, reporting any unsafe products/services and periodically reviewing the legislation. Specifics of the division of labour between the EU and the UK are detailed here, domestic laws originated within the ambit of contract and tort but, with the influence of EU law, it is emerging as an independent area of law. In many circumstances, where law is in question, the matter judicially treated as tort, contract. Consumer Protection issues are dealt with when complaints are made to the Director-General of Fair Trade, the Office of Fair Trading will then investigate, impose an injunction or take the matter to litigation. However, consumers cannot directly complain to the OFT, complaints need to be made to the Citizens Advice Consumer Service who will provide legal advice to complainants, or re-direct the individual complaint to Trading Standards for investigation
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Food and Drug Administration
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The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
13.
The Jungle
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The Jungle is a 1906 novel written by the American journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair. Sinclair wrote the novel to portray the conditions and exploited lives of immigrants in the United States in Chicago. Sinclair famously said of the public reaction I aimed at the publics heart, the book depicts working class poverty, the lack of social supports, harsh and unpleasant living and working conditions, and a hopelessness among many workers. These elements are contrasted with the deeply rooted corruption of people in power, a review by the writer Jack London called it the Uncle Toms Cabin of wage slavery. Sinclair was considered a muckraker, or journalist who exposed corruption in government, in 1904, Sinclair had spent seven weeks gathering information while working incognito in the meatpacking plants of the Chicago stockyards for the newspaper. He first published the novel in form in 1905 in the Socialist newspaper Appeal to Reason. The main character in the book is Jurgis Rudkus, a Lithuanian immigrant trying to make ends meet in Chicago, the book begins with his and Onas wedding feast. He and his family live near the stockyards and meatpacking district and he takes a job at Browns slaughterhouse. Rudkus had thought the US would offer more freedom, but he finds working conditions harsh and he and his young wife struggle to survive. They fall deeply into debt and are prey to con men, hoping to buy a house, they exhaust their savings on the down-payment for a sub-standard slum house, which they cannot afford. The family is eventually evicted after their money is taken, Rudkus had expected to support his wife and other relatives, but eventually all—the women, children, and his sick father—seek work to survive. As the novel progresses, the jobs and means the family uses to stay alive slowly lead to their physical and moral decay, accidents at work and other events lead the family closer to catastrophe. Rudkus father dies as a result from the unsafe work conditions in the meat packing plant. One of the children, Kristoforas, dies from food poisoning, jonas—the other remaining adult male aside from Rudkus—disappears and is never heard from again. Then an injury results in Rudkus being fired from the packing plant. The familys hardships accumulate as Ona confesses that her boss, Connor, had raped her, in revenge, Rudkus attacks Connor, resulting in his arrest and imprisonment. After being released from jail, Rudkus finds that his family has been evicted from their house and he finds them staying in a boarding house, where Ona is in labor with her second child. She dies in childbirth at age eighteen from blood loss, the infant also dies, Rudkus had lacked the money for a doctor
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Upton Sinclair
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Upton Sinclair Jr. was an American writer who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in several genres. Sinclairs work was well-known and popular in the first half of the twentieth century, in 1919, he published The Brass Check, a muckraking exposé of American journalism that publicized the issue of yellow journalism and the limitations of the “free press” in the United States. Four years after publication of The Brass Check, the first code of ethics for journalists was created, Time magazine called him a man with every gift except humor and silence. He is also remembered for the line, It is difficult to get a man to understand something. Many of his novels can be read as historical works, writing during the Progressive Era, Sinclair describes the world of industrialized America from both the working mans point of view and the industrialist. Novels like King Coal, The Coal War, Oil. and The Flivver King describe the conditions of the coal, oil. He attacked J. P. Morgan, whom many regarded as a hero for ending the Panic of 1907, the Flivver King describes the rise of Henry Ford, his wage reform, and the companys Sociological Department to his decline into antisemitism as publisher of The Dearborn Independent. King Coal confronts John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his role in the 1913 Ludlow Massacre in the fields of Colorado. Sinclair was an outspoken socialist and ran unsuccessfully for Congress as a nominee from the Socialist Party, Sinclair was born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Upton Beall Sinclair and Priscilla Harden. His father was a salesman whose alcoholism shadowed his sons childhood. Priscilla Harden Sinclair was a strict Episcopalian who disliked alcohol, tea, as a child, Sinclair slept either on sofas or cross-ways on his parents bed. When his father was out for the night, he would sleep alone in the bed with his mother, Sinclair did not get along with her when he became older because of her strict rules and refusal to allow him independence. His mothers family was affluent, her parents were very prosperous in Baltimore. Sinclair had wealthy maternal grandparents with whom he often stayed and this gave him insight into how both the rich and the poor lived during the late nineteenth century. Living in two social settings affected him and greatly influenced his books, as he was growing up, Uptons family moved frequently as his father was not successful in his career. He developed a love for reading when he was five years old and he read every book his mother owned for a deeper understanding of the world. He did not start school until he was ten years old and he was deficient in math and worked hard to catch up quickly because of his embarrassment. In 1888, the Sinclair family moved to Queens, New York, Upton entered the City College of New York five days before his 14th birthday, on September 15,1892
15.
Food Safety and Inspection Service
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The FSIS draws its authority from the Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906, the Poultry Products Inspection Act of 1957 and the Egg Products Inspection Act of 1970. The FSIS also acts a national health department and is responsible for the safety of public food-related establishments as well as business investigation. Food products that are under the jurisdiction of the FSIS, and thus subject to inspection, are those that contain more than 3% meat or 2% poultry products, with several exceptions, and egg products. Shell eggs, meat and poultry products that are not under the jurisdiction of the FSIS are under the jurisdiction of the United States Food, food-related establishments to ensure that the said businesses follow USDA regulations. More than 7,800 FSIS inspection program personnel are assigned to about 6,200 Federal slaughter, food processing and they verify the processing of tens of billions of pounds of meat and poultry, and billions of pounds of egg products. At slaughter establishments, inspectors perform antemortem inspections to prevent slaughter of diseased animals, then, postmortem examinations are performed to identify diseased carcasses not evident antemortem. Regulations for rapid chilling, adequate trimming and sanitary washing are enforced to reduce microbial contamination, samples are collected for residue testing to ensure antibiotic, pesticide and other residues are below regulatory limits. For cattle, tissue samples are tested for the presence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, in processing plants, procedures and formulations are monitored to ensure that FSIS requirements and standards of identity are met. Inspectors in egg plants primarily monitor pasteurization, in all plants, sanitation, net weight and accurate labeling regulations are enforced. Everyone in the chain, from farmer through consumer, has a responsibility in keeping the food supply safe. Meat, poultry, and processed egg products can be contaminated with bacteria at any point during production, distribution, FDA works closely with other federal agencies that have some role in the regulation of meat, poultry, and processed egg products along the farm-to-table continuum. FSIS is a separate and distinct agency independent from the FDA, FSIS is under the direction of the Department of Agriculture while the FDA is under the direction of the Department of Health and Human Services. The two agencies share responsibilities on various topics concerning food safety, but have different methods of enforcement, for example, both FSIS and the FDA have the authority to regulate food labeling. In March 2014, FSIS implemented a new requirement for labeling,9 CFR Part 412. At times, FSIS requires a food producer to obtain approval of their intended label before the product is entered into the stream of commerce (for products under their jurisdiction. If product is covered by a standard of identity and meets the established standard, the FDA does not require that a food producer, in their jurisdiction, obtain pre-market approval of their label. FSIS takes a role in food labeling where the FDA takes a reactive role in food labeling. The FSIS also has authority in inspection and monitoring of food-related establishments, while the FDA has no jurisdiction regarding restaurants, FSIS derives its authority from the Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906, the Poultry Products Inspection Act of 1957, and the Egg Products Inspection Act of 1970
16.
Alcohol
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In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group is bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the alcohol ethanol, the predominant alcohol in alcoholic beverages. The suffix -ol in non-systematic names also typically indicates that the substance includes a functional group and, so. But many substances, particularly sugars contain hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix, an important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members is the saturated straight chain alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH. The word alcohol is from the Arabic kohl, a used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English, alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide Sb 2S3, hence the essence or spirit of this substance. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic, the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when spirits as a synonym for hard liquor. Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, Vigo wrote, the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium, by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including alcohol of wine, the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia refers to vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum, Johnson glosses alcohol vini as quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat. The words meaning became restricted to spirit of wine in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as alcohols in modern chemistry after 1850, the term ethanol was invented 1892, based on combining the word ethane with ol the last part of alcohol. In the IUPAC system, in naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds ol, e. g. as in methanol and ethanol. When necessary, the position of the group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol, propan-1-ol for CH 3CH 2CH 2OH, propan-2-ol for CH 3CHCH3. If a higher priority group is present, then the prefix hydroxy is used, in other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word alcohol, e. g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary, based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. The primary alcohols have general formulas RCH2OH, the simplest primary alcohol is methanol, for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which R=CH3, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RRCHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol, for the tertiary alcohols the general form is RRRCOH
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Morphine
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Morphine is a pain medication of the opiate type which is found naturally in a number of plants and animals. It acts directly on the nervous system to decrease the feeling of pain. It can be taken for both pain and chronic pain. Morphine is frequently used for pain from myocardial infarction and during labour and it can be given by mouth, by injection into a muscle, by injecting under the skin, intravenously, into the space around the spinal cord, or rectally. Maximum effect is around 20 min when given intravenously and 60 min when given by mouth while duration of effect is three and seven hours. Potentially serious side effects include a decreased respiratory effort and low blood pressure, morphine has a high potential for addiction and abuse. If the dose is reduced after long-term use, withdrawal may occur, common side effects include drowsiness, vomiting, and constipation. Caution is advised when used during pregnancy or breast feeding, as morphine will affect the baby, morphine was first isolated between 1803 and 1805 by Friedrich Sertürner. This is generally believed to be the first isolation of an ingredient from a plant. Merck began marketing it commercially in 1827, morphine was more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic syringe in 1853–1855. Sertürner originally named the substance morphium after the Greek god of dreams, the primary source of morphine is isolation from poppy straw of the opium poppy. In 2013, an estimated 523,000 kilograms of morphine were produced, about 45,000 kilograms were used directly for pain, an increase over the last twenty years of four times. Most use for this purpose was in the developed world, about 70% of morphine is used to make other opioids such as hydromorphone, oxycodone and heroin. It is a Schedule II drug in the United States, Class A in the United Kingdom and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Morphine is sold under trade names. Morphine is used primarily to treat both acute and chronic severe pain and it is also used for pain due to myocardial infarction and for labor pains. Its duration of analgesia is about three to seven hours, however, concerns exist that morphine may increase mortality in the setting of non ST elevation myocardial infarction. Morphine has also traditionally used in the treatment of acute pulmonary edema
18.
Opium
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Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy. The latex also contains the closely related opiates codeine and thebaine, the word meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies. The production of opium has not changed since ancient times, through selective breeding of the Papaver somniferum plant, the content of the phenanthrene alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. For the illegal trade, the morphine is extracted from the opium. It is then converted to heroin which is two to four times as potent, and increases the value by two to four times, the reduced weight and bulk make it easier to smuggle. Evidence from ancient Greece indicate that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, medical poultices, Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, Opium has been actively collected since prehistoric times. Though western scholars typically estimate this to be around 1500 BCE, Indian scholars maintain that the verses and the history contained in them have been orally transmitted thousands of years before. A common name for males in Afghanistan is Redey, which in Pashto means poppy and this term may be derived from the Sanskrit words rddhi and hrdya, which mean magical, a type of medicinal plant, and heart-pleasing, respectively. The upper Asian belt of Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, numerous finds of P. somniferum or P. setigerum from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The first known cultivation of poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil. Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of juice in the morning. Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians, Opium was used with poison hemlock to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. The Ebers Papyrus, c. 1500 BCE, describes a way to stop a child using grains of the poppy plant strained to a pulp. Spongia somnifera, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery, the Egyptians cultivated opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields around 1300 BCE. Opium was traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. By 1100 BCE, opium was cultivated on Cyprus, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of Assyria and Babylonian lands in the 6th century BCE. From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power
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Cannabis
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Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed, the genus is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Cannabis has long used for hemp fibre, for hemp oils, for medicinal purposes. Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber, to satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention, some cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol, the principal psychoactive constituent. Many plants have been bred to produce a maximum of THC. Various compounds, including hashish and hash oil, are extracted from the plant, globally, in 2013,60,400 kilograms of cannabis were produced legally. In 2014 there were an estimated 182.5 million cannabis users and this percentage has not changed significantly between 1998 and 2014. Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb, the leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of thirteen leaflets per leaf, depending on variety. At the top of a plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in a leaf arrangement. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip, however, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration and this venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, the plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term is used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with male and pistillate female flowers occurring on separate plants. It is not unusual, however, for plants to bear both male and female flowers. Male flowers are borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes
20.
Muckraker
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The term muckraker was used in the Progressive Era to characterize reform-minded American journalists who attacked established institutions and leaders as corrupt. They typically had large audiences in popular magazines. The muckrakers played a visible role during the Progressive Era period. Investigative journalists view the muckrakers as early influences and a continuation of watchdog journalism, the term is a reference to a character in John Bunyans classic Pilgrims Progress, the Man with the Muck-rake that rejected salvation to focus on filth. While a literature of reform had already appeared by the mid-19th century, by the 1900s, magazines such as Colliers Weekly, Munseys Magazine and McClures Magazine were already in wide circulation and read avidly by the growing middle class. The January 1903 issue of McClures is considered to be the beginning of muckraking journalism. Ida M. Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens and Ray Stannard Baker, claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens previous article Tweed Days in St. Louis, in McClures October 1902 issue was called the first muckraking article. The muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism, the muckrakers were influenced by both eras. One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the corruption, Lincoln Steffens titled his first muckraking article Tweed Days in St. Louis in comparison with the New York case. Publishers of yellow journals, such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were intent on increasing circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment. Note that in journalism, the idea was to stir up the public with sensationalism. If, in the process, a wrong was exposed that the average man could get indignant about, that was fine. Julius Chambers, New York Tribune, is considered by many to be the original muckraker, Chambers undertook a journalistic investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself committed with the help of some of his friends and his newspapers city editor. His intent was to obtain information about alleged abuse of inmates and this later led to the publication of the book A Mad World and Its Inhabitants. From this time onward, Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the mentally ill, Nellie would go on to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-shop working conditions and other societal injustices. Helen Hunt Jackson – A Century of Dishonor, U. S. policy regarding Native Americans, henry Demarest Lloyd – Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard Oil Company. Ida B. B. O. Flower - author of articles in The Arena from 1889 through 1909 advocating for prison reform, the muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was undergoing changes in style and practice. The growth of services had also contributed to the spread of the objective reporting style
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Samuel Hopkins Adams
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Samuel Hopkins Adams was an American writer, best known for his investigative journalism and muckraking. Adams was born in Dunkirk, New York, Adams was a muckraker, known for exposing public-health injustices. He was the son of Myron Adams, Jr. a minister, Adams attended Hamilton College in Clinton, New York from 1887-1891, he also attended a semester at Union College. In 1907 Adams divorced his wife, Elizabeth Ruffner Noyes, after having two daughters, eight years later Adams married an actress, Jane Peyton. Adams was a friend of both the investigative reporter Ray Stannard Baker and District Attorney Benjamin Darrow. In 1904 Adams became a staffer with McClures Magazine working with Lincoln Steffens, Ida Tarbell. Adams considered himself a writer and used his writings to support himself. In 1905 Adams was hired by Colliers to prepared articles on patent medicines, the series had a huge impact and led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. In 1911, the Supreme Court ruled that the prohibition of falsifications referred only to the ingredients of the medicine and this meant that companies were again free to make false claims about their products. Adams returned to the attack, and in series of articles in Colliers Weekly. His service during World War I for the Committee on Public Information led to Common Cause, Adams was a prolific writer, who wrote fiction as well. Night Bus, one of Adamss many magazine stories, became the basis for the film It Happened One Night, Adamss first solo novel was in 1908, Flying Death, which added to his mystery collection. His best-known novel, Revelry, based on the scandals of the Harding administration, was followed by Incredible Era. Among his other works are The Great American Fraud in Colliers, The Mystery, the Clarion and Success are studies of modern journalism. Average Jones is a series of stories about a detective investigating fraudulent or unusual advertisements, in addition to his many books, Adams also wrote 415 short stories and articles. Tenderloin described the battle between Charles H. Parkhurst and Tammany Hall, the New York Times reviewer H. I. Brock called the book an outstanding period piece and a finale to a long, Tenderloin was adapted into a 1960 musical with book by George Abbott and Jerome Weidman and songs by Jerry Bock and Sheldon Harnick, the team that had created Fiorello. New critic Howard Taubman praised the songs, but complained about a book and said The wages of virtue
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Patent medicine
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A patent medicine, also known as a nostrum is a commercial product advertised as a purported over-the-counter medicine, without regard to its effectiveness. Sellers of liniments, claimed to contain oil and falsely promoted as a cure-all. Few if any of the nostrums were actually patented, chemical patents did not come into use in the United States until 1925, furthermore, patenting one of these remedies would have meant publicly disclosing its ingredients, which most promoters sought to avoid. Advertisement kept these patent medications in the eye and gave the belief that no disease was beyond the cure of patent medication. “The medicine man’s key task quickly became not production but sales, whether unscrupulous or self-deluded, nostrum makers set about this task with cleverness and zeal. ”Instead, the compounders of such nostrums used a primitive version of branding to distinguish their products from the crowd of their competitors. Though sold at high prices, many of products were made from cheap ingredients. Their composition was known within the pharmacy trade, and druggists manufactured. To protect profits, the branded medicine advertisements emphasized brand names, at least in the earliest days, the history of patent medicines is coextensive with scientific medicine. Empirical medicine, and the beginning of the application of the method to medicine. These few remedies, on the hand, were inadequate to cover the bewildering variety of diseases. This led medical men to hope, at least, that, say, given the state of the pharmacopoeia, and patients demands for something to take, physicians began making blunderbuss concoctions of various drugs, proven and unproven. These concoctions were the ancestors of the several nostrums, touting these nostrums was one of the first major projects of the advertising industry. The marketing of nostrums under implausible claims has a long history, within the English-speaking world, patent medicines are as old as journalism. Andersons Pills were first made in England in the 1630s, the recipe was allegedly learned in Venice by a Scot who claimed to be physician to King Charles I, daffys Elixir was invented about 1647 and remained popular in Britain and the USA until the late 19th century. The use of patent to obtain exclusive marketing rights to certain labelled formulas. The use of invented names began early, in 1726 a patent was also granted to the makers of Dr. Batemans Pectoral Drops, at least on the documents that survive, there was no Dr. Bateman. This was the enterprise of a Benjamin Okell and a group of promoters who owned a warehouse, perhaps the most successful industry that grew up out of the business of patent medicine advertisements, though, was founded by William H. Gannetts newspaper became the first publication of Guy Gannett Communications, which eventually owned four Maine dailies, muscle man acts were especially popular on these tours, for this enabled the salesman to tout the physical vigour the product supposedly offered
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Harvey Washington Wiley
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He was the first commissioner of the United States Food and Drug Administration. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal of The Franklin Institute in 1910, Wiley was born on October 18,1844 in a log farmhouse near Kent, in Jefferson County, Indiana, the son of a farmer. He returned to Hanover in 1865 where he majored in the humanities and was a top graduate in 1867 and he received an A. M. there in 1870. Wiley studied at Indiana Medical College where he received his M. D. in 1871 and he was professor of Greek and Latin at Butler College, Indianapolis, 1868-70. After he graduated, Wiley accepted a position teaching chemistry at the medical college and he was also appointed state chemist of Indiana. In 1878, Wiley travelled overseas where he attended the lectures of August Wilhelm von Hofmann — the celebrated German discoverer of several organic tar derivatives, while in Germany, Wiley was elected to the prestigious German Chemical Society founded by Hofmann. Wiley spent most of his time in the Imperial Food Laboratory in Bismarck working with Eugene Sell, mastering the use of the polariscope and studying sugar chemistry. Upon his return to Purdue, Wiley was asked by the Indiana State Board of Health to analyze the sugars and syrups on sale in the state to detect any adulteration. He spent his last years at Purdue studying sorghum culture and sugar chemistry, hoping, as did others and his first published paper in 1881 discussed the adulteration of sugar with glucose. Wiley was offered the position of Chief Chemist in the United States Department of Agriculture by George Loring, the Commissioner of Agriculture, in 1882. Loring was seeking to replace his chemist with someone who could employ a more objective approach to the study of sorghum, the potential of which as a sugar source was far from proven. Wiley accepted the offer after being passed over for the presidency of Purdue, allegedly because he was too young and too jovial, unorthodox in his religious beliefs, and also a bachelor. Wiley brought with him to Washington a practical knowledge of agriculture, an approach to the problems of agricultural industry. These famous poison squad studies drew national attention to the need for a federal food, Wiley soon became a crusader and coalition builder in support of national food and drug regulation. His work, and that of Alice Lakey, spurred one million American women to write to the White House in support of the Pure Food, Wiley was nicknamed the Father of the Pure Food and Drugs Act when it became law in 1906. Wiley wrote two editions of Foods and Their Adulteration, which detailed the history, preparation and subsequent adulteration of foodstuffs to a broad audience. He was also a father of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Wileys tenure was marked by controversy over the administration of the 1906 statute which he had worked so hard to secure, concerns over preserving chemicals, which had not been specifically addressed in the law, continued to be controversial
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Florence Kelley
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Florence Kelley was a social and political reformer. Her work against sweatshops, and for the wage, eight-hour workdays. From its founding in 1899, Kelley served as the first general secretary of the National Consumers League, in 1909, Kelley helped create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Florence was the daughter of William D. Kelley of Philadelphia and he was the son of Hannah and David Kelley. He was a man who become an abolitionist, a founder of the Republican party, a judge. Florences great-aunt, Sarah Pugh, lived as a Quaker and opponent of slavery, pughs decision to deny use of cotton and sugar because of the connection to slave labor made an impression on Florence from an early age. Florence had two brothers and five sisters, all five died in childhood. Three of the sisters were Josephine Bartram Kelley, Caroline Lincoln Kelley, Josephine died at the age of 10 months. Caroline died at the age of four months, Anna died at six years of age. Florence Kelley was a supporter of womens suffrage after her sisters died and worked for numerous political and social reforms. In Zurich, she met various European socialists including Polish-Russian medical student Lazare Wischnewetzky and she is known for her translation of Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England, written in 1844 by Friedrich Engels, with whom she corresponded. As The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 and she appears there as Mrs. F. Kelley Wischnewetzky and was also known as Florence Kelley. In 1882, Kelley attended Cornell University at age 16, at Cornell, she was a Phi Beta Kappa member. Although Kelley desire to study law at the University of Pennsylvania, in the mean time, she pursued her passion for working women by founding and attending evening classes at the New Century Guild for Working Women. Later, she attended the University of Zurich, the first European university to grant degrees to women, Kelley also earned a law degree at Northwestern University of Law in 1894. Kelley was a member of the Intercollegiate Socialist Society, an activist for woman suffrage and she was a follower of Karl Marx and a friend of Friedrich Engels, whose book, The Condition of the Working Class in England, she translated into English. The translation she made is still used today and she assisted with the establishment of the New Century Guild of Philadelphia, along with Gabrielle D. Clements and led by Eliza Sproat Turner. It had classes and programs to assist working women, Florence herself taught evening classes there
25.
Coca-Cola
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Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca-Cola Company. The drinks name refers to two of its ingredients, which were kola nuts and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a secret, although a variety of reported recipes. The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water. A typical 12-US-fluid-ounce can contains 38 grams of sugar, the bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants, the Coca-Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. Based on Interbrands best global brand study of 2015, Coca-Cola was the third most valuable brand. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at Pembertons Eagle Drug and Chemical House and he may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called Kola Coca was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, the patent for this Spanish drink was bought by Coca-Cola in 1953. In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic, in 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacobs Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market, a co-partnership had been formed on January 14,1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen, J. C. Mayfield, A. O. Not codified by any signed document, a statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pembertons company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name Coca-Cola belonged to his son, Charley, Charleys exclusive control over the Coca Cola name became a continual thorn in Asa Candlers side. Candlers oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University, in this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states
26.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
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Cocaine
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Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug. It is commonly snorted, inhaled, or injected into the veins, mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, high doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature. Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes, Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery. Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the pathway in the brain. After a short period of use, there is a risk that dependence will occur. Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar which can result in additional toxicity. Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure, Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This results in concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain. It can easily cross the barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the plant which are mostly grown in South America. In 2013,419 kilograms were produced legally and it is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to 500 billion USD each year. With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine, after cannabis, cocaine is the most frequently used illegal drug globally. Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year, use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America. Between one and three percent of people in the world have used cocaine at some point in their life. In 2013 cocaine use resulted in 4,300 deaths. The leaves of the plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times. Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860, since 1961 the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime
28.
Heroin
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Heroin, also known as diamorphine among other names, is an opiate typically used as a recreational drug for its euphoric effects. Medically it is used to relieve pain and as a form of opioid replacement therapy alongside counseling. Heroin is typically injected, usually into a vein, however, onset of effects is usually rapid and lasts for a few hours. Common side effects include respiratory depression and about a quarter of those who use heroin become physically dependent, other side effects can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood borne infections, constipation, and pneumonia. After a history of use, withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of last use. When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect as a dose of morphine. It typically comes as a white or brown powder, treatment of heroin addiction often includes behavioral therapy and medications. Medications used may include methadone or naltrexone, a heroin overdose may be treated with naloxone. An estimated 17 million people as of 2015 use opiates such as heroin, the total number of opiate users has increased from 1998 to 2007 after which it has remained more or less stable. In the United States about 1.6 percent of people have used heroin at some point in time, when people die from overdosing on a drug, the drug is usually an opioid. Heroin was first made by C. R. Alder Wright in 1874 from morphine, internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. It is generally illegal to make, possess, or sell heroin without a license, in 2015 Afghanistan produced about 66% of the worlds opium. Often heroin, which is sold, is mixed with other substances such as sugar or strychnine. The original trade name of heroin is typically used in non-medical settings and it is used as a recreational drug for the euphoria it induces. Anthropologist Michael Agar once described heroin as the perfect whatever drug, tolerance develops quickly, and increased doses are needed in order to achieve the same effects. Its popularity with recreational users, compared to morphine, reportedly stems from its perceived different effects. In particular, users report an intense rush, an acute transcendent state of euphoria, while other opioids of recreational use produce only morphine, heroin also leaves 6-MAM, also a psycho-active metabolite. Equipotent injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, short-term addiction studies by the same researchers demonstrated that tolerance developed at a similar rate to both heroin and morphine
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Cannabis (drug)
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Cannabis, also known as marijuana among several other names, is a preparation of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug or medicine. The main psychoactive part of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol, one of 483 known compounds in the plant, Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporization, within food, or as an extract. Cannabis is often used for its mental and physical effects, such as a high or stoned feeling, a change in perception, euphoria. Short term side effects may include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, red eyes, long term side effects may include addiction, decreased mental ability in those who started as teenagers, and behavioral problems in children whose mothers used cannabis during pregnancy. Onset of effects is within minutes when smoked and about 30 to 60 minutes when cooked and they last for between two and six hours. Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal drug and it may also be used for religious or spiritual purposes. In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis, in 2015, 43% of Americans had used cannabis, which increased to 51% in 2016. About 12% have used it in the past year, and 7. 3% have used it in the past month and this makes it the most commonly used illegal drug both in the world and the United States. The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC, since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions. The possession, use, and sale of cannabis is illegal in most countries of the world, Medical cannabis refers to the physician-recommended use of cannabis, which is taking place in Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U. S. states. Cannabis use started to become popular in the US in the 1970s, support for legalization has increased in the United States and several US states have legalized recreational or medical use. Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms, however, the use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously scientifically tested, often due to production restrictions and other federal regulations. There is limited evidence suggesting cannabis can be used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS and its use for other medical applications is insufficient for conclusions about safety or efficacy. Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in people. Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, at higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to states such as depersonalization and derealization
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Opiate
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Opiate is a term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a modern term, is used to designate all substances. Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the poppy plant Papaver somniferum. The psychoactive compounds found in the plant include morphine, codeine. All opioids, like opiates, are considered drugs of abuse potential and are listed on various Substance-Control Schedules under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States. In 2013 between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally, opiates belong to the large biosynthetic group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, and are so named because they are naturally occurring alkaloids found in the opium poppy. The major psychoactive opiates are morphine, codeine, and thebaine, papaverine, noscapine, and approximately 24 other alkaloids are also present in opium but have little to no effect on the human central nervous system, and as such are not considered to be opiates. Dihydrocodeine, oxymorphol, oxycodone, oxymorphone, metopon and possibly other derivatives of morphine and/or hydromorphone also are found in trace amounts in opium, despite morphine being the most medically significant opiate, larger quantities of codeine are consumed medically, most of it synthesized from morphine. Codeine has greater and more predictable oral bioavailability, making it easier to titrate the dose, codeine also has less abuse potential than morphine, and because it is milder, larger doses of codeine are required. Opiate withdrawal syndrome effects are associated with the abrupt cessation or reduction of prolonged opiate usage, while the full synthesis of opioids from naphthoquinone or other simple organic starting materials is possible, they are tedious and uneconomical processes. Therefore, most of the opiate-type analgesics in use today are either extracted from Papaver somniferum or synthesized from those opiates, in 2015 researches reported successful biosynthesis of thebaine and hydrocodone using genetically modified yeast. Once scaled for use the process would cut production time from a year to several days. Heroin is one of several semi-synthetic opioids derived from the morphine, although sometimes not considered opiates, as they are not directly derived from natural opium, they are commonly referred to as opiates. Heroin is a prodrug, it is metabolized by the liver into morphine after administration. One of the metabolites of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, is also a morphine prodrug. Nicomorphine, dipropanoylmorphine, desomorphine, methyldesorphine, acetylpropionylmorphine, dibenzoylmorphine, diacetyldihydromorphine, opiate comparison World Health Organization guidelines for the availability and accessibility of controlled substances
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Drug policy reform
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Drug policy reform, also known as drug law reform, is any proposed changes to the way governments respond to the socio-cultural influence on perception of psychoactive substance use. Proponents of drug policy reform believe that prohibition of drugs—such as cannabis, opioids, cocaine, amphetamines and hallucinogens—has been ineffectual, proponents of drug law reform argue that relative harm should be taken into account in the scheduling of controlled substances. The U. S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, centers for Disease Control, rated the hallucinogen psilocybin less toxic than Aspirin. The Dutch government found this also to be true, according to the American Heart Association, Nicotine addiction has historically been one of the hardest addictions to break. The pharmacologic and behavioral characteristics that determine tobacco addiction are similar to those that determine addiction to drugs such as heroin, initial attempts to change the punitive drug laws which were introduced all over the world from the late 1800s onwards were primarily based around recreational use. Timothy Leary was one of the most prominent campaigners for the legal and recreational use of LSD, in 1967, a Legalise pot rally was held in Britain. However, as death toll from the war rose, other organisations began to form to campaign on a more political. The Drug Policy Foundation formed in America and Release, a charity which gives legal advice to drugs users and currently campaigns for drug decriminalization. As of June 30,2014, the initiative has collected 100,000 signatures from citizens in European member states, harm reduction refers to a range of public health policies designed to reduce the harmful consequences associated with recreational drug use and other high risk activities. Harm reduction is put forward as a useful perspective alongside the more conventional approaches of demand and its critics are concerned that tolerating risky or illegal behaviour sends a message to the community that these behaviours are acceptable. Drug decriminalization calls for reduced control and penalties compared to existing laws, a central feature of drug decriminalization is the concept of harm reduction. Portugal was the first country in the world that has decriminalized the use of all drugs and this generally means anyone caught with any type of drug, if it classifies as being for personal consumption rather than sale, will not be imprisoned. However, Mexico City has decriminalized certain drugs and Greece has just announced that it is going to do so, spain has also followed the Portugal model. Italy after waiting 10 years to see the result of the Portugal model, in May 2014, the Criminal Chamber of the Italian Supreme Court upheld a previous decision in 2013 by Italys Constitutional Court, to reduce the penalties for the convictions for sale of soft drugs. Examples of drugs with different levels of regulated distribution in most countries include, caffeine, nicotine, ethyl alcohol, not all proponents of drug re-legalization necessarily share a common ethical framework, and people may adopt this viewpoint for a variety of reasons. In particular, favoring drug re-legalization does not imply approval of drug use, the group does not support the decriminalisation of illegal drugs. The Senlis Council outlined proposals for the implementation of a village based poppy for medicine project and calls for a pilot project for Afghan morphine at the next planting season
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James P. Gray
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James Polin Jim Gray is an American jurist and writer. He was the judge of the Superior Court of Orange County. Gray was the 2012 Libertarian Party vice presidential nominee, as well as the partys 2004 candidate for the United States Senate in California and he is the author of multiple books and a play, and is critical of current American drug laws. He has also been a member of the Board of Councilors of the USC Law School, Gray also introduced Orange County to the Peer Court system, where juvenile defendants travel to a school outside their district to have their actual cases tried by other teenagers. In 2012, Gray was nominated by Libertarian Party convention delegates as the mate of former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson. Gray returned to California and earned a law degree from the University of Southern California Law School in 1971, from 1972 through 1975, Gray practiced law with the Judge Advocate Generals Corps of the U. S. Navy in Guam and California. After five years in practice, he was named to the Santa Ana Municipal Court in 1983 by Governor George Deukmejian. Gray retired as a judge in January 2009, much of his legal career has dealt with drug-related issues. In 2003, he contemplated becoming a candidate for the 2004 Libertarian presidential nomination. In November 2003, he declared his candidacy for the U. S. Senate seat occupied by Barbara Boxer in California, Gray was a keynote speaker at the 2004 Libertarian National Convention. In March 2004 Gray defeated former Libertarian Party of California chair Gail Lightfoot in a primary for the partys nomination for U. S. Senate. Gray suspended his activities while running for the Senate against incumbent Democratic Senator Barbara Boxer. Gray received 216,522 votes,1. 8% of the vote, finishing behind Boxer, Jones. Gray is a critic of drug laws and the War on Drugs. He was a proponent of the Regulate, Control and Tax Cannabis Act of 2010, in early 2011 Gray was one of the four co-sponsors of an initiative called Regulate Marijuana Like Wine. Had it passed, the initiative would have regulated cannabis consumption and production like wine in California, on April 27,2012, the question What would you think of Judge Gray running for Vice President. Was posted from Grays Facebook page, and received positive responses. Gray then confirmed his candidacy for the Libertarian vice-presidential nomination in an letter to the partys Convention delegates
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Prohibition of drugs
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While some drugs are illegal to possess, many governments regulate the manufacture, distribution, marketing, sale and use of certain drugs, for instance through a prescription system. For example, amphetamines may be legal to possess if a doctor has prescribed them, otherwise, only certain drugs are banned with a blanket prohibition against all possession or use. The most widely banned substances include psychoactive drugs, although blanket prohibition also extends to some steroids, many governments do not criminalize the possession of a limited quantity of certain drugs for personal use, while still prohibiting their sale or manufacture, or possession in large quantities. Some laws set a specific volume of a drug, above which is considered ipso jure to be evidence of trafficking or sale of the drug. Some Islamic countries prohibit the use of alcohol, many governments levy a sin tax on alcohol and tobacco products, and restrict alcohol and tobacco from being sold or gifted to a minor. Other common restrictions include bans on outdoor drinking and indoor smoking, in the early 20th Century, many countries had alcohol prohibition. These include The United States, Finland, Norway, Canada, Iceland, the cultivation, use, and trade of psychoactive and other drugs has occurred since ancient times. Concurrently, authorities have often restricted drug possession and trade for a variety of political, in the 20th century, the United States led a major renewed surge in drug prohibition called the War on Drugs. Todays War on Drugs is particularly motivated by the desire to prevent drug use, the prohibition on alcohol under Islamic Sharia law, which is usually attributed to passages in the Quran, dates back to the 7th century. Although Islamic law is interpreted as prohibiting all intoxicants, the ancient practice of hashish smoking has continued throughout the history of Islam. A major campaign against hashish-eating Sufis was conducted in Egypt in the 11th and 12th centuries resulting among other things in the burning of fields of cannabis. In the 14th century, the Islamic scholar Az-Zarkashi spoke of the permissibility of its use for medical purposes if it is established that it is beneficial. In the Ottoman Empire, Murad IV attempted to prohibit coffee drinking to Muslims as haraam, arguing that it was an intoxicant, the early association between coffeehouses and seditious political activities in England, led to the banning of such establishments in the mid-17th century. A number of Asian rulers had similarly enacted early prohibitions, many of which were later overturned by Western colonial powers during the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1360, for example, King Ramathibodi I, of Ayutthaya Kingdom, prohibited opium consumption, the prohibition lasted nearly 500 years until 1851, when King Rama IV allowed Chinese migrants to consume opium. While the Konbaung Dynasty prohibited all intoxicants and stimulants during the reign of King Bodawpaya, as the British colonized parts of Burma from 1852 they overturned local prohibitions and established opium monopolies selling Indian produced opium. In late Qing Imperial China, opium imported by the British East India Company was consumed by all classes in Southern China. Between 1821 and 1837, imports of the drug increased fivefold, the drain of silver to India and widespread social problems that resulted from this consumption prompted the Chinese government to attempt to end the trade
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
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Food safety
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Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards, in this way food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering market to consumer practices, the thought is that food ought to be safe in the market. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In theory, food poisoning is 100% preventable, the five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are, Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods, cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens. Store food at the proper temperature, do use safe water and safe raw materials. This is a derivative of ISO9000. A2003 World Health Organization report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, in 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety. Same for polysorbate E435, see 2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk, only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with No 583/2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary. Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, potential problems associated with product packaging such as leaks in vacuum packs, damage to packaging or pest infestation, as well as problems and diseases spread by pests. Also covers potential causes of cross contamination, catering for customers who are particularly at risk of food-borne illness, as well as those with allergies or intolerance. Correct cleaning and sanitizing procedures, cleaning products and their use. Personal hygiene, hand washing, illness, and protective clothing, Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state-based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines, Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture
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Food contaminant
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Food contamination refers to the presence in food of harmful chemicals and microorganisms which can cause consumer illness. This article addresses the chemical contamination of foods, as opposed to microbiological contamination, the impact of chemical contaminants on consumer health and well-being is often apparent only after many years of processing. Prolonged exposure at low levels. Chemical contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing, chemical contaminants can be classified according to the source of contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product. Agrochemicals are chemicals used in practices and animal husbandry with the intent to increase crops. Such agents include pesticides, plant growth regulators, veterinary drugs, environmental contaminants are chemicals that are present in the environment in which the food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. The physical contact of the food with its environment results in its contamination, there are many cases of banned pesticides or carcinogens found in foods. Greenpeace exposed in 2006 in China that 25% of surveyed supermarkets agricultural products contained banned pesticides, over 70% of tomatoes that tested were found to have the banned pesticide Lindane, and almost 40% of the samples had a mix of three or more types of pesticides. Fruits were also tested in this investigation, tangerines, strawberries, and Kyofung grapes samples were found contaminated by banned pesticides, including the highly toxic Methamidophos. These fruits can also be found in Hong Kong market, greenpeace says there exists no comprehensive monitoring on fruit produce in the Hong Kong as of 2006. In India, soft drinks were found contaminated with levels of pesticides and insecticides, including lindane, DDT, malathion. News of Formaldehyde, a carcinogen was found in Vietnamese national dish, Pho, vegetables and fruits were also found to have banned pesticides. The carcinogen in Asian sauces is 3-MCPD and its metabolite 1, 3-DCP, there is a risk that it may induce choking and vomiting, and also that it may be contaminated by toxic substances. Views differ as to the level of risk it poses to the inadvertent consumer, in most countries, people working in the food industry are required to cover their hair because it will contaminate the food. When people are served food which contains hair in restaurants or cafés, there are a range of possible reasons for the objection to hair in food, ranging from cultural taboos to the simple fact that it is difficult to digest and unpleasant to eat. It may also be interpreted as a sign of more problems with hygiene. The introduction of complete-capture hairnets is believed to have resulted in a decrease in incidents of contamination of this type, sometimes protein from human hair is used as a food ingredient, in bread and other such similar products. Such use of hair in food is forbidden in Islam. Historically, in Judaism, finding hair in food was a sign of bad luck, processing contaminants are generated during the processing of foods
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