1.
Abul A'la Maududi
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Syed Abul Ala Maududi was an Islamist philosopher, jurist, journalist and imam. His numerous works were written in Urdu, but then translated into English, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Burmese and many other languages. He strove not only to revive Islam as a renewer of the religion, but to propagate true Islam and he was the founder of the Jamaat-e-Islami, the largest Islamic organisation in Asia. He and his party are thought to have been the pioneer in politicizing islam and he was the first recipient of the Saudi Arabian King Faisal International Award for his service to Islam in 1979. After his death his Gayby Salat al-Janazah in Mecca, making him the person in history whose prayer was observed in the Kaaba. Maududi was born in Aurangabad India, then part of the princely state enclave of Hyderabad and he was the youngest of three sons of Maulana Ahmad Hasan, a lawyer by profession. His fathers mother was related to Islamic modernist thinker Sayyid Ahmad Khan, at an early age, until he was nine, Maududi was given home education, he received religious nurture at the hands of his father and from a variety of teachers employed by him. As his father wanted him to become a maulvi, this consisted of learning Arabic, Persian, Islamic law. He reportedly translated Qasim Amins The New Woman from Arabic into Urdu at the age of 14, and about 3,500 pages from Asfar and he then moved to a more traditionalist Darul Uloom in Hyderabad. In 1919, by the time he was 16, and still a modernist in mindset, he moved to Delhi and read books by his distant relative, comparing their contribution to that of Muslims, he concluded that the latters did not reach even 1 percent. From 1924 to 1927 Maududi was the editor of al-Jamiah, the newspaper of the Jamiyat-i Ulama, always interested in independence from the British, Maududi lost faith in the Congress Party and its Muslim allies in the 1920s as the party developed an increasingly Hindu identity. He began to turn more towards Islam, and believed that Democracy could be an option for Muslims only if the majority of Indians were Muslim. Maududi spent some time in Delhi as a man but went back to Hyderabad in 1928. It was from 1933 to 1941 that Maududis most important and influential works were published, Nasr describes his role at the time as a ideologue rather than a journalist he was earlier, or the political activist he became after founding his party. The government of Hyderabad helped support the journal buying 300 subscriptions which it donated to libraries around India, Maududi was alarmed by the decline of Muslim ruled Hyderabad, the increasing secularism and lack of Purdah among Muslim women in Delhi. By 1937 he became in conflict with Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and its support for a pluralistic Indian society where the Jamiat hoped Muslims could thrive, without sacrificing their identity or interests. In that year he also married Mahmudah Begum, a woman from an old Muslim family with financial resources. The family provide financial help and allowed him to himself to research and political action, but his wife had liberated, modern ways
2.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
3.
Urdu
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Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
4.
Ahmadiyya
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Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded in Punjab, British India, near the end of the 19th century. He claimed to have been appointed as the Mujaddid of Islam. The adherents of the Ahmadiyya movement are referred to as Ahmadi Muslims or simply Ahmadis, Ahmadiyya adherents believe that Ahmad appeared in the likeness of Jesus, to end religious wars, condemn bloodshed and reinstitute morality, justice, and peace. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the movement on 23 March 1889. The Ahmadis have a strong tradition and were among the earliest Muslim communities to arrive in Britain. Currently, the community is led by its Caliph, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the population is almost entirely contained in the single, highly organized and united movement. In this sense there is one major branch. Some Ahmadiyya-specific beliefs have been thought of as opposed to contemporary mainstream Islamic thought since the movements birth, many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either kafirs or heretics. In a manifesto dated 4 November 1900, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad explained that the name did not refer to himself but to Ahmad, the alternative name of Muhammad. According to Ahmad, these names refer to two aspects or phases of Islam, and in later times it was the latter aspect that commanded greater attention. He also called it the Ahmadiyya madhab, And it is permissible that this also be referred to as ‘Muslims of the Aḥmadī way. Ahmadi beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, than they are with the Shia tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Quran as their text, face the Kaaba during prayer, practice the Sunnah. These are the central beliefs constituting Ahmadi Muslim thought, the distinguishing feature of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is their belief in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, as prophesied by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Through the proclamation of truth and by putting an end to conflicts, I should bring about peace. I am called upon to demonstrate spirituality which lies buried under egoistic darkness and it is for me to demonstrate by practice, and not by words alone, the Divine powers which penetrate into a human being and are manifested through prayer or attention. All this will be accomplished, not through my power, but through the power of the Almighty God, Who is the God of heaven and he believed that his message had special relevance for the Western world, which, he believed, had descended into materialism. The message which the founders of these religions brought was, therefore, essentially the same as that of Islam, the completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the advent of Muhammad
5.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
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Mirzā Ghulām Ahmad was an Indian religious leader and the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam. Born in 1835 to a prominent family in Qadian, Ghulam Ahmad emerged as a writer and debater for Islam, when he was just over forty years of age, his father died and around that time he believed that God began to communicate with him. An event that marks the establishment of the Ahmadiyya movement and he is known to have engaged in numerous public debates and dialogues with Christian missionaries, Muslim scholars and Hindu revivalists. He advocated a peaceful propagation of Islam and emphatically argued against the permissibility of military Jihad under circumstances prevailing in the present age, after his death he was succeeded by his close companion Hakīm Noor-ud-Dīn who assumed the title of Khalīfatul Masīh. Although Ghulam Ahmad is revered by Ahmadi Muslims as the promised Messiah and Imām Mahdi, Mirza Ghulam Ahmads lineage through his forefathers can be traced back to Mirza Hadi Beg, a descendant of the Mughal Barlas tribe. The Barlas tribe was of Turco-Mongol ancestry, in 1530 Mirza Hadi Beg migrated from Samarkand along with an entourage of two hundred persons consisting of his family, servants and followers. Travelling through Samarkand, they settled in the Punjab, India. The family were all known as Mughals within the British governmental records of India probably due to the positions it occupied within the Mughal empire. Mirza Hadi Beg was granted a Jagir of several hundred villages and was appointed the Qadhi of Qadian, the descendants of Mirza Hadi are said to have held important positions within the Mughal empire and had consecutively been the chieftains of Qadian. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was born on 13 February 1835 in Qadian, Punjab and he was born in the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He learned to read the Arabic text of the Quran and studied basic Arabic grammar, at the age of 10, he learned from a teacher named Fazl Ahmad. Again at the age of 17 or 18, he learnt from a teacher named Gul Ali Shah, in addition, he also studied some works on medicine from his father, Mirza Ghulam Murtaza, who was a physician. From 1864 to 1868, upon his fathers wishes, Ghulam Ahmad worked as a clerk in Sialkot, after 1868, he returned to Qadian, as per his fathers wishes, where he was entrusted to look after some estate affairs. During all this time, Ahmad was known as a recluse because he would spend most of his time in seclusion studying religious books. As time passed, he began to engage more with the Christian missionaries and he would often confront them in public debates, especially the ones based in the town of Batala. In 1886, certain leaders of the Arya Samaj held discussion and debate with Ghulam Ahmad about the truthfulness of Islam and asked for a sign to prove that Islam was a living religion. In order to dedicate special prayers for this purpose and so as to further divine guidance. Here, he spent forty days in seclusion, a known as chilla-nashini
6.
Muhammad Iqbal
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He is called the Spiritual father of Pakistan. He is considered one of the most important figures in Urdu literature, Iqbal is admired as a prominent poet by Pakistanis, Indians, Iranians, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans and other international scholars of literature. Though Iqbal is best known as an eminent poet, he is also a highly acclaimed Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times and his first poetry book, Asrar-e-Khudi, appeared in the Persian language in 1915, and other books of poetry include Rumuz-i-Bekhudi, Payam-i-Mashriq and Zabur-i-Ajam. Amongst these, his best known Urdu works are Bang-i-Dara, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i Kalim, along with his Urdu and Persian poetry, his Urdu and English lectures and letters have been very influential in cultural, social, religious and political disputes. In 1922, he was knighted by King George V, granting him the title Sir, while studying law and philosophy in England, Iqbal became a member of the London branch of the All-India Muslim League. In much of South Asia and the Urdu speaking world, Iqbal is regarded as the Shair-e-Mashriq and he is also called Mufakkir-e-Pakistan, Musawar-e-Pakistan and Hakeem-ul-Ummat. The Pakistan government officially named him a national poet and his birthday Yōm-e Welādat-e Muḥammad Iqbāl, or Iqbal Day, is a public holiday in Pakistan. In India he is remembered as the author of the popular song Saare Jahaan Se Achcha. Iqbal was born on 9 November 1877 in Sialkot within the Punjab Province of British India and his grandparents were Kashmiri Pandits, the Brahmins of the Sapru clan from Kashmir who converted to Islam. In the 19th century, when the Sikh Empire was conquering Kashmir, Iqbal often mentioned and commemorated his Kashmiri Pandit Brahmin lineage in his writings. Iqbals father, Sheikh Noor Muhammad, was a tailor, not formally educated, Iqbals mother Imam Bibi was a polite and humble woman who helped the poor and solved the problems of neighbours. She died on 9 November 1914 in Sialkot, Iqbal loved his mother, and on her death he expressed his feelings of pathos in a poetic form elegy. Who would wait for me anxiously in my native place, who would display restlessness if my letter fails to arrive. I will visit thy grave with this complaint, Who will now think of me in midnight prayers, All thy life thy love served me with devotion— When I became fit to serve thee, thou hast departed. Iqbal was four years old when he was admitted to the masjid to learn the Quran and he learned the Arabic language from his teacher Syed Mir Hassan, the head of the madrassa and professor of Arabic language at Scotch Mission College in Sialkot, where he matriculated in 1893. He received Intermediate with the Faculty of Arts diploma from Murray College Sialkot in 1895, the same year he enrolled at the Government College Lahore where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts in philosophy, English literature and Arabic in 1897, and won the Khan Bahadurddin F. S. Jalaluddin medal as he took higher numbers in Arabic class, in 1899, he received his Masters of Arts degree from the same college and had the first place in Punjab University, Lahore. Iqbal married three times, in 1895 while studying Bachelor of Arts he had his first marriage with Karim Bibi and they had daughter Miraj Begum and son Aftab Iqbal
7.
Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru
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Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India and a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He is considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state, a sovereign, socialist, secular and he was also known as Pandit Nehru due to his roots with the Kashmiri Pandit community while many Indian children knew him as Chacha Nehru. The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman and Swaroop Rani, Nehru was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, where he trained to be a barrister. Upon his return to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court, and took an interest in national politics, a committed nationalist since his teenage years, he became a rising figure in Indian politics during the upheavals of the 1910s. He became the prominent leader of the factions of the Indian National Congress during the 1920s. As Congress President in 1929, Nehru called for independence from the British Raj. Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s as the country moved towards independence, but these achievements were seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in 1942, which saw the British effectively crush the Congress as a political organisation. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and now bête noire, negotiations between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and gave way to the independence and bloody partition of India in 1947. As Prime Minister, he set out to realise his vision of India, the Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms. Chiefly, he oversaw Indias transition from a colony to a republic, while nurturing a plural, in foreign policy, he took a leading role in Non-Alignment while projecting India as a regional hegemon in South Asia. Under Nehrus leadership, the Congress emerged as a party, dominating national and state-level politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951,1957. He remained popular with the people of India in spite of troubles in his final years. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Childrens Day, Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru, a barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu, who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore, was Motilals second wife, Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls. The elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly, the youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother. Nehru described his childhood as a sheltered and uneventful one and he grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at wealthy homes including a palatial estate called the Anand Bhawan. His father had him educated at home by governesses and tutors
8.
Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad
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Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad, was Khalifatul Masih II, Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and the eldest son of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad from his second wife, Nusrat Jahan Begum. He was elected as the successor of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad on 14 March 1914 at the age of 25. He is also known for his Tafsīr-e-Kabīr, an exegesis of the Quran. A renowned orator, Mahmood Ahmad was also a political figure especially in pre-independence India. He was also one of the members and the first president of the All India Kashmir Committee set up for the establishment of the civil rights of Kashmiri Muslims. An incomplete 25 volume compilation of his works called anwārul uloom contains over 800 writings, Mahmood Ahmad is regarded by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community as the Musleh Maood and the Promised Son that Ghulam Ahmad foretold God would bestow upon him. He was born to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad and Nusrat Jahan Begum on 12 January 1889 in Qadian, Punjab, India, accounts of his early childhood describe him to be playful and carefree. However, due to excessive illness Mahmood Ahmad was unable to attend to secondary education, during his youth, he remained an active member in the service of his fathers Movement by founding a journal entitled Tashheezul Azhaan and accompanied him on many of his journeys. In 1907, he claimed to have taught the commentary of Surah Al-Fatiha. According to Mahmood Ahmad, this signified that God had placed the knowledge of the Quran in his mind in the form of a seed. From that point forward, he is said to have been granted special knowledge of the commentary of the Quran, on 26 May 1908 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad died in Lahore when Mahmood Ahmad was 19 years old. The next day on 27 May 1908, he gave the oath of allegiance to Hakeem Noor-ud-Din, who had been chosen as the first successor of Ghulam Ahmad. After the passing of his father, Mahmood Ahmad continued to study the Quran, Sahih Bukhari, Noor-ud-Din would eventually become one of the leading influences in Mahmoods life. He also began writing articles for periodicals for the Community. In July 1911, He was appointed as Ameer of Jamat e Ahmadiyya Multan by Khalifahtul Masih I, Mahmood Ahmad visited Egypt and Arabia in September 1912 during the course of which he performed Hajj. Upon his return to Qadian in June 1913, he started a newspaper, within the Community, the newspaper serves as a vehicle for the moral upbringing of its members, preaching Islam and the preservation of history of the Community. On 13 March 1914, Khalifatul Masih I Hakeem Noor-ud-Din died shortly after 2 p. m. in Qadian, India. Being unprepared, he turned to Maulvi Syed Sarwar Shah and said Maulvi Sahib, will you kindly instruct me in it
9.
Jamat e Islami
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Jamaat-e-Islami is a social conservative, and Islamist political party. Its objective is to make Pakistan an Islamic state, governed by Sharia law, through a gradual legal, JI strongly opposes capitalism, communism, liberalism, socialism and secularism as well as economic practices such as offering bank interest. JI is a party, its members form an elite with affiliates. The party leader is called an ameer, although it does not have a large popular following, the party is quite influential and considered one of the major Islamic movements in Pakistan, along with Deobandi and Barelvi. JI came to its foundation in Lahore in 1941 in British India by the Muslim theologian and socio-political philosopher. In 1947, JI moved its operations to West Pakistan after independence, members who remained in India formed an independent organisation, Jamaat-e-Islami Hind. In 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War, JI opposed the independence of Bangladesh, however, in 1975, it established a new branch, Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami in the new nation. Abbas Ali Khan was the founder & first Ameer of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami, other offshoots of Jamaat-e-Islami, include Jamaat-e-Islami Hind in India, and Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir in Jammu & Kashmir. The JI maintains close ties with these and other international Muslim groups, jamaat-e-Islamis founder and leader until 1972, was Abul Ala Maududi, a widely read Islamist philosopher and political commentator, who wrote about the role of Islam in South Asia. He supported what he called Islamization from above, through an Islamic state in which sovereignty would be exercised in the name of Allah, Maududi opposed British rule but also opposed the Muslim nationalist movement and their plan for a circumscribed Muslim state. Maududi agitating instead for an Islamic state covering the whole of India—this despite the fact Muslims made up only one quarter of Indias population. In 1940, at the time of the Pakistan Resolution, Maududi taught that Pakistan was destined to be an Islamic missionary nation and this was in comparison to scholars of the Indian Congress who promoted the formation of a sub-continent united against British rule. To Maududi, a united sub-continent would be worse than British rule and he likened the Congress to Robert Clive, and Arthur Wellesley, and Muslim followers of the Congress to collaborators like Mir Jafar and Mir Sadiq. He compared nationalism and communism to the Shuddhi movement, Maududi also criticised the nationalist, Husain Ahmad Madani for promoting unity through a combined governance and justice system or a majority based political system. The Joint Secretary of the All India Muslim League and expert in law and Islam, Zafar Ahmed Ansari. Jamaat-e-Islami was founded on 26 August 1941, at Islamia Park, JI began as a Islamist social and political movement. Seventy-five people attended the first meeting and became the first 75 members of the movement, as a vanguard party, its fully-fledged members are intended to be leaders and devoted to the party, but there is also a category of much more numerous sympathizers and workers. The emir is obliged by the party constitution to consult an assembly called the shura, the JI also developed sub-organizations, such as those for women and students
10.
Ulama
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Ulama are those recognized as scholars or authorities in the religious hierarchy of the Islamic religious studies. They are the guardians of legal and religious tradition in Islam, often they are Imams of important mosques, judges, teachers in the religious faculties of universities. Most ulama specialize in fiqh, and are considered the arbiters of law by mainstream Muslims. Ulama may also include specialists in areas such as muhaddith. Ulama is the plural of the word ‘alīm, which is derived from the word ‘ilm, sources used in the development of Sharia such as hadith, Ijma, and Qias, or for Shia ulama aql, are all the province of the ulama. At times in Muslim history the ulama have even served as a branch of government. On the other hand, the term is no longer confined to the Arabic bounds and is now taken with a broader meaning, the word ‘alīm is used twice in the Quran, but not necessarily in the same manner as its application in the Muslim community today. Syed, ‘alīm in the Quran refers to scientists, indicating the high importance afforded by the Quran to the physical sciences, the formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with issues of authority. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafii, laws were decided based on the Ijma of the Ummah, which was most often represented by the legal scholars. In order to qualify as a scholar, it was necessary obtain a doctorate known as the ijazat attadris wa l-ifttd from a Madrasah. In many ways, classical Islamic law functioned like a constitutional law, during the Ottoman era, the term ulama was commonly applied to scholars who had completed their madrasa training and gained an icazet. They had to be an expert in all the religious sciences, in addition, the student had to have been tested and approved by higher ranking ulama. Such assessment by experts gave the ulama legitimacy in the eyes of the public, in 14th and 15th century Ottoman Empire, there were not many madrasahs, and so the ulama traveled to countries such as Persia and Egypt to further their education. Upon the conquering of Istanbul, the sultan converted eight churches into madrasahs, Ulama worked as priest-like authorities who had the role of interpreting and enforcing Islamic shariah law. These jobs were distributed between two types of ulama, the Muftis, who interpreted Shariah law, and the Qadi, the Ottomans had a strict hierarchy of ulama, with the Sheikh ul-Islam holding the highest rank. A Sheikh ul-Islam was chosen by a royal warrant amongst the qadis of important cities, the Sheikh ul-Islam had the power to confirm new sultans, but once the sultan was affirmed, the sultan retained a higher authority than the Sheik ul-Islam. The Sheikh ul-Islam issued fatwas, which were written interpretations of the Quran that had authority over the community, the Sheikh ul-Islam represented the law of shariah and in the 16th century its importance rose which led to increased power
11.
Muhammad Zafarullah Khan
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Born in Sialkot, British India, Khan was educated as a lawyer at the GC University and the Kings College London. Khan went on to serve as a member of Punjab Legislative Council between 1926 and 1931, and was a delegate in 1930,1931, and 1932 to the Round Table Conferences on Indian reforms in London, England. He became a member of the All-India Muslim League which led the Pakistan movement, in 1935, he became the Minister of Railway of British India, and sat on the British Viceroys Executive Council as its Muslim member from 1935 to 1941. In 1939 he travelled to Geneva to represent India at the League of Nations, in September 1941, Khan became a judge on the Federal Court of India and remained on the court until the partition of India. Khan became one of the most vocal proponents of Pakistan and led the case for the nation in the Radcliffe Commission which drew the countries of modern-day South Asia. He moved to Karachi in August 1947 and became a member of Pakistans first cabinet serving as the countrys foreign minister under the Liaquat administration. He remained Pakistans top diplomat until 1954 when he left to serve on the International Court of Justice and he left the Hague in 1961 to become the Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United Nations, a position he served until 1964. During his time at the UN, he represented the State of Palestine in a de facto capacity. He left the UN in 1964 to return to the ICJ and, in 1970, he became the first and only Pakistani to serve as the President of the International Court of Justice, a position he maintained until 1973. He returned to Pakistan and retired in Lahore where he died in 1985 at the age of 92, Khan is considered as one of the leading founding fathers of Pakistan and a prominent member of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan. He authored several books on Islam both in Urdu and English, Khan was born on 6th February 1893 in Sialkot and acquired his early education at the American Missionary School in Sialkot. Khans father was Ch. Nasrullah Khan who was the attorney of his native city of Daska. His father belonged to the Sahi Jat clan while his mother was of the Bajwa Jat clan, sir Zafarullah Khan was very close to his mother and inspired by her courage and devotion to her religion and even wrote a book called My Mother. He studied at Government College, Lahore and received his LL. B. from Kings College London and he was called to the bar at Lincolns Inn, London. He practised law in Sialkot and Lahore, became a member of the Punjab Legislative Council in 1926 and he participated at the Round Table Conferences held from 1930 to 1932 and became the Minister of Railways in May 1935. In 1939, he represented India at the League of Nations, from 1935 to 1941, he was a member of the Executive Council of the Viceroy of India. Within the Muslim League Working Committee, various sub-committees were established, however, when the British saw that their objectives could not be met, they unilaterally rejected all proposals submitted by the Muslims. Orthodox Muslims would become irritated if they found that this proposal was prepared by an Ahmadi, the Viceroy stated that Muhammad Ali Jinnah had been given a copy to gain acceptance from the Muslim League and publicise its contents
12.
1953 Lahore riots
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One of the major controversial differences between Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims is their different interpretations of Khatam an-Nabiyyin. Sunni and Shia Muslims are awaiting the coming of the Mahdi, after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Ahmadis prospered and reached many high ranking Government and Military positions in Pakistan, due to an extremely high Literacy rate. They held up stay as an important political force in Pakistan, due to its support for secularism and this group was disillusioned and disorganized after 1947 and politically isolated. Even before partition one of its primary targets was the Ahmadiyya movement, however, in 1949, the Majlis-e-Ahrar launched countrywide campaigns and protests resulting in a ban on Majlis-e-Ahrar in 1954. The ultimatum stated unless three demands were met, Removal of Zafarullah Khan from the ministry, Removal of Ahmadis from top government offices. Majlis-e-Amal would resort to direct action, the ultimatum was rejected and disturbances commenced. On March 6 martial law was declared, two people were killed by police prior to martial law and casualties admitted by the military caused in quelling the disturbances in Lahore were eleven killed and 49 wounded. Next on April 17, using his powers under the Government of India Act 1935, Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Prime Minister, Khwaja Nazimuddin. Bogra, who did not know why he was being called back, on 19 June 1953 a Court Of Inquiry was established to look into disturbances, known as the Punjab Disturbances Court Of Inquiry. The inquiry commenced on 1 July and held 117 sittings, the evidence was concluded on 23 January 1954 and arguments in the case lasted to 28 February 1954. Conclusions were formulated and the report issued 10 April 1954, jan After the convention of the All Pakistan Muslim League at Dhaka, anti-Ahmadiyya elements threatened to take direct action after 22nd Feb.1953, if their demands were not met. Feb 01 - Burial of an Ahmadi was resisted by anti-Ahmadiyya elements in Sargodha, Feb 23 - Anti-Ahmadiyya riots broke out in West Pakistan specially in Punjab Province. Feb 27 - Publication of Alfazal, a publication of the Ahmadiyya community, the vacuum was filled by the publication of Farooq. The first issue of Farooq was published on 4 March but after the second issue, Mar 05 - Master Manzoor Ahmed, a teacher was killed in Baghbanpura, Lahore. Mar 06 - Ahmadiyya Noor Mosque, Rawalpindi was attacked and set on fire by a mob, press belonging to an Ahmadi was burnt. Many shops and houses belonging to Ahmadis and the President of Jamaat Ahmadiyya, Mar 06 - Countrywide riots including torture, murder attempts and arson started against the Ahmadiyya especially in Lahore. Mar 06 - Martial law was declared in Lahore Mar 08 - Havaldar Abdul Ghafoor, Mar 12 - Additional Magistrate Jhang prohibited the Supreme Head of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community from commenting on anti-Ahmadiyya riots and the anti-Ahmadiyya movement. Apr 01 - Mirza Shareef Ahmad and Mirza Nasir Ahmad were arrested in Lahore during the riots and they were released on 28 May
13.
Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
14.
Vali Nasr
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Vali Reza Nasr is an Iranian-American academic and author specializing in the Middle East and the Islamic world. He is currently Dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies in Washington, D. C. and he is described by The Economist as a leading world authority on Shia Islam. Son of Iranian academic Hossein Nasr, Vali Nasr was born in Tehran in 1960, went to school in England at age 16 and he received his BA from Tufts University in International Relations summa cum laude. He earned his masters in International Economics and Middle East Studies from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in 1984 and he is a Life Member of the Council on Foreign Relations. Nasr is a political scientist by training and has focused on comparative politics, nasrs writing has addressed politics and Islamic activism in Pakistan, in Iran and throughout the Arab world. He has highlighted the role of states in Islamization and the importance of identity in Middle East politics. His book Forces of Fortune focused on the importance of a new class to future of the Muslim world. He appeared on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart on 1 August 2006,22 September 2009, due to the accuracy of his political predictions Nasr has been hailed as a shrewd forecaster. Nasr is the son of Hossein Nasr, a prominent Iranian academic and he is married to Darya, a technology executive. They have three children, sons Amir and Hossein, and daughter Donia. K
15.
Islamic studies
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Islamic studies is the academic study of Islam and Islamic culture. Islamic studies can be seen under at least two perspectives, From a secular or neutral point of view, Islamic studies do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture independent of faith. In this respect, Islamic studies neither engage in shaping Muslim faith by making Islamic theology, from a Muslim point of view, Islamic studies also do academic research on Islam and Islamic culture, but from a faithful perspective. Historically, both perspectives had been separated by the separation of the Western and Islamic worlds. They differed in their understanding of academia and were organized either in universities or madrasas, scholars of Islamic studies are called by their special field of study, as e. g. historian, sociologist, or political scientist, or in general a scholar of Islamic studies. The professional title Islamicist is dated, scholars of Islamic studies from a faithful point of view can be historians etc. too, yet they also can be called Muslim scholar, teacher of religion, cleric, or Ulama. In a Muslim context, Islamic studies is the term for the Islamic sciences. Specialists in the discipline apply methods adapted from several fields, ranging from Biblical studies and classical philology to modern history, legal history. Scholars in the field of academic Islamic studies are often referred to as Islamicists, in fact, some of the more traditional Western universities still confer degrees in Arabic and Islamic studies under the primary title of Oriental studies. This is the case, for example, at the University of Oxford, the first attempt to understand Islam as a topic of modern scholarship was within the context of 19th-century Christian European Oriental studies. Some orientalists praised the tolerance of Islamic countries in contrast with the Christian West. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, philological and historical approaches were predominant, leading in the field were German researchers like Theodore Nöldeke s study on the history of the Quran, or Ignaz Goldziher s work on the prophetic tradition. Western orientalists and Muslim scholars alike preferred to interpret the history of Islam in a conservative way and they did not question the traditional account of the early time of Islam, of Muhammad and how the Quran was written. To understand the history of Islam provides the basis to understand all aspects of Islam. Themes of special interest are, Historiography of early Islam History of the Quran Historicity of Muhammad Early Muslim conquests Kalam is one of the sciences of Islam. In Arabic, the word means discussion and refers to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic, a scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim. Islamic eschatology Sufism is a tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart. It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism, while other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love
