1.
Crochet
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Crochet is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials using a crochet hook. The name is derived from the French term crochet, meaning small hook and these are made of materials such as metal, wood, or plastic and are manufactured commercially and produced in artisan workshops. The word crochet is derived from the Old French crochet, a diminutive of croche, in turn from the Germanic croc, although that fabric is not known to be crochet in the present sense, a genealogical relationship between the techniques sharing that name appears likely. Knitted textiles survive from early periods but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric relates to its appearance in Europe during the 19th century, earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a separate looped yarn technique. The first known published instructions for crochet explicitly using that term to designate the craft in its present sense and this includes a color plate showing five different style purses of which three were intended to be crocheted with silk thread. The first is simple open crochet, a mesh of chain-stitch arches, the second starts in a semi-open form, where chain-stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with double-crochet stitches. The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet, the instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle and introduce a number of decorative techniques. The earliest dated English reference to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook — shepherds knitting — is in, The Memoirs of a Highland Lady, by Elizabeth Grant. The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of Penélopé describes and illustrates a shepherds hook, in 1842, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states, Crochet needles, sometimes called Shepherds hooks, are made of steel, ivory, or box-wood. They have a hook at one end similar in shape to a fish-hook, by which the wool or silk is caught and these instruments are to be procured of various sizes. It derives its present name from the French, the instrument with which it is worked being by them, from its crooked shape, termed crochet. This art has attained its highest degree of perfection in England, whence it has been transplanted to France and Germany, an instruction book from 1846 describes Shepherd or Single Crochet as what in current British usage is either called single crochet or slip-stitch crochet, with U. S. American terminology always using the latter and it similarly equates Double and French crochet. Notwithstanding the categorical assertion of a purely British origin, there is evidence of a connection between French tambour embroidery and crochet. The former method of production was illustrated in detail in 1763 in Diderots Encyclopedia, the 1823 Penélopé instructions unequivocally state that the tambour tool was used for crochet and the first of the 1840s instruction books uses the terms tambour and crochet as synonyms. This equivalence is retained in the 4th edition of work,1847. The strong taper of the shepherds hook eases the production of slip-stitch crochet but is less amenable to stitches that require multiple loops on the hook at the same time, early yarn hooks were also continuously tapered but gradually enough to accommodate multiple loops
2.
Mensural notation
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Mensural notation is the musical notation system used for European vocal polyphonic music from the later part of the 13th century until about 1600. The term mensural refers to the ability of this system to describe precisely measured rhythmic durations in terms of proportions between note values. e. Mensural notation grew out of an earlier, more limited method of notating rhythms in terms of fixed repetitive patterns, the rhythmic modes. An early form of notation was first described and codified in the treatise Ars cantus mensurabilis by Franco of Cologne. Around 1400, the French system was adopted across Europe, after around 1600, mensural notation gradually evolved into modern measure notation. The decisive innovation of mensural notation was the use of different note shapes to denote rhythmic durations that stood in well-defined. Mensural notation differed from the system in that the values of each note were more strongly context-dependent. In particular, a note could have the length of two or three units of the next smaller order, whereas in modern notation these relations are invariably binary. Whether a note was to be read as ternary or binary was a partly of context rules. There was also a system of temporarily shifting note values by proportion factors like 2,1 or 3,2. Mensural notation used no bar lines, and it sometimes employed special connected note forms inherited from earlier medieval notation. Unlike in the earliest beginnings of the writing of polyphonic music, Mensural notation was extensively described and codified by contemporary theorists. As these writings, like all work of the time, were usually in Latin. The system of note types used in mensural notation closely corresponds to the modern system, very rarely, mensural notation also used yet smaller subdivisions, such as the semifusa. On the other hand, there were two larger values, the longa and the maxima, which are no longer in regular use today. Despite these nominal equivalences, each note had a much shorter temporal value than its modern counterpart, between the 14th and 16th centuries, composers repeatedly introduced new note shapes for ever smaller temporal divisions of rhythm, and the older, longer notes were slowed down in proportion. Thus, what was originally the shortest of all values used, the semibreve, has become the longest note used routinely today. Originally, all notes were written in solid, filled-in form, in the mid-15th century, scribes began to use hollow note shapes, reserving black shapes only for the smallest note values
3.
Staff (music)
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Appropriate music symbols, depending on the intended effect, are placed on the staff according to their corresponding pitch or function. Musical notes are placed by pitch, percussion notes are placed by instrument, the absolute pitch of each line of a non-percussive staff is indicated by the placement of a clef symbol at the appropriate vertical position on the left-hand side of the staff. For example, the treble clef, also known as the G clef, is placed on the second line, the lines and spaces are numbered from bottom to top, the bottom line is the first line and the top line is the fifth line. The musical staff is analogous to a graph of pitch with respect to time. Pitches of notes are given by their position on the staff. A time signature to the right of the clef indicates the relationship between timing counts and note symbols, while bar lines group notes on the staff into measures, staff is more common in American English, stave in British English. The plural is staves in either case, stave is, in fact, the vertical position of the notehead on the staff indicates which note to play, higher-pitched notes are marked higher on the staff. The notehead can be placed with the center of its notehead intersecting a line, notes outside the range of the staff are placed on or between ledger lines—lines the width of the note they need to hold—added above or below the staff. Exactly which staff positions represent which notes is determined by a clef placed at the beginning of the staff, the clef identifies a particular line as a specific note, and all other notes are determined relative to that line. For example, the treble clef puts the G above middle C on the second line, the interval between adjacent staff positions is one step in the diatonic scale. Once fixed by a clef, the represented by the positions on the staff can be modified by the key signature. A clefless staff may be used to represent a set of percussion sounds, a single vertical line drawn to the left of multiple staves creates a system, indicating that the music on all the staves is to be played simultaneously. A bracket is a vertical line joining staves, to show groupings of instruments that function as a unit. A brace is used to join multiple staves that represent a single instrument, such as a piano, organ, harp, or marimba. Sometimes, a bracket is used to show instruments grouped in pairs, such as the first and second oboes, or the first. In some cases, a brace is used for this instead of a bracket. When more than one system appears on a page, often two parallel diagonal strokes are placed on the left side of the score to separate them. Four-part SATB vocal settings, especially in hymnals, use a notation on a two-staff system with soprano and alto voices sharing the upper staff
4.
Beat (music)
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In music and music theory, the beat is the basic unit of time, the pulse, of the mensural level. In popular use, beat can refer to a variety of related concepts including, tempo, meter, specific rhythms, Rhythm in music is characterized by a repeating sequence of stressed and unstressed beats and divided into bars organized by time signature and tempo indications. Metric levels faster than the level are division levels. Beat has always been an important part of music, some music genres such as disco will in general de-emphasize the beat, while other such as funk emphasize the beat to accompany dance. The downbeat is the first beat of the bar, i. e. number 1, the upbeat is the last beat in the previous bar which immediately precedes, and hence anticipates, the downbeat. Both terms correspond to the direction taken by the hand of a conductor, an anticipatory note or succession of notes occurring before the first barline of a piece is sometimes referred to as an upbeat figure, section or phrase. Alternative expressions include pickup and anacrusis, the latter term was borrowed from the field of poetry, in which it refers to one or more unstressed extrametrical syllables at the beginning of a line. In music that progresses regularly in 44 time, counted as 1234,1234. The first beat of the bar is usually the strongest accent in the melody and the likeliest place for a change, the third is the next strongest. The second and fourth are weaker—the off-beats, subdivisions that fall between the pulse beats are even weaker and these, if used frequently in a rhythm, can also make it off-beat. The effect can be simulated by evenly and repeatedly counting to four. This is a technique of African polyrhythm that transferred to popular western music. According to Grove Music, the Offbeat is where the downbeat is replaced by a rest or is tied over from the preceding bar, the downbeat can never be the off-beat because it is the strongest beat in 44 time. Certain genres tend to emphasize the off-beat, where this is a characteristic of rocknroll. A back beat, or backbeat, is a syncopated accentuation on the off beat, in a simple 44 rhythm these are beats 2 and 4. A big part of R&Bs attraction had to do with the stompin backbeats that make it so eminently danceable, an early record with an emphasised back beat throughout was Good Rockin Tonight by Wynonie Harris in 1948. There is a back beat on Roll Em Pete by Pete Johnson and Big Joe Turner. A distinctive back beat can be heard on Back Beat Boogie by Harry James And His Orchestra, outside U. S. popular music, there are early recordings of music with a distinctive backbeat, such as the 1949 recording of Mangaratiba by Luiz Gonzaga in Brazil
5.
Ride cymbal
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The ride cymbal is a standard cymbal in most drum kits. It maintains a steady rhythmic pattern, sometimes called a ride pattern and it is normally placed on the extreme right of a drum set, above the floor tom. The ride can fulfill any function or rhythm the hi-hat does, with the exception of an open, the ride is played with a drumstick. The term ride means to ride with the music, describing the cymbals sustain after it is struck, the term may depict either the function or characteristic of the instrument. Most cymbal makers manufacture specific cymbals for the purpose, some drummers use a china cymbal, a sizzle cymbal or a specialized tone such as a swish or pang cymbal as a ride cymbal. When playing extremely softly, when using brushes, and when recording, on the other extreme, when playing extremely loudly a cymbal designed as a ride may serve well as a very loud, long crash. Cymbals designated crash/ride or more rarely ride/crash serve as either a large slow crash or secondary ride, bell-less ride cymbals, known as flat rides, have a dry crash and clear stick definition. Quieter, they are popular in jazz drumming, developed by Paiste in the 1960s, flat rides are used by notable drummers Roy Haynes, Jack DeJohnette, Paul Wertico, Carter Beauford, Jo Jones and Charlie Watts. The highly regarded Paiste 602 Flat Ride was reissued in 2010, swish and pang cymbals are exotic ride and crash/ride cymbals similar to china cymbals in tone. A sizzle cymbal, thinner and one larger than the main ride, was common in some styles of early rock music as a secondary ride cymbal. Modern use of the cymbal was inspired by Baby Doddss press roll rhythms. The most basic pattern in rock and other styles is, In jazz. When struck, a ride cymbal makes a sustained, shimmering sound rather than the shorter, the most common diameter for a ride cymbal is about 20 inches, but anything from 18 inches to 22 inches is standard. Smaller and thinner cymbals tend to be darker with more shimmer, while larger and thicker cymbals tend to better in louder volume situations. Rides of up to 26 inches and down to 16 inches are readily available, the very thickest and loudest tend to be about 22 inches, with larger rides restricted to medium and medium thin thicknesses. In rock or jazz, the cymbal is most often struck regularly in a rhythmic pattern as part of the accompaniment to the song. Often the drummer will vary between the pattern either on the hi-hat cymbal or the ride cymbal, playing for example the hi-hat in the verses. The sound of a ride cymbal also varies depending on what kind of mallet is used to hit it, in rock and metal, wood and nylon-tipped drum sticks are common, wood creates a smoother, quieter sound, whereas nylon tips create more of a ping
6.
Part (music)
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A part is a strand or melody of music played by an individual instrument or voice within a larger work. Parts may be referred to as a part or an inner part. Part-writing is the composition of parts in consideration of harmony and counterpoint, in the context of polyphonic composition the term voice may be used instead of part to denote a single melodic line or textural layer. The term is generic, and is not meant to imply that the line should necessarily be vocal in character, allen Forte defines a voice thus, By voice we mean the succession of notes performed by a single human voice or single-line instrument. Codex Calixtinus contains the earliest extant decipherable part music, part writing is derived from four-voice chorales written by J. S. The late baroque era composer wrote a total of 371 harmonized chorales, today most students reference Albert Riemenschneiders 1941 compilation of Bach chorales. Part writing is a technique that involves writing a piece of music for one or more parts. Briefly, it, may be defined as Part-writing and it has also been defined, happily, as the art of combining melodies. In other words, laws of combination, and laws of progression, individual, in musical forms, a part may refer to a subdivision in the structure of a piece. This is for example the case in the widely used ternary form, in this form the first and third parts are musically identical, or very nearly so, while the second part in some way provides a contrast with them. In this meaning of part, similar terms used are section, strain, or turn
7.
Musical note
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In music, the term note has three primary meanings, A sign used in musical notation to represent the relative duration and pitch of a sound, A pitched sound itself. Notes are the blocks of much written music, discretizations of musical phenomena that facilitate performance, comprehension. In the former case, one note to refer to a specific musical event, in the latter. Two notes with fundamental frequencies in an equal to any integer power of two are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of relations can be grouped under the pitch class. However, within the English-speaking and Dutch-speaking world, pitch classes are represented by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet. A few European countries, including Germany, adopt an almost identical notation, the eighth note, or octave, is given the same name as the first, but has double its frequency. The name octave is also used to indicate the span between a note and another with double frequency, for example, the now-standard tuning pitch for most Western music,440 Hz, is named a′ or A4. There are two systems to define each note and octave, the Helmholtz pitch notation and the scientific pitch notation. Letter names are modified by the accidentals, a sharp ♯ raises a note by a semitone or half-step, and a flat ♭ lowers it by the same amount. In modern tuning a half step has a ratio of 12√2. The accidentals are written after the name, so, for example, F♯ represents F-sharp, B♭ is B-flat. Additional accidentals are the double-sharp, raising the frequency by two semitones, and double-flat, lowering it by that amount, in musical notation, accidentals are placed before the note symbols. Systematic alterations to the seven lettered pitches in the scale can be indicated by placing the symbols in the key signature, explicitly noted accidentals can be used to override this effect for the remainder of a bar. A special accidental, the natural symbol ♮, is used to indicate an unmodified pitch, effects of key signature and local accidentals do not accumulate. If the key signature indicates G♯, a flat before a G makes it G♭, though often this type of rare accidental is expressed as a natural. Likewise, a sharp sign on a key signature with a single sharp ♯ indicates only a double sharp. Assuming enharmonicity, many accidentals will create equivalences between pitches that are written differently, for instance, raising the note B to B♯ is equal to the note C
8.
Drum beat
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A drum beat or drum pattern is a rhythmic pattern, or repeated rhythm establishing the meter and groove through the pulse and subdivision, played on drum kits and other percussion instruments. Many drum beats define or are characteristic of music genres. This establishes a quarter note pulse in time, each measure is formed from three quarter note pulses, each divided into two eighth notes. This establishes a dotted-quarter note pulse in time, each measure is formed from two dotted-quarter note pulses, each pulse divided into three eighth notes. Compound triple meter is equivalent to simple duple meter with triplets on every beat and this establishes a dotted-quarter note pulse in triple time, each measure is formed from three dotted-quarter note pulses, each pulse divided into three eighth notes. The heavy metal gallop, named for a canter, is based on a bass drum pattern of one eighth followed by two sixteenths. Break Drum cadence Ghost note Rhythm section Riddim Rosanna shuffle Purdie shuffle Bo Diddley beat
9.
Time signature
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The time signature is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats are to be contained in each bar and which note value is to be given one beat. A mid-score time signature, usually following a barline, indicates a change of meter. | Simple time signatures consist of two numerals, one stacked above the other, The lower numeral indicates the value that represents one beat. The upper numeral indicates how many beats there are grouped together in a bar. For instance,24 means two quarter-note beats per bar—38 means three eighth-note beats per bar, the most common simple time signatures are 24,34, and 44. The symbol is used for 44 time, also called common time or imperfect time. In modern notation, it is used in place of 22 and is called alla breve or, colloquially, in compound meter, subdivisions of the main beat are in three equal parts, so that a dotted note becomes the beat unit. Compound time signatures are named as if they were simple time signatures, in which the part of the beat unit is the beat. The lower number is most commonly an 8, as in 98 or 128,34 is a simple signature that represents three quarter notes. To the ear, a bar may seem like one singular beat, for example, a fast waltz, notated in 34 time, may be described as being one in a bar. Terms such as quadruple, quintuple, and so on are also occasionally used, as mentioned above, though the score indicates a 34 time, the actual beat division can be the whole bar, particularly at faster tempos. Correspondingly, at slow tempos the beat indicated by the time signature could in actual performance be divided into smaller units, on a formal mathematical level the time signatures of, e. g.34 and 38 are interchangeable. In a sense, all simple triple time signatures, such as 38,34,32, etc. —and all compound duple times, such as 68,616, a piece in 34 can be easily rewritten in 38, simply by halving the length of the notes. Other time signature rewritings are possible, most commonly a simple time signature with triplets translates into a compound meter, though formally interchangeable, for a composer or performing musician, different time signatures often have different connotations. First, a note value in the beat unit implies a more complex notation. Second, beaming affects the choice of actual beat divisions and it is, for example, more natural to use the quarter note/crotchet as a beat unit in 64 or 22 than the eight/quaver in 68 or 24. Third, time signatures are traditionally associated with different music styles—it might seem strange to notate a rock tune in 48 or 42. For all meters, the first beat is stressed, in time signatures with four groups in the bar
10.
Rest (music)
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A rest is an interval of silence in a piece of music, marked by a symbol indicating the length of the pause. Each rest symbol and name corresponds with a note value for length. Rests are intervals of silence in pieces of music, marked by symbols indicating the length of the pause, each rest symbol and name corresponds with a particular note value, indicating how long the silence should last, generally as a multiplier of a measure or whole note. The quarter rest may also be found as a form in older music, the four-measure rest or longa rest are only used in long silent passages which are not divided into bars. The combination of rests used to mark a pause follows the rules as for note values. When an entire bar is devoid of notes, a whole rest is used, regardless of the actual time signature. For a 42 bar rest, it is common to use the whole rest instead of the double whole rest. Some published music places the numeral 1 above the rest to confirm the extent of the rest, occasionally in manuscript autographs and facsimiles, bars without notes are sometimes left completely empty, possibly even without the staves. In instrumental parts, rests of more than one bar in the meter and key may be indicated with a multimeasure rest, showing the number of bars of rest. The number of whole-rest lengths for which the multimeasure rest lasts is indicated by a number printed above the musical staff. If a meter or key change occurs during a multimeasure rest and this also applies in the case of double barlines, which demarcate musical phrases or sections. A rest may also have a dot after it, increasing its duration by half, in these meters the long-standing convention has been to indicate one beat of rest as a quarter rest followed by an eighth rest. Caesura List of silent musical compositions List of musical symbols
11.
Notehead
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In music, a notehead is the elliptical part of a note. Noteheads may be colored black or white, indicating the note value. In a whole note, the notehead is the component of the note. Shorter note values attach a stem to the notehead, and possibly beams or flags, the longer double whole note can be written with vertical lines surrounding it, two attached noteheads, or a rectangular notehead. Noteheads ultimately derive from the used to notate Gregorian chant. The punctum, seen at right, is the simplest of the shapes, when placed on a clef, the position of a notehead indicated the relative frequency of a note. The development of different colors of noteheads, and the use of it to indicate rhythmic values, was the use of white mensural notation, franco of Cologne, ancient composer and music theorist, codified a system of rhythm notation. He explained this system in his work, Ars Cantus Mensurabilis, in this system, the relative duration of notes was indicated by the note shapes. The noteheads were rectangles, squares, or diamonds depending on the note length and this system was expanded during the Ars Nova period. Shortly before the Renaissance, scribes began to write the notes of the Franconian, during the Renaissance, composers added shorter note durations that used filled-in noteheads. Near the end of the 16th century, the square or diamond-shaped notes changed to the round noteheads that are used today
12.
Longa (music)
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The number of breves in a long was determined by the modus or mode of a passage. Sections in perfect mode used three breves to the long while sections in imperfect mode used two breves to the long, two longae, rarely three, had the combined value of a maxima. The theoretical value of a maximodus perfectus could only be written with three longae or a maxima plus a longa. Prior to 1450, the longa was typically written with a filled notehead with void, over the course of the fifteenth century, the void notehead became the norm. Although it is described as late as 1667, by this date the note symbol was of purely theoretical interest, while the longa note has not been used for more than three centuries, the longa rest still appears as a way of writing rests that last exactly four measures. When the longa note occurs in modern notation, it is given the rounded notehead shape of the double whole note. In this context it is called a quadruple whole note (Anon. n. d. In LilyPond, the stem appears similarly to that of a half note, instead of always appearing on the right of the notehead as it does in mensural notation. The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900–1600, fifth edition, revised, the Medieval Academy of America Publication no.38. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The Medieval Academy of America, asooja, Kartik, Sindhu Kiranmai Ernala, and Paul Buitelaar. UNLP at the C@merata Task, Question Answering on Musical Scores ACM, paper describing submission to the C@merata task in MediaEval 2014. Boston and New York, Oliver Ditson, New York, A. S. Barnes Company. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, proprietas and perfectio, translated by Rob C. The Oldest Extant Part Music and the Origin of Western Polyphony,2 vols, rochester, NY, H. van der Werf
s on bass and snare,
to 128th (all at 
1
, or occasionally, as the older symbol 
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