1.
Queens Counsel (comic strip)
–
Queens Counsel is a British cartoon strip created by Alexander Williams and Graham Francis Defries, which has been published in the law pages of The Times since 1993. It is a satire on law and lawyers, the strip is published under the pseudonym Steuart and Francis, these being the middle names of the two authors. The cartoons, described as the scourge, or possibly succour, of lawyers everywhere, make fun of law and lawyers, with a focus on legal pomposity. The characters are mostly legal archetypes, the barristers inhabiting the mythical Chambers of 4 Lawn Buildings, while the solicitors ply their trade at the firm of Fillibuster and Loophole. The authors of the strip are both themselves, though Williams left the Bar to pursue a career in film animation. Sir Geoffrey Bentwood QC is the main protagonist of the comic strip and he is a leading silk, Head of Chambers, part time Recorder and all around master of the legal universe. Extremely pompous, Sir Geoffrey is obsessed with law in general, even his family call him Your Honour. Edward Longwind is a barrister and junior tenant at 4 Lawn Buildings and he aspires one day to be as pompous as Sir Geoffrey. Helena is a very junior tenant and she is young, beautiful, and - for the moment anyway - idealistic. She was the first female pupil in Chambers and has been trying to open up the windows of 4 Lawn Buildings ever since. Richard Loophole is a solicitor-advocate and senior partner in the firm of Fillibuster and he is overpaid and - for the most part - underworked, unlike his luckless assistants, who regularly have to work over the weekend as Richard saunters off to play golf with his clients. Quentin Crawley is a barrister in 4 Lawn Buildings and all around dogsbody. His grasp of law is slender at best and his appearances in court are inevitably fumbled and he lives in permanent terror of being found out and booted out of Chambers. Mr Sprocket is a client and endlessly unlucky litigant and he is invariably given terrible advice, usually resulting in a failed case and likely bankruptcy. Like Helena she still retains some idealism and can remember why she went into law in the first place
Queens Counsel (comic strip)
–
Sir Geoffrey Bentwood QC
Queens Counsel (comic strip)
–
The Queen's Counsel Official lawyer's Handbook (2011)
2.
Robert McCall (lawyer)
–
Sir Robert Alfred McCall, KCVO KC was an Irish lawyer. He was born at Lisburn, Co, antrim and educated at the Queens College, Galway and Queens University Belfast. Called to the Bar by the Middle Temple in 1871, in 1891, having already acquired a large junior practice, he took silk. He served in cases involving the common law and, while not making the first rank of Winch and Candy, was a powerful. Politically, McCall was allied to the Unionist cause and was friendly with Lord James of Hereford and this friendship led to McCalls appointment as Attorney General and Queens Serjeant to the Duchy of Lancaster. He was elected as a Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1918 and he was made a Commissioner of the Assize and K. C. V. O. in 1921 and was also appointed as Registrar of the Railway and Canal Commission in the same year. He was senator of the University of London and President of the Huguenot Society of London in 1923 and he was a correspondent with The Times. There are three portraits of him in the National Portrait Gallery and he married Alice MacSwinney of Galway in 1876. Obituary, The Times,7 April 1934, pg
Robert McCall (lawyer)
–
Robert McCall KC wearing his Court robes as King's Counsel (previously Queen's Counsel) drawn by
"Spy"
3.
King
–
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, in the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the title may refer to tribal kingship. Germanic kingship is cognate with Indo-European traditions of tribal rulership In the context of classical antiquity, king may translate Latin rex or either Greek archon or basileus. In classical European feudalism, the title of king as the ruler of a kingdom is understood as the highest rank in the order, potentially subject. In a modern context, the title may refer to the ruler of one of a number of modern monarchies. The title of king is used alongside other titles for monarchs, in the West prince, emperor, archduke, duke or grand duke, in the Middle East sultan or emir, etc. Kings, like other royalty, tend to wear purple because purple was a color to wear in the past. The English term king is derived from the Anglo-Saxon cyning, which in turn is derived from the Common Germanic *kuningaz, the Common Germanic term was borrowed into Estonian and Finnish at an early time, surviving in these languages as kuningas. The English term king translates, and is considered equivalent to, Latin rēx, the Germanic term is notably different from the word for king in other Indo-European languages. It is a derivation from the term *kunjom kin by the -inga- suffix, the literal meaning is that of a scion of the kin, or perhaps son or descendant of one of noble birth. English queen translates Latin regina, it is from Old English cwen queen, noble woman, the Germanic term for wife appears to have been specialized to wife of a king, in Old Norse, the cognate kvan still mostly refers to a wife generally. Scandinavian drottning, dronning is a derivation from *druhtinaz lord. The English word is of Germanic origin, and historically refers to Germanic kingship, the Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into barbarian kingdoms. The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire, in southern Europe, the kingdom of Sicily was established following the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia was claimed as a title held by the Crown of Aragon in 1324. In the Balkans, the Kingdom of Serbia was established in 1217, in eastern-central Europe, the Kingdom of Hungary was established in AD1000 following the Christianisation of the Magyars. The kingdoms of Poland and Bohemia were established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1025 and 1198, in Eastern Europe, the Kievan Rus consolidated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which did not technically claim the status of kingdom until the early modern Tsardom of Russia. In northern Europe, the kingdoms of the Viking Age by the 11th century expanded into the North Sea Empire under Cnut the Great, king of Denmark, England
King
–
The nine European Monarchs who attended the
funeral of
King Edward VII of Britain, photographed at
Windsor Castle on 20 May 1910. Standing, from left to right:
King Haakon VII of Norway,
Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria,
King Manuel II of Portugal,
Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany,
King George I of Greece and
King Albert I of Belgium. Seated, from left to right:
King Alfonso XIII of Spain,
King George V of Britain and
King Frederick VIII of Denmark.
King
King
–
Ramesses II, the third
Pharaoh of the
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
4.
Lawyer
–
A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
Lawyer
–
Dr Alberico Gentili (1552-1608), one of the best known lawyers.
Lawyer
–
A French lawyer
Lawyer
–
Law Faculty of
Comenius University in
Bratislava (Slovakia).
Lawyer
–
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.
5.
Barrister
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
Barrister
–
A barrister's wigs, Parliament Hall, Edinburgh
Barrister
–
Illustration of an early 20th-century English barrister
Barrister
–
Margaret Battye, 1930s Australian court dress
Barrister
–
Gray's Inn,
London
6.
List of British monarchs
–
There have been 12 monarchs of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the United Kingdom since the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland on 1 May 1707. England and Scotland had been in personal union under the House of Stuart since 24 March 1603, on 1 January 1801, Great Britain merged with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. After most of Ireland left the union on 6 December 1922, its name was amended on 12 April 1927 to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Queen Anne had been queen of England, Scotland and Ireland since 8 March 1702, the Hanoverian succession came about as a result of the Act of Settlement 1701, passed by the Parliament of England, which excluded Papists from the succession. In return for access to the English plantations in North America and the West Indies, the Hanoverian succession, due to his patrilineal descent, Edward VII inaugurated a new royal house. George V changed its name in 1917, during World War I, the house name Windsor has since been used
List of British monarchs
–
Anne 1 May 1707 – 1 August 1714
List of British monarchs
–
The
Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom since the accession of
Queen Victoria, (1837), featuring the
arms of England in the first and fourth quarters,
Scotland in the second, and
Ireland in the third. In
Scotland a separate version is used, (shown right), whereby the Arms of Scotland take precedence.
List of British monarchs
–
George I George Louis 1 August 1714 – 11 June 1727
List of British monarchs
–
George II George Augustus 11 June 1727 – 25 October 1760
7.
Commonwealth of Nations
–
The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
Commonwealth of Nations
–
Flag
Commonwealth of Nations
–
The prime ministers of five members at the 1944
Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. (L-R)
Mackenzie King (Canada);
Jan Smuts (South Africa);
Winston Churchill (United Kingdom);
Peter Fraser (New Zealand);
John Curtin (Australia)
Commonwealth of Nations
–
Queen
Elizabeth II,
Head of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
–
Marlborough House, London, the headquarters of the
Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealth's principal intergovernmental institution
8.
Senior Counsel
–
The title of Senior Counsel or State Counsel is given to a senior lawyer in some countries that were formerly part of the British Empire. Just as a junior counsel is called to the Bar, a Senior Counsel is, in some jurisdictions, Senior Counsel may informally style themselves as silks, like their British counterparts. This is the case in Ireland, Australia, Hong Kong, a second usage, prevalent in the United Kingdom itself refers to a solicitor who is senior and autonomous, but is neither a partner nor on the career path to partnership. In Hong Kong, Senior Counsel must wear the black robe, in the Republic of Ireland, Senior Counsel wear a silk gown which differs from that of a Junior Counsel. The wig is optional in the Republic of Ireland, the rank of Senior Counsel has also been introduced in most states and territories of Australia, even though the Queen remains head of state. Between 1993 and 2008 all Australian jurisdictions except the Northern Territory replaced the rank of Queens Counsel with that of Senior Counsel, however, in 2013 Queensland restored the rank of Queens Counsel and there was talk of other Australian states following suit. Senior Counsel replaced QC in the law of Hong Kong after the transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Queens Counsel who had been appointed QC in HK or British Queens Counsel who had admitted to practice in Hong Kong generally prior to the handover became Senior Counsel automatically. Queens Counsel from England or other senior counsel from other jurisdictions are not accorded any precedence if they are admitted generally in Hong Kong, the Irish Free State became independent in 1922 as a Dominion of the British Crown. Shortly after the Courts of Justice Act 1924 came into effect, the title KC continued to be used by many Senior Counsels, both those created before July 1924 and those after. In 1949, shortly before the coming into force of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 which broke the link with the British Crown. As late as the 1960s, R. G. L, leonard was described in the official Irish law reports as Queen’s Counsel, reflecting the British change from King to Queen in 1952. The title Senior Counsel was briefly established in New Zealand from 2007 until 2009 and it was abolished by the following Government in favour of restoring the title of Queens Counsel on the basis of the respect felt accorded to those appointed Queens Counsel. Those appointed as Senior Counsel have been given the option of becoming Queens Counsel or remaining as Senior Counsel, Senior Counsel is used in the law of Singapore. There is no independent bar in Singapore and Senior Counsel practice as members of law firms, a judge in the High Court in the province of Gauteng ruled that under the 1993 Constitution, the President did not have the power to grant Senior Counsel status. This judgment has been overturned by the Supreme Court of appeal, in the United Kingdom, the position of Senior Counsel is used to denote an experienced solicitor, who is not on the path to partnership. This position is analogous to the American title Of counsel, and is not directly comparable to the position of Queens Counsel. Other jurisdictions have adopted similar titles, Senior Advocate under the law of Bangladesh, laws of India, Law of Pakistan, and that of Nigeria
Senior Counsel
–
An example of dress in court
9.
The Crown
–
The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
The Crown
–
Australia
10.
Court
–
Similarly, the rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defense before a court. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is known as the judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue, the practical authority given to the court is known as its jurisdiction – the courts power to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. It is also usual in the courts to have barristers, and attorneys or counsel, as assistants, though, often, courts consist of additional barristers, bailiffs, reporters. The term the court is used to refer to the presiding officer or officials. The judge or panel of judges may also be referred to as the bench. In the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the court by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself. In the United States, the authority of a court to take action is based on personal jurisdiction, subject-matter jurisdiction. The English word court is a cognate of the Latin word hortus, the verb to court, meaning to win favor, derives from the same source since people traveled to the sovereigns court to win his favor. The word jurisdiction comes from juris and dictio, jurisdiction is defined as the official authority to make legal decisions and judgements over an individual or materialistic item within a territory. Whether a given court has jurisdiction to preside over a case is a key question in any legal action. Three basic components of jurisdiction are jurisdiction over the person (personal jurisdiction, jurisdiction over the subject matter or thing. Other concepts of jurisdiction include general jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction, territorial jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, trial courts are courts that hold trials. Sometimes termed courts of first instance, trial courts have varying original jurisdiction, trial courts may conduct trials with juries as the finders of fact or trials in which judges act as both finders of fact and finders of law. Juries are less common in court systems outside the Anglo-American common law tradition, appellate courts are courts that hear appeals of lower courts and trial courts. Some courts, such as the Crown Court in England and Wales may have both trial and appellate jurisdictions, the two major legal traditions of the western world are the civil law courts and the common law courts. These two great legal traditions are similar, in that they are products of western culture although there are significant differences between the two traditions, civil law courts are profoundly based upon Roman Law, specifically a civil body of law entitled Corpus iuris civilis. Civil law is firmly ensconced in the French and German legal systems, Common law courts were established by English royal judges of the Kings Council after the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066
Court
–
A trial at the
Old Bailey in
London as drawn by Thomas Rowlandson and Augustus Pugin for Ackermann's Microcosm of London (1808–11).
11.
Bar (law)
–
In law, the term bar has two principal meanings. The area behind the bar is open to the public and this restriction is enforced in nearly all courts. In most courts, the bar is represented by a physical partition, the bar may also refer to the qualifying procedure by which a lawyer is licensed to practice law in a given jurisdiction. In the United States, this procedure is administered by the individual U. S. states, in general, a candidate must graduate from a qualified law school and pass a written test, the bar examination. Nearly all states use the Multistate Bar Examination, usually with additions for that states laws, the candidate is then admitted to the bar. A lawyer whose license to practice law is revoked is said to be disbarred, in the United Kingdom, the practice of law is divided between barristers and solicitors. It is usually the former who appear in a role before the court. When a lawyer becomes an advocate or barrister, he is called to the bar, the Bar commonly refers to the legal profession as a whole. With a modifier, it may refer to a branch or division of the profession, as for instance, in conjunction with bench, bar may differentiate lawyers who represent clients, from judges or members of a judiciary. In this sense, the bar advocates and the bench adjudicates, yet, judges commonly remain members of the bar, and lawyers are commonly referenced as Officers of the Court. The phrase bench and bar denotes all judges and lawyers collectively, Admission to practise law Admission to the bar in the United States Bar Association Bench Call to the bar Courtroom Importance of Bar & Bench relationship, Available at learningthelaw. in
Bar (law)
–
The bar (with swinging gate doors) in an
American courtroom that separates the
judge 's
bench and
lawyers ' tables from the public viewing area in the foreground. The term bar is also a
metonym used to collectively define the group of
licensed lawyers in a given
jurisdiction.
Bar (law)
–
The bar (railing) at the
Rhode Island Supreme Court
12.
Court dress
–
Court dress comprises the style of clothes prescribed for courts of law, and for royal courts. Members of the old Judicial Committee of the House of Lords, instead they were dressed in ordinary business clothing. Since the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009, on ceremonial occasions they wear a robe of black damask embellished with gold with the logotype of the Supreme Court embroidered at the yoke. Court dress is worn at hearings in open court in all Senior Courts of England and Wales, Court dress is not worn at hearings in chambers or in magistrates courts. In July 2007, the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales announced that changes would be made to court working dress in the English and Welsh courts. The reforms were due to effect on 1 January 2008, however, following reports of strong opposition to the proposed changes, they were put on hold. In a letter to the profession, he said, Criminal barristers will keep wigs and gowns, the Bar is a single advocacy profession with specialisation in particular practice areas. There is logic in having the formal court dress, where formality and robes are required, for criminal. There is strong identification of the Bar of England and Wales in the publics mind, for the most part, the changes only affect what is worn by judges in civil courts, who now wear a simplified robe and no wig. Dress worn in criminal courts remains largely unchanged, the changes have been reflected in the dress allowances made to judges. English advocates who appear before a judge who is robed must themselves be robed, all male advocates wear a white stiff wing collar with bands. They also wear either a dark double-breasted suit or a coat and waistcoat. The black coat and waistcoat can be combined into a single garment, female advocates also wear a dark suit, but often wear bands attached to a collarette rather than a wing collar. In addition barristers wear a horsehair wig with curls at the side. Solicitors wear the same wing collar with bands, or collarette and their gowns are of a slightly different style, with a square collar and without gathered sleeves. Barristers or solicitors who have been appointed Queens Counsel wear a gown with a flap collar. For this reason, barristers who are appointed Queens Counsel are said to have taken silk. The QCs black coat, known as a coat, is cut like 18th-century court dress
Court dress
–
Short wigs as worn in court by advocates (left) and judges (right) in several Commonwealth countries.
Court dress
–
Barristers (short wig) and Queen's Counsel (in full ceremonial dress with long wig)
Court dress
–
Caricature of a
QC in court dress
13.
Barristers
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
Barristers
–
A barrister's wigs, Parliament Hall, Edinburgh
Barristers
–
Illustration of an early 20th-century English barrister
Barristers
–
Margaret Battye, 1930s Australian court dress
Barristers
–
Gray's Inn,
London
14.
Advocates
–
An advocate is a type of professional person in several different legal systems and it is also a commonly used honorific for remarkable lawyers, such as in Adv. The broad equivalent in many English law-based jurisdictions can be a barrister, Advocates, who formed the senior branch of the legal profession in their field, were Doctors of Law of the Oxford, Cambridge, or Dublin and Fellows of the Society of Doctors Commons. Advocates lost their rights of audience in probate and divorce cases when the Crown took these matters over from the church in 1857. The Society of Advocates was never formally wound up, but its building was sold off in 1865, barristers were admitted to the Court of Arches of the Church of England in 1867. More recently, Solicitor Advocates have also allowed to play this role. Advocates are the only lawyers with rights of audience in the courts of the Isle of Man, in court, advocates wear a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands and a gown in the same way as barristers do elsewhere. It is then necessary to obtain a professional qualification such as the Bar Professional Training Course or the Legal Practice Course. It is not, however, necessary actually to be admitted as an English barrister or solicitor to train as an advocate. Foreign lawyers who have registered as legal practitioners in the Isle of Man for a certain period of time may also undertake a shorter period of training. The examinations are rigorous and candidates are limited to three attempts to pass each paper, the professional conduct of advocates is regulated by the Isle of Man Law Society, which also maintains a library for its members in Douglas. While advocates in the Isle of Man have not traditionally prefixed their names with Advocate in the Channel Islands manner, Advocates are regulated by the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh. The Faculty of Advocates has about 750 members, of whom about 460 are in private practice, the Faculty is headed by the Dean of the Faculty who, along with the Vice-Dean, Treasurer, Clerk are elected annually by secret ballot. The Faculty has a company, Faculty Services Ltd, to which almost all advocates belong. This gives a guarantee to all newly called advocates of a place and it remains the case that advocates are not permitted to sue for their fees, as they have no contractual relationship with their instructing solicitor or with the client. Advocates wear wigs, white bow-ties, straps and gowns as dress in court, the process of becoming an advocate is referred to as devilling. All Intrants will be Scottish solicitors, i. e, a devils competence in a number of aspects of written and oral advocacy is assessed during devilling, and if a devil is assessed as not competent, he or she will not be admitted to the Faculty. Further details of this process can be found in the assessment section, there are exceptions for lawyers who are qualified in other European jurisdictions, but all must take the training course as devils. Until 2007, a number of young European lawyers were given a placement with advocates under the European Young Lawyers Scheme organised by the British Council and they are known as Eurodevils, in distinction to the Scottish devils
Advocates
–
19th-century painting of advocates, by French artist
Honoré Daumier
Advocates
–
A 16th-century advocate.
15.
William Ballantine
–
Serjeant William Ballantine SL was an English Serjeant-at-law, a legal position defunct since the legal reforms of the 1870s. Born in Howland Street, Tottenham Court Road in Camden, London, the son of a police-magistrate, Ballantine was educated at St Pauls School, and called to the Bar in 1834. He joined the Criminal Court and travelled the judicial Home Circuit, in the late 1840s, Ballantine became known as a formidable cross-examiner, having become involved in several famous cases, where he was able to display these skills. His great rival at during this period was Serjeant Parry, Ballantine became a Serjeant-at-law in 1856, being then entitled to wear the white coif or cap of that rank. He was one of the last Serjeants in the courts, that title, during the 1860s, he took on a number of high-profile cases. Ballantine served as Counsel for Sir Charles Mordaunt in the then notorious divorce case against his wife, Lady Mordaunt, who, much younger than her husband, informed him that he was not the father of her child. She admitted to him that she had committed adultery with a number of men, including the Prince of Wales, often and it became clear that because of these revelations that the Prince of Wales would have to be summoned to court to give evidence in the case. Although he could be subpoenaed, he could not be forced to give evidence, Queen Victoria, his mother, however, the Prince agreed to attend the court, and to be questioned. After delicate questioning by Lady Mordaunts counsel, the Prince denied that any improper familiarity or criminal act had taken place between himself and Lady Mordaunt and it was generally believed that by stating this the Prince had perjured himself. Ballantine, as counsel for Lord Mordaunt, the plaintiff, was entitled to cross-examine the Prince of Wales, instead, in an attempt to save the Prince from any embarrassment, he declared that he had no questions for His Royal Highness, thus saving the Princes honour. However, Ballantine lost the case because he had failed to convince the jury that Lady Mordaunt was guilty, in the early 1880s, Ballantine retired from the law in order to write and travel, publishing several volumes of reminiscences. His interest in the theatre and journalism made him a familiar sight around London, although he was recognised as an incisive cross-examiner, Ballantine was not regarded by his peers as being a model legal mind. The Law Times, in his obituary, stated that Ballantine left behind him scarcely any lesson, even in his own poor biography and he died at Margate on 9 January 1887, aged 75 years. Ballantine’s private life was considered Bohemian, and though he earned large sums, on 4 December 1841, he married Eliza, daughter of Henry Gyles of London, but left no issue. Among Ballantines other notable cases were, his successful prosecution of Franz Muller for the murder of Mr. Seccombe, dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement. In Vanity Fair by Roy T Matthews and Peter Mellini, scolar Press, London and the University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles
William Ballantine
–
Serjeant William Ballantine
William Ballantine
–
"He resisted the temptation to cross-examine a Prince of the blood" As depicted by "ATn" (Alfred Thompson) in
'Vanity Fair', 5 March 1870
16.
Coif
–
A coif /ˈkɔɪf/ is a close fitting cap worn by both men and women that covers the top, back, and sides of the head. Coifs date from the 10th century, but fell out of popularity with men in the 14th century, Coifs were worn by all classes in England and Scotland from the Middle Ages to the early seventeenth century. Tudor and earlier coifs are usually made of unadorned white linen, in the Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras, coifs were frequently decorated with blackwork embroidery and lace edging. Coifs were worn under gable hoods and hats of all sorts, Coifs were also worn by a now-defunct senior grade of English lawyer, the Serjeant-at-Law even after they became judges. A United States law school honor society, the Order of the Coif, is named after this use of the coif, a mail coif was a type of armour, made of mail, which covered the head, neck and shoulders. 1500–1550 in fashion 1550–1600 in fashion Oxford English Dictionary Digby, George Wingfield Elizabethan Embroidery, new York, Thomas Yoseloff Tudor and Elizabethan Coifs Medieval Mens Coifs Coif
Coif
–
Detail of
Edward VI as a child by
Holbein, 1538: he wears a linen coif under a cloth-of-gold coif and a feathered hat.
Coif
–
Medieval coif as worn by Aaron of Sur
Coif
–
Head
17.
Serjeant-at-law
–
A Serjeant-at-Law, commonly known simply as a Serjeant, was a member of an order of barristers at the English bar. The position of Serjeant-at-Law, or Sergeant-Counter, was centuries old, the Serjeants were the oldest formally created order in England, having been brought into existence as a body by Henry II. The order rose during the 16th century as a small, elite group of lawyers who took much of the work in the common law courts. With the creation of Queens Counsel during the reign of Elizabeth I, the last Serjeant-at-Law was Serjeant Sullivan. The last purely English Serjeant-at-Law was Lord Lindley, the Serjeants had for many centuries exclusive jurisdiction over the Court of Common Pleas, being the only lawyers allowed to argue a case there. At the same time they had rights of audience in the central common law courts. Only Serjeants-at-Law could become judges of these courts right up into the 19th century, the members of the Order initially used St Pauls Cathedral as their meeting place, standing near the parvis where they would give counsel to those who sought advice. The Order certainly existed during the reign of Henry II from 1154–1189, as such it is the oldest royally created order, the next is the Order of the Garter, created in 1330. Serjeants at Law existed in Ireland from at least 1302, and were appointed by letters patent in a way to English Serjeants. Henry de Bracton claimed that, for the trial of Hubert de Burgh in 1239 the king was assisted by all the serjeants of the bench, by the 1270s there were approximately 20 recorded Serjeants, by 1290,36. This period also saw the first regulation of Serjeants, with a power from 1275 to suspend from practise any Serjeant who misbehaved. The exclusive jurisdiction Serjeants-at-Law held over the Court of Common Pleas slowly came about during the 1320s, from this period, Serjeants also began to be called in regular groups, rather than individually on whatever date was felt appropriate. During the 16th century the Serjeants-at-Law were a small, though highly respected and powerful, there were never more than ten alive, and on several occasions the number dwindled to one, William Blendlowes bragged that he had been the only Serjeant-at-Law in England in 1559. Over these 100 years, only 89 Serjeants were created and these lawyers became known as outer or utter barristers, if they were allowed to act they had passed the bar towards becoming a Serjeant-at-Law. Despite holding a monopoly on cases in the Court of Common Pleas and this was also a time of great judicial success for the Serjeants, since only Serjeants could be appointed to the common law courts, many also sat in the Exchequer of Pleas, a court of equity. This period was not a time of success for the overall, however. The decline of the Serjeants-at-Law started in 1596, when Francis Bacon persuaded Elizabeth I to appoint him Queens Counsel Extraordinary and this was not a formal creation, in that he was not granted a patent of appointment, but in 1604 James I saw fit to finally award this. The creation of Queens Counsel was initially small, James I created at least one other, following the English Restoration this increased, with a few appointed each year
Serjeant-at-law
–
Lord Lindley, the last English Serjeant-at-Law
Serjeant-at-law
–
A plaque marks the site of Old Serjeants' Inn in Chancery Lane
Serjeant-at-law
–
An example of a Coif
18.
Prince of the blood
–
A prince du sang is a person legitimately descended in dynastic line from any of a realms hereditary monarchs. In some European kingdoms, especially France, this appellation was a rank in its own right. Under the House of Capet, the monarchy was feudal, in the feudal era, the agnates of the king held no special status. This was because agnatic primogeniture had not yet received its sanction as the law governing the succession to the French throne, following the Valois succession, the agnates of the king, being capable of the crown, rose in prominence. New peerages were created for the kings agnates, and for a time this continued to be so. Over time, the dignity of a peer, which is feudal in nature, and the dignity of a prince of the blood, non-royal peers and princes of the blood who were peers constantly disputed for higher precedence than the other. As the royal line contracted, each prince of the blood gained greater prominence, in France, the rank of prince du sang was the highest held at court after the immediate family of the king during the ancien régime and the Bourbon Restoration. The rank of prince du sang or princesse du sang was restricted to legitimate agnates of the Capetian dynasty who were not members of the family of the king. In theory, the princes of the blood included all members of the Capetian dynasty, in practice, only the agnatic descendants of Saint Louis IX, such as the Valois and the Bourbons, were acknowledged as princes du sang. Frances kings, for instance, refused to recognize the Courtenay Capetians as princes of the blood, the Courtenays descended in legitimate male-line from King Louis VI, but had become impoverished, minor nobles over the centuries. Their repeated petitions for recognition to the Bourbon rulers were in vain, in 1715 Louis-Charles de Courtenay, his son Charles-Roger and his brother Roger were once again rebuffed in their attempt to seek recognition of their status. They descended from Jean, seigneur de Carency, the youngest son of Jean I de Bourbon, since 1733, all legitimate Capetians were of the House of Bourbon, of the Vendôme branch, descended from Charles, Duke of Vendôme. A cadet branch of the Condés was the House of Conti, though the Parlement de Paris refused to register the decree, the king exercised his right to compel registration by conducting a lit de justice. The edict was revoked and annulled on 18 August 1715 by the Parlement on the authority of the regent after the kings death, as a chancellor of Louis XIV had warned, a king could only make princes of the blood through his queen. Those who held this rank were usually styled by their main ducal peerage, the style Serene Highness was used in writing only. This was the style of the First Prince of the Blood, in practice, it was not always clear who was entitled to the rank, and it often took a specific act of the king to make the determination. The rank carried with it various privileges, including the right to a household out of state revenues. The rank was held for life, the birth of a new, the Princes of Condé used the style of Monsieur le Prince for over a century
Prince of the blood
–
Antoine, Duke of Vendôme
Prince of the blood
–
Heraldic crown of a Prince du Sang.
Prince of the blood
–
Louis II, Prince of Condé by Joost van Egmont
Prince of the blood
–
Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (1703-1752),
Duke of Chartres; the first
Orléans Prince to use the style
19.
Solicitor General for England and Wales
–
He or she can exercise the powers of the Attorney General in the Attorney Generals absence. There is also a Solicitor General for Scotland, who is the deputy of the Lord Advocate, the Solicitor General is addressed in court as Mr Solicitor or Ms Solicitor. Despite the title, the position is held by a barrister. Robert Buckland, MP for South Swindon, was confirmed in the post on 15 July 2014, replacing Sir Oliver Heald
Solicitor General for England and Wales
–
Incumbent
Robert Buckland since 15 July 2014
Solicitor General for England and Wales
–
Arms of
Her Majesty's Government
20.
Kingdom of England
–
In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
Kingdom of England
–
The dominions of
Cnut the Great (1014–1035)
Kingdom of England
–
Flag
Kingdom of England
–
King John signs
Magna Carta at
Runnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from Cassell's History of England, 1902.
Kingdom of England
–
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the
Battle of Agincourt.
21.
Sir Francis Bacon
–
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
Sir Francis Bacon
–
Portrait of Francis Bacon, by
Frans Pourbus (1617),
Palace on the Water in
Warsaw.
Sir Francis Bacon
–
The 18-year-old Francis Bacon. Inscription around his head reads: Si tabula daretur digna animum mallem,
Latin for "If one could but paint his mind" (see also below).
National Portrait Gallery, London
Sir Francis Bacon
–
The
Italianate York Water Gate – the entry to York House, built about 1626, the year of Bacon's death
Sir Francis Bacon
–
Francis Bacon's statue at
Gray's Inn, South Square, London
22.
Tudor dynasty
–
The House of Tudor was a royal house of Welsh and English origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales, the Tudors succeeded the House of Plantaganet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses and his victory was reinforced by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV, symbolically uniting the former warring factions under a new dynasty. They also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France, although none of them made substance of it, after him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century, Henry VIII was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around the royal succession became major political themes during the Tudor era, the House of Stuart, descended from Henry VIIIs sister Margaret, came to power in 1603 when the direct Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir. The church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a bull the same year. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunts legitimate son, Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts legitimacy, nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunts legitimate descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster. On 1 November 1455, John Beauforts granddaughter, Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, married Henry VIs half-brother Edmund Tudor and it was his father, Owen Tudor, who abandoned the Welsh patronymic naming practice and adopted a fixed surname. When he did, he did not choose, as was generally the custom, his fathers name, Maredudd, Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were married in 1429. The two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York, Edmund died on 3 November 1456. On 28 January 1457, his widow Margaret Beaufort, who had just attained her fourteenth birthday, gave birth to a son, Henry Tudor, at her brother-in-laws Pembroke Castle. Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII, spent his childhood at Raglan Castle, the home of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, a leading Yorkist. Following the murder of Henry VI and death of his son, Edward, in 1471, concerned for his young nephews life, Jasper Tudor took Henry to Brittany for safety. Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian cause, capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III, she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway, upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII
Tudor dynasty
–
King Henry VII, the founder of the royal house of Tudor
Tudor dynasty
–
Tudor Rose
Tudor dynasty
–
Catherine of Aragon: marriage was annulled - by the Church of England - for not producing a male heir to the Tudor dynasty
Tudor dynasty
–
Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, Henry VIII's chief minister responsible for the
Dissolution of the Monasteries
23.
Queen Elizabeth II
–
Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
Queen Elizabeth II
–
The Queen in March 2015
Queen Elizabeth II
–
Princess Elizabeth aged 3, April 1929
Queen Elizabeth II
–
Princess Elizabeth aged 7, painted by
Philip de László, 1933
Queen Elizabeth II
–
Elizabeth in
Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945
24.
Wales
–
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
Wales
–
Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey
Wales
–
Flag
Wales
–
This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Wales (disambiguation).
Wales
–
Coin of
Magnus Maximus
25.
Helen Kinnear
–
Helen Alice Kinnear, KC was a Canadian lawyer. Kinnear was born in Cayuga, Ontario, Canada and she graduated from the University of Toronto. Afterward she attended Osgoode Hall Law School and was called to the Ontario bar, to become a lawyer, Kinnear practiced law in Port Colborne, Ontario, where she initially practised with her father, who renamed the firm Kinnear & Kinnear. When her father died in 1924, she opened her own practise, in 1934, she became the first woman in the British Commonwealth to be created a Kings Counsel. In 1935, she became the first female lawyer in Canada to appear before the Supreme Court of Canada, Kinnear was an active member of the Liberal Party of Canada. She was active in overcoming womens inequality in society and in the Liberal party, in 1941, after two previous failed attempts, Kinnear was made the Liberal partys nominee for the Welland Riding. It appeared that she would win election to Parliament of Canada. However, she relinquished the role to Humphrey Mitchell, the newly appointed Minister of Labour who did not have a seat. In 1943, Kinnear was appointed judge for Haldimand County. Kinnear saw the appointment as not just a victory, but a victory for women. In 1947 she was appointed judge of the Juvenile Court and she was the first woman in the Commonwealth appointed to a county-court bench. When she attended a Commonwealth and Empire Law conference in 1955, in 1954, Kinnear was appointed to two Royal Commissions, the Royal Commission for the Criminal Law Relating to Sexual Psychopaths and the Royal Commission Relating to the Defense of Insanity. Kinnear retired from her role as a judge in 1961 because of illness, Kinnear, who never married, lived with her sister Jennie. Kinnear died on April 25,1970, in 1993 Canada Post issued a commemorative stamp to honour Kinnears achievements. Kinnear House was Helen Kinnears residence from 1904 to 1942, the house was built by lawyer Louis Kinnear in 1904
Helen Kinnear
–
Kinnear, circa 1943.
Helen Kinnear
–
Graduation photo from the
Law Society of Upper Canada in 1920
26.
Helena Normanton
–
Helena Florence Normanton, QC was the first woman to practise as a barrister in England. In November 1922, she was the woman to be called to the Bar of England and Wales. Normanton was born in London, the daughter of a piano maker, after her father was found dead in a railway tunnel in 1886, her mother began letting rooms in the family home, before moving to Brighton run a grocery and later a boarding house. Normanton won a scholarship to York Place Science School in Brighton and she trained as a teacher at Edge Hill Teacher Training College in Liverpool between 1903 and 1905. There is a Halls of Residence called Normanton at the university in her honour and she lectured in history at Glasgow University and London University, and began to speak and write about feminist issues. She spoke at meetings of the Womens Freedom League and supported the Indian National Congress, Normanton held ambitions to become a barrister from a young age. An application to become a student at Middle Temple in 1918 was refused and she reapplied in 1919, within hours of the Sex Disqualification Act 1919 coming into force, and was admitted to Middle Temple. She married Gavin Bowman Watson Clark in 1921, but preserved her maiden name for professional reasons, in 1924, she became the first married British woman to be issued a passport in her maiden name. She was the woman to be called to the bar, on 17 November 1922. In 1949, along with Rose Heilbron, she was one of the first two women Kings Counsel at the English Bar and she was also a pacifist, later being a supporter of CND. Normanton formed a body called the Council of Married Women. She founded the Magna Carta Society and she was a pacifist throughout her life, and demonstrated against the nuclear bomb after the Second World War. She died in London and her remains were buried near those of her husband in Ovingdean. Duncan,1945 The archives of Helena Normanton are held at The Womens Library at the Library of the London School of Economics, ref 7HLN
Helena Normanton
–
Helena Normanton
27.
Wilmer Cutler and Pickering
–
Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr LLP is an American law firm with 12 offices across the United States, Europe and Asia. It was created in 2004, through the merger of the Boston-based firm, Hale and Dorr and the Washington-based firm Wilmer Cutler & Pickering, Hale and Dorr was founded in Boston in 1918 by Richard Hale, Dudley Huntington Dorr, Frank Grinnell, Roger Swaim and John Maguire. Reginald Heber Smith, author of the seminal work Justice and the Poor, in 1988, partner Paul Brountas chaired the presidential campaign of Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis, and in 1990, senior partner William Weld was elected governor. In 1988, the law established a subsidiary as a registered investment adviser. Initially known as Haldor Investment Advisors, L. P. in 2008 Hale Dorr Wealth Advisors became Silver Bridge. Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering was founded in Washington in 1962 by former Cravath attorneys Lloyd Cutler and John Pickering, along with a senior lawyer, Richard H. Wilmer. In the 1980s, Cutler led the founding of the Southern Africa Legal Services and Legal Education Project, from 1981 to 1993, partner C. Boyden Gray left the firm to serve as White House Counsel to Vice President and President George H. W. Bush, in 2003, partner Jamie Gorelick began serving as a member of the 9/11 Commission. The two firms merged to form Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr in 2004, in 2010, the law firm relocated its administrative support base to a new campus in Dayton, Ohio as it sought to streamline internal business operations across its many offices. The office houses more than 200 employees from existing WilmerHale offices, according to the British magazine Legal Week, the firm ranked 14th among American law firms in terms of total revenue in 2006. The case was memorialized in the book A Civil Action, by Jonathan Harr, upon further discovery, the EPA took the case on and W. R. Grace was successfully indicted for making false statements. Both W. R. Grace and Beatrice Foods paid a total $64. 9M to clean up the contaminated sites in Woburn, Massachusetts. The resulting report, known as the Powers Report, laid out the facts that have been the predicate for much of the discussion of Enron since that time. The investigation resulted in a widely covered written report that detailed a variety of accounting issues as well as the role of management, Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering represented Swiss banks accused of profiting from the Holocaust in their settlement negotiations with plaintiffs. The firm also represented Siemens AG, Krupp AG, and other German companies accused of exploiting forced laborers during the Nazi era, since 2005, WilmerHale has represented Senator William Frist in regard to an SEC insider trading investigation. Both Hale and Dorr and Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering have a history of involvement in pro bono work. WilmerHale has ranked at or near the top of The American Lawyers pro bono ranking since the merger, in recent years, the firm has been involved in several high-profile cases. In 2006, attorney Melissa Hoffer, then part of the team with WilmerHale, delivered a speech in Caen, France, other WilmerHale lawyers participating in the case include Stephen Oleskey, and Rob Kirsch
Wilmer Cutler and Pickering
–
Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr LLP
28.
Lawrence Collins
–
Lawrence Antony Collins, Baron Collins of Mapesbury, PC FBA, is a British judge and former Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. He was also appointed to the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong on 11 April 2011 as a non-permanent judge from other common law jurisdictions and he was formerly a partner in the British law firm Herbert Smith. He is now a member of Essex Court Chambers and an Adjunct Professor of Law at NYU School of Law. Collins was born on 7 May 1941 and educated at the City of London School, and then at Downing College, Cambridge, graduating with a starred first in Law. He received an LL. M. degree from Columbia Law School in New York City and was admitted as a solicitor in 1968 and he served as head of the Litigation and Arbitration Department at Herbert Smith from 1995 to 1998. He and Arthur Marriott were the two first practising solicitors ever to be appointed Queens Counsel, on 27 March 1997, as a solicitor-advocate, he appeared before the English Court of Appeal, the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords, and the European Court of Justice. He acted for the Government of Chile in the case to extradite General Pinochet and he has one daughter, Hannah, and one son, Aaron. In 1997, he was appointed a Deputy High Court Judge, becoming a full-time Judge in the Chancery Division on 28 September 2000, at which time he left Herbert Smith. In a landmark case in 2006, he required file sharers who had refused to settle with the British Phonographic Industry to pay damages running into thousands of pounds. His appointment as a Lord Justice of Appeal was announced on 11 January 2007, on 8 April 2009, it was announced that he would replace Lord Hoffmann as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. He is the first solicitor to be appointed to senior levels of the judiciary. Accordingly, on 21 April 2009, he was created Baron Collins of Mapesbury, of Hampstead Town in the London Borough of Camden, on 1 October 2009, he and nine other Lords of Appeal became Justices of the Supreme Court upon that bodys inauguration. He has been a Fellow of Wolfson College, Cambridge, since 1975 and he is a member of the Institut de droit international. He has been the editor of Dicey & Morris, the standard reference work on conflict of laws, since 1987. He is also the author of other books and articles on private international law. He became a Bencher of the Inner Temple in 2001, Collins reached the compulsory retirement age of 70 on 7 May 2011 but stayed on as an acting justice until July. He has continued membership of the House of Lords, and sits as a non-affiliated member, HJ and HT v Home Secretary UKSC31, homosexuality in asylum claims R v Bentley posthumous overturning of unsafe murder conviction Photograph at the Wayback Machine from Downing College
Lawrence Collins
–
Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom
29.
City of London
–
The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
City of London
–
The City of London skyline in December 2013
City of London
–
The
Waterloo Helmet, c. 150–50 BC, found in the
River Thames
City of London
–
A surviving fragment of the
London Wall, built around 200 AD, close to
Tower Hill
City of London
–
Plaque near
Southwark Bridge noting the activities around the time of
King Alfred.
30.
High Court judge (England and Wales)
–
High Court judges are referred to as puisne judges. High Court Judges wear red and black robes, upon appointment all High Court judges are knighted, or in the case of female judges made Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire. So, for example, Nigel Bridge became Sir Nigel Bridge, in court, a High Court judge is referred to as My Lord or Your Lordship if male, or as My Lady or Your Ladyship if female. High Court judges use the title in office of Mr Justice for men or, normally, when, however, Dame Alison Russell was appointed in 2014, she took the title Ms Justice Russell. The style of The Honourable is also used during office, for example, Sir Joseph Bloggs would be referred to as The Hon Mr Justice Bloggs Kt. and Dame Jane Bloggs DBE as The Hon Mrs Justice Bloggs DBE, for as long as they continue to hold office. When there is already or has recently been a judge with the same surname as a new appointee. Many judges have done this, such as Mr Justice Christopher Clarke, when referring to a High Court judge in a legal context, the judge is identified by use of the surname, followed by the letter J. For example, Mr Justice Bloggs or Mrs Justice Bloggs would be referred to as Bloggs J, where several judges are listed the double letters JJ are used, for example, Bloggs, Smith and Jones JJ. High Court judges, as with the other Senior Judiciary are appointed by The Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 a new Judicial Appointments Commission has removed the appointment of judges from the political arena. High Court judges, as with other judges, are now appointed on the basis of open competition, High Court judges, as with all judges in England and Wales, hold office during good behaviour, this is laid down in the Bill of Rights 1689. A High Court judge can only be removed by the Queen upon an Address of both Houses of Parliament, formerly, High Court judges could only be appointed from among barristers of at least 10 years standing. Before the qualifications changed, a typical appointee had in the region of twenty to thirty years experience as a lawyer. Only four solicitors had been appointed as puisne judges – Michael Sachs in 1993, Lawrence Collins in 2000, Henry Hodge in 2004, Collins was elevated further to the Court of Appeal in 2007 and became a law lord in 2009. A few distinguished academics have made it on to the High Court bench, including Mrs Justice Hale and, more recently. List of High Court Judges of England and Wales Judicial titles in England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales
High Court judge (England and Wales)
–
Red-robed High Court judges in procession at
Llandaff Cathedral in 2013
31.
Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
–
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom are the judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Supreme Court is the highest in the whole of the United Kingdom for civil matters, the judges include the President, the Deputy President, and Justices. Judges are appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, the number of judges is set by s.23 Constitutional Reform Act 2005, which established the Court, but may be increased by the Queen through an Order in Council under s.23. Judges of the Court are granted the style Lord or Lady for life, the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 sets out conditions for appointment as a President, Deputy President or Justice of the Court. That person must have held high office for at least two years, or have held rights of audience at the higher courts of England, Scotland or Northern Ireland for at least fifteen years. This means it is not necessary for someone applying to become a judge of the Supreme Court to have previous judicial experience. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by The Queen by the issue of patent, on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is required by the Constitutional Reform Act to recommend this name to the Queen, once the commission is formed, there are a number of people it is required to consult. The first group is a set of senior judges defined by the Act who do not wish to be considered for nomination. The commission is also required to consult the Lord Chancellor, the First Minister of Scotland, the First Minister for Wales. The Act provides for up to three stages in the Lord Chancellors consideration of whether to do so, when the selection is first put forward, the Lord Chancellor is entitled to accept the nomination, to reject it, or to ask the commission to reconsider it. If the nomination was rejected, the commission must put forward a new name for Stage Two, if instead the Lord Chancellor asked for reconsideration at Stage One, the commission may either put forward the same name or a new one. In either case, the Lord Chancellor must either accept or reject the name, in other words, the Lord Chancellor has one opportunity to reject and one to ask for reconsideration. The Senior Law Lord on 1 October 2009, Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, became the Courts first President, and the former Second Senior Law Lord, Lord Hope, the first Deputy President. The Court originally had one female Justice, Lady Hale, two Scottish Justices, Lord Hope and Lord Rodger, and one Northern Irish Justice, Lord Kerr. Of the original Justices, Lord Saville and Lord Collins were the first to retire and their replacements were Lord Wilson and Lord Sumption. Lord Wilson was sworn in on 26 May 2011 and Lord Sumption on 11 January 2012, on 11 October 2011, it was announced that Lord Phillips would retire early, effective 30 September 2012. On 20 December 2011, it was announced that the late Lord Rodger, Lords Phillips, Dyson, Walker and Hope were replaced by Lords Neuberger, Hughes, Toulson and Hodge, and Lady Hale was appointed Deputy President after Lord Hopes retirement
Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
–
Justices
32.
Lord Chancellor
–
The Lord Chancellor, formally the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior functionary in the government of the United Kingdom. They are appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor is the second highest ranking of the Great Officers of State, ranking after only the Lord High Steward. Prior to the Union there were separate Lords Chancellor for England and Wales, the Lord Chancellor is a member of the Cabinet and, by law, is responsible for the efficient functioning and independence of the courts. In 2007 there were a number of changes to the legal system, the current Lord Chancellor is Elizabeth Truss, who is also Secretary of State for Justice. One of the Lord Chancellors responsibilities is to act as the custodian of the Great Seal of the Realm, a Lord Keeper of the Great Seal may be appointed instead of a Lord Chancellor. The two offices entail exactly the same duties, the distinction is in the mode of appointment. The seal is then said to be in commission, since the 19th century, however, only Lord Chancellors have been appointed, the other offices having fallen into disuse. The office of Lord Chancellor of England may trace its origins to the Carolingian monarchy, in England, the office dates at least as far back as the Norman Conquest, and possibly earlier. Some give the first Chancellor of England as Angmendus, in 605, other sources suggest that the first to appoint a Chancellor was Edward the Confessor, who is said to have adopted the practice of sealing documents instead of personally signing them. A clerk of Edwards, Regenbald, was named chancellor in some documents from Edwards reign, in any event, the office has been continuously occupied since the Norman Conquest. The chancellor headed the office or chancery. Formerly, the Lord Chancellor was almost always a churchman, as during the Middle Ages the clergy were amongst the few men of the realm. The Lord Chancellor performed multiple functions—he was the Keeper of the Great Seal, the royal chaplain. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government and he was only outranked in government by the Justiciar. As one of the Kings ministers, the Lord Chancellor attended the curia regis or Royal Court, if a bishop, the Lord Chancellor received a writ of summons, if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree or, if a layman, he attended without any summons. The curia regis would later evolve into Parliament, the Lord Chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, as was confirmed by a statute passed during the reign of Henry VIII, a Lord Chancellor could preside over the House of Lords even if not a Lord himself. The Lord Chancellors judicial duties also evolved through his role in the curia regis, petitions for justice were normally addressed to the King and the curia, but in 1280, Edward I instructed his justices to examine and deal with petitions themselves as the Court of Kings Bench. Important petitions were to be sent to the Lord Chancellor for his decision, by the reign of Edward III, this chancellery function developed into a separate tribunal for the Lord Chancellor
Lord Chancellor
–
Incumbent
Michael Gove since 9th May 2015
Lord Chancellor
–
Arms of
Her Majesty's Government
Lord Chancellor
–
Sir
Thomas More, one of the most famous early Lord Chancellors, served and was executed under King
Henry VIII.
Lord Chancellor
–
The uniform of the Lord High Chancellor, depicted on a
cigarette card produced for the
Coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1937.
33.
Letters patent
–
Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for the granting of city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, in the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm. A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern patent granting exclusive rights in an invention. e, the opposite of letters patent are letters close, which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read their contents. Letters patent are thus comparable to other kinds of open letter in that their audience is wide, letters patent are so named from the Latin verb pateo, to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originators seal was attached pendent from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read. Thus letters patent do not equate to a letter but rather to any form of document, deed, contract, letter, despatch, edict, decree. Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and an exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his written orders. They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect an order by Parliament. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch, in their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect. According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of copies of English royal letters patent. In 1634, during the Thirty Years War, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II became convinced that his general Albrecht von Wallenstein was plotting treason, on 24 January 1634 the Emperor signed a secret patent removing him from his command. Finally an open patent, charging Wallenstein with high treason, was signed on 18 February, in the patent, Ferdinand II ordered to have Wallenstein brought under arrest to Vienna, dead or alive. On the basis of patent, several of Wallensteins officers assassinated him and were rewarded by the Emperor. The form of patent for creating peerages has been fixed by the Crown Office Order 1992. Part III of the schedule lays down nine pro forma texts for creating various ranks of the peerage, lords of appeal in ordinary, gender-specific differences are highlighted in italics. In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the powers of the head of state
Letters patent
–
Letters patent issued by
Queen Victoria in 1900, creating the office of
Governor-General of Australia as part of the process of
Federation
Letters patent
–
Letters patent issued by the United States
General Land Office
34.
Robert Carswell, Baron Carswell
–
Robert Douglas Carswell, Baron Carswell, PC, QC, is a retired Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. Two years later he graduated from the University of Chicagos Law School with a Doctor of Jurisprudence, Carswell was Counsel to the Attorney General for Northern Ireland in the years 1970 and 1971, and Senior Crown Counsel in Northern Ireland from 1979 to 1984. In 1984, he became Judge of the High Court of Justice Northern Ireland and he was Lord Justice of Appeal at the Supreme Court of Judicature in Northern Ireland from 1993 to 1997 and further Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland from 1997 to 2004. Lord Carswell was made a Queens Counsel in 1971, Carswell became a Privy Counsellor in 1993. He was appointed a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary as Baron Carswell, of Killeen in the County of Down on 12 January 2004 and he sits in the House of Lords as a crossbencher. During 2009–2010, Lord Carswell chaired an inquiry into the roles of Jerseys Crown Officers, Lord Carswell married Romayne Winifred Ferris in 1961, they have two daughters. Lady Carswell was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Belfast in 2000, List of Northern Ireland Members of the House of Lords List of Northern Ireland members of the Privy Council DodOnline
Robert Carswell, Baron Carswell
–
Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom
35.
Faculty of Advocates
–
The Faculty of Advocates is a constituent part of the College of Justice and is based in Edinburgh. Advocates are privileged to plead in any cause before any of the courts of Scotland, including the Sheriff Courts and District Courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. The Faculty has existed since 1532 when the College of Justice was set up by Act of the Parliament of Scotland, for a long period the Faculty resisted reorganisation, until changes in admissions were introduced in the 1960. The Faculty is led by the Dean of Faculty, who is elected by the whole membership, the post is currently held by Gordon Jackson, who took over in 2016 from James Wolffe. He is supported by the Vice-Dean, Treasurer, Clerk, Keeper of the Library and Chairman of Faculty Services Ltd, there is no standing council as with the Bar association of England and Wales. The Faculty is self-regulating, and the Court of Session delegates to it the task of preparing Intrants for admission as advocates and this task involves a process of examination and practical instruction known as devilling, during which intrants benefit from intensive structured training in the special skills of advocacy. No-one can be presented to the court as suitable to be a practising advocate without satisfying these training requirements, the Faculty also provides for its members an ongoing programme of talks, seminars and conferences covering a wide range of topics. Many Advocates and trainee advocates carry out work for the Free Legal Services Unit and this is part of the Facultys long standing commitment to providing access to justice for everyone in society. The FLSU enables qualified persons to provide advice and representation to clients of accredited advice agencies across Scotland, the Faculty includes practising and non-practising members. The current practising Bar includes an increasing proportion of women, women make up approximately one quarter practising membership. Total numbers now stand at just over 460, of approximately one fifth are Queens Counsel. The taking of Silk, as assumption of the title of Queens Counsel is commonly known and this is exercised through the First Minister of Scotland upon the recommendation of the Lord Justice General. The Dean of Faculty is consulted in the course of this process, as a general rule, silk is awarded to experienced Counsel, who are considered to have achieved distinction in full-time practice. The process of awarding silk has been the subject of some criticism, for more than 300 years, the Faculty has maintained within Parliament House the Advocates Library, often regarded as the finest working law library in the United Kingdom. In addition, the stock is made available to others via the National Library of Scotland. The Library was formally inaugurated in 1689, from the start the collection was a general one. In 1709 the status of the collection was confirmed when Queen Annes Copyright Act gave the Keeper of the Library the right to claim a copy of every book published in the British Isles, the collection was enhanced by purchase and donation, particularly of continental imprints and of manuscripts. The Advocates Library came to be recognised as the depository for literary materials of national importance
Faculty of Advocates
–
Faculty of Advocates
36.
Lord Advocate
–
He or she is the chief public prosecutor for Scotland and all prosecutions on indictment are conducted by the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, nominally in the Lord Advocates name. The officeholder is one of the Great Officers of State of Scotland, the current Lord Advocate is The Rt Hon. James Wolffe, QC. The office of Advocate to the monarch is an ancient one, the first recognised Lord Advocate was Sir John Ross of Montgrenan, recorded in 1483 as serving King James III. Her Majestys Government is now advised on Scots law by the Advocate General for Scotland, the Lord Advocate is not head of the Faculty of Advocates, that position is held by the Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. Until devolution in 1999, all Lord Advocates were, by convention, members of the United Kingdom government, since devolution, the Lord Advocate has been an automatically ex officio member of the Scottish Government. From 1999 until 2007, the Lord Advocate attended the weekly Scottish Cabinet meetings, however, after the 2007 election, the new First Minister Alex Salmond decided that Lord Advocate would no longer attend the Scottish Cabinet, stating he wished to de-politicise the post. Until devolution, all Lord Advocates were, by convention, members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords to allow them to speak for the Government and those who were not already members of either house received a life peerage on appointment. Appointments as Senators of the College of Justice were formerly made on the nomination of the Lord Advocate, every Lord Advocate between 1842 and 1967 was later appointed to the bench, either on demitting office or at a later date. Many Lord Advocates in fact nominated themselves for appointment as Lord President of the Court of Session or as Lord Justice Clerk, the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service is headed by the Lord Advocate and the Solicitor General for Scotland, and is the public prosecution service in Scotland. It also carries out functions which are equivalent to the coroner in common law jurisdictions. Incorporated within the Crown Office is the Legal Secretariat to the Lord Advocate, the Crown Agent is the principal legal advisor to the Lord Advocate on prosecution matters. He or she acts as Chief Executive for the Department. At trials in the High Court in Edinburgh, they attend as instructing solicitor and they are assisted by other senior legal, managerial and administrative staff. Whilst the Lord Advocate and Solicitor General continue as public prosecutors the principle of separation of powers seems compromised, the potential for a conflict of interest always exists. Resolution of these circumstances would entail an amendment of the contained within the Scotland Act 1998. The judges of Scotlands highest court came to share this view and they noted various ways in which the Lord Advocates roles had caused problems for the judicial system, including the ability to challenge. Virtually any act of a prosecutor has led to a plethora of disputed issues, with delays to the holding of trials and to the hearing. While not specifically favouring any of the three, they noted that the proposal was radical enough to generate considerable controversy
Lord Advocate
–
Scotland
37.
Solicitor General for Scotland
–
Her Majestys Solicitor General for Scotland is one of the Law Officers of the Crown, and the deputy of the Lord Advocate, whose duty is to advise the Crown and the Scottish Government on Scots Law. They are also responsible for the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service which together constitute the Criminal Prosecution Service in Scotland, until 1999, when the Scottish Parliament and Scottish Executive were created, the Lord Advocate and the Solicitor General for Scotland advised Her Majestys Government. Since their transfer to the Scottish Government, the British Government has been advised on Scots Law by the Advocate General for Scotland, until 1764, the office was at times held jointly. Solicitor General on the Scottish Government website
Solicitor General for Scotland
–
Scotland
38.
Lord Justice General
–
The Lord President of the Court of Session is the most senior judge in Scotland, the head of the judiciary, and the presiding judge of the College of Justice and the Court of Session. The Lord President is also the Lord Justice General of Scotland and the head of the High Court of Justiciary, the Lord President has authority over any court established under Scots law, except for the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The office of Lord Justice General is derived from the justiciars who were appointed from at least the twelfth century, from around 1567 onwards it was held heritably by the Earl of Argyll until the heritability was resigned to the Crown in 1607. The current Lord President of the Court of Session is Lord Carloway, in Scotland the Official Oath is taken before the Lord President of the Court of Session. The Lord President is paid according to Salary Group 1.1 of the Judicial Salaries Scale, argadus, Captain of Argyll, in the reign of Ethodius Comes Dunetus, in the reign of King William the Lion. 1372, Sir William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, Justiciary South of the Forth, Court of Session List of Senators of the College of Justice List of Leading Scottish Legal Cases
Lord Justice General
–
Lord President of the Court of Session Lord Justice General
39.
First Minister of Scotland
–
The First Minister of Scotland is the leader of the Scottish Government. The First Minister chairs the Scottish Cabinet and is responsible for the formulation, development. The First Minister is a Member of the Scottish Parliament and nominated by the Scottish Parliament before being appointed by the monarch. Members of the Cabinet and junior ministers of the Scottish Government as well as the Scottish law officers, are appointed by the First Minister. As head of the Scottish Government, the First Minister is directly accountable to the Scottish Parliament for their actions, nicola Sturgeon of the Scottish National Party is the current First Minister of Scotland. The process was known as devolution and was initiated to give Scotland some measure of home rule or self-governance in its affairs, such as health, education. The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet, since 1999, the Secretary of State has a much reduced role as a result of the transfer of responsibilities to the Scottish Parliament and Scottish Government. The First Minister is nominated by the Scottish Parliament from among its members at the beginning of each term and he or she is then formally appointed by the monarch. In theory, any member of the Scottish Parliament can be nominated for First Minister, however, the government must be answerable to, and acceptable to, the Scottish Parliament to gain supply. For this reason, the First Minister is almost always the leader of the largest party, there is no term of office for a First Minister, he or she holds office at Her Majestys pleasure. In practice, he or she holds office as long as he or she retains the confidence of the chamber, given the additional member system used to elect its members, it is difficult for a single party to gain an overall majority of seats in the Scottish Parliament. The SNP gained a majority of seats in the 2011 election. After the election of the Scottish Parliament, a First Minister must be nominated within a period of 28 days. Under the terms of the Scotland Act, if the Parliament fails to nominate a First Minister, within this frame, it will be dissolved. If an incumbent First Minister is defeated in a general election, the First Minister only leaves office when the Scottish Parliament nominates a successor individual. After accepting office, the First Minister takes the Official Oath, the oath is tendered by the Lord President of the Court of Session at a sitting of the Court in Parliament House in Edinburgh. The oath is, I, do swear that I will well and truly serve Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth in the office of First Minister, the period in office of a First Minister is not linked to the term of Members of the Scottish Parliament. The Scotland Act set out a maximum term for each session of Parliament
First Minister of Scotland
–
Incumbent
Nicola Sturgeon MSP since 19 November 2014
First Minister of Scotland
–
Donald Dewar was the inaugural First Minister of Scotland, and held office from May 1999, until his death in October 2000.
First Minister of Scotland
–
US Deputy Secretary of State
Antony Blinken meets with Nicola Sturgeon at the US Department of State in Washington, D.C., on 10 June 2015
First Minister of Scotland
–
Bute House at 6
Charlotte Square is the official residence of the First Minister of Scotland.
40.
Secretary of State for Scotland
–
Her Majestys Principal Secretary of State for Scotland is the principal minister of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland representing Scotland. He heads the Scotland Office, a government department based in London, the post was created soon after the Union of the Crowns, but was abolished in 1746, following the Jacobite rebellion. Scottish affairs thereafter were managed by the Lord Advocate until 1827, in 1885 the post of Secretary for Scotland was re-created, with the incumbent usually in the Cabinet. In 1926 this post was upgraded to a full Secretary of State appointment, consequently, the role of Secretary of State for Scotland has been diminished. A recent Scottish Secretary, Des Browne, held the post whilst simultaneously being Secretary of State for Defence, the current Secretary of State for Scotland is David Mundell. John Erskine, 22nd Earl of Mar had served as Secretary of State of an independent Scotland since 1705, following the Acts of Union 1707, he remained in office. The post of Secretary of State for Scotland existed briefly after the Union of the Parliament of Scotland, after the rising, responsibility for Scotland lay primarily with the office of the Home Secretary, usually exercised by the Lord Advocate. The Secretary for Scotland was chief minister in charge of the Scottish Office in the United Kingdom government,1885 saw the creation of the Scottish Office and the post of Secretary for Scotland. From 1892 the Secretary for Scotland sat in cabinet, the Secretary for Scotland post was upgraded to full Secretary of State rank as Secretary of State for Scotland in 1926. All Secretaries for Scotland also held the post of Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland, the post of Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland was held ex officio by Secretaries of State for Scotland from 1926 to 1999. Secretaries of State for Scotland since Donald Dewar have not been Keepers of the Great Seal, with the rise of the SNP in the Scottish and British parliaments and the resultant interest in Scottish Independence, the Secretary of states role has also subsequently increased in prominence. The Scotland office itself has received an increase in budget of 20% from 2013 to 2017 with a 14. 4% increase in 2015/16 alone. The UK governments website lists the Secretary of State for Scotlands responsibilities as being, The main role of the Scottish Secretary is to promote, other responsibilities include promoting partnership between the UK government and the Scottish government, and relations between the 2 Parliaments. This seeming lack of responsibility has in recent years seen calls for the scrapping of the role and the wider department of the Scottish office itself by opposition MPs
Secretary of State for Scotland
–
Arms of
Her Majesty's Government
41.
Court of Session
–
Clerk of Session redirects here, not to be confused with Session Clerk, see Moderators and clerks in the Church of Scotland or Principal Clerk of Session and Justiciary. The Court of Session is the civil court of Scotland. It sits in Parliament House in Edinburgh and is both a court and a court of appeal. However, the majority of complex, important, or high value cases are brought in the Court of Session, Legal aid, administered by the Scottish Legal Aid Board, is available to persons with little disposable income for cases in the Court of Session. There are 35 judges, in addition to a number of temporary judges, the judges sit also in the High Court of Justiciary, where the Lord President is called the Lord Justice General, and Senators are known as Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. The Court is divided into the Inner House of 12 Senators, which is primarily a court, and the Outer House. The Inner House is further divided into 2 divisions of 6 Senators, the 1st Division is presided over by the Lord President, and the 2nd Division is presided over by the Lord Just Clerk. Cases in the Inner House are normally heard before a bench of 3 Senators, on very rare occasions the whole Inner House has presided over a case. Cases in the Outer House are heard by a single Senator sitting as Lords Ordinary, the Court was established in 1532 by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland, and was initially presided over by the Lord Chancellor of Scotland and had equal numbers of clergy and laity. The judges were all appointed from the Kings Council, the Lord Chancellor of Scotland was to preside over the court, which was to be composed of fifteen lords appointed from the Kings Council. Seven of the lords had to be churchmen, while another seven had to be laymen, an Act of Parliament in 1640 restricted membership of the Court to laymen only, by withdrawing the right of churchmen to sit in judgement. The number of laymen was increased to maintain the number of Lords in the Court, several significant changes were made to the Court during the 19th century. It was separated into two divisions, the Outer House and Inner House, by the Court of Session Act 1810, a further separation was made in 1815 with the creation of a lesser Jury Court to allow certain civil cases to be tried by jury. In 1830 the Jury Court was absorbed into the Court of Session along with the Admiralty, the court was divided in 1810 into an outer and inner house. The former serves as the court of first instance, the latter is superior, cases in the outer house are heard by Lords Ordinary who sit alone, though there may occasionally also be a jury of twelve. Cases in the house are heard by three Lords of Council and Session, but significant or complicated cases may be heard by five or more judges. The Court of Session is the civil court of Scotland. It sits in Parliament House in Edinburgh and is both a court and a court of appeal
Court of Session
–
Entrance to the Law Courts, Parliament Square
Court of Session
–
Logo of the Court of Session
Court of Session
42.
South Africa
–
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
South Africa
–
Mapungubwe Hill, the site of the former capital of the
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
South Africa
–
Flag
South Africa
–
Arrival of
Jan van Riebeeck, the first European to settle in South Africa, with
Devil's Peak in the background
South Africa
–
Depiction of a
Zulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838
43.
Kenya
–
Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community. Its capital and largest city is Nairobi and it is bordered by Tanzania to the south and southwest, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2, and had a population of approximately 48 million people in January 2017, Kenya has a warm and humid tropical climate on its Indian Ocean coastline. The climate is cooler in the grasslands around the capital city, Nairobi, and especially closer to Mount Kenya. Further inland are highlands in Central and Rift Valley regions where tea, in the West are Nyanza and Western regions, there is an equatorial, hot and dry climate which becomes humid around Lake Victoria, the largest tropical fresh-water lake in the world. This gives way to temperate and forested areas in the neighbouring western region. The north-eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes, Kenya is known for its world class athletes in track and field and rugby. The African Great Lakes region, which Kenya is a part of, has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period, by the first millennium AD, the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West-Central Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97% of the nations residents, European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony, Kenya obtained independence in December 1963. Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution, Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties, the capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East, agriculture is a major employer, the country traditionally exports tea and coffee and has more recently begun to export fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is also an economic driver. Additionally, Kenya is a member of the East African Community trading bloc, the Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya. The origin of the name Kenya is not clear, but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga, Kirenyaa, if so, then the British may not so much have mispronounced it, as misspelled it. In the 19th century, the German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf was staying with the Bantu Kamba people when he first spotted the mountain. On asking for the name of the mountain, he was told Kĩ-Nyaa or Kĩĩma- Kĩĩnyaa probably because the pattern of black rock, the Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga in Kikuyu, which is quite similar to the Kamba name. Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by most to be a corruption of the Kamba version, others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation /ˈkɛnjə/
Kenya
–
A giraffe at
Nairobi National Park, with Nairobi's skyline in background
Kenya
–
Flag
Kenya
–
The
Turkana boy, a 1.6-million-year-old
hominid fossil belonging to
Homo erectus.
Kenya
–
A traditional
Swahili carved wooden door in
Lamu.
44.
Trinidad and Tobago
–
During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands among Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers, more times than any other island in the Caribbean. Trinidad and Tobago were ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens, the country Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962, becoming a republic in 1976. Trinidad and Tobago is the third richest country by GDP per capita in the Americas after the United States, furthermore, it is recognised as a high-income economy by the World Bank. Unlike most of the English-speaking Caribbean, the economy is primarily industrial, with an emphasis on petroleum. The countrys wealth is attributed to its reserves and exploitation of oil. Historian E. L. Joseph claimed that Trinidads Amerindian name was Iere or Land of the Humming Bird, derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, however, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does. Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island, christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Trinidad and Tobago are islands situated between 10°2 and 11°12 N latitude and 60°30 and 61°56 W longitude, at the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres from Venezuelan territory. Trinidad is 4,768 km2 in area with a length of 80 km. Tobago has an area of about 300 km2, or 5. 8% of the area, is 41 km long and 12 km at its greatest width. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the shelf of South America. The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains, the highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres above sea level. As the majority of the live in the island of Trinidad. There are four municipalities in Trinidad, Port of Spain. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough, Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East-West Corridor are the most fertile, the Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands consist of shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, the Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift
Trinidad and Tobago
–
Mayaro Beach in the south-eastern area of Trinidad.
Trinidad and Tobago
–
Flag
Trinidad and Tobago
–
Pigeon Point in
Tobago, one of the top tourist destinations in the country.
Trinidad and Tobago
–
Parlatuvier Bay, a popular tourist destination in
Tobago.
45.
Guyana
–
Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a sovereign state on the northern mainland of South America. It is, however, included in the Caribbean Region due to its cultural, historical. Guyana is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Brazil to the south and southwest, Suriname to the east, with 215,000 square kilometres, Guyana is the fourth-smallest country on mainland South America after Uruguay, Suriname and French Guiana. The region known as the Guianas consists of the large landmass north of the Amazon River. Originally inhabited by indigenous groups, Guyana was settled by the Dutch before coming under British control in the late 18th century. It was governed as British Guiana, with mostly a plantation style economy until the 1950s and it gained independence in 1966, and officially became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970. The legacy of British rule is reflected in the political administration and diverse population, which includes Indian, African, Amerindian. Guyana is the only South American nation in which English is the official language, the majority of the population, however, speak Guyanese Creole, an English-based creole language, as a first language. In addition to being part of the Anglophone Caribbean, Guyana is one of the few Caribbean countries that is not an island in the West Indies, CARICOM, of which Guyana is a member, is headquartered in Guyanas capital and largest city, Georgetown. In 2008, the joined the Union of South American Nations as a founding member. The name Guyana is derived from Guiana, the name for the region that formerly included Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Guyana is derived from an Indigenous Amerindian language, there are nine indigenous tribes residing in Guyana, the Wai Wai, Macushi, Patamona, Lokono, Kalina, Wapishana, Pemon, Akawaio and Warao. Historically the Lokono and Kalina tribes dominated Guyana, although Christopher Columbus sighted Guyana during his third voyage, the Dutch were the first to establish colonies, Essequibo, Berbice, and Demerara. After the British assumed control in 1796, the Dutch formally ceded the area in 1814, in 1831 the three separate colonies became a single British colony known as British Guiana. Since its Independence in 1824 Venezuela has claimed the area of land to the west of the Essequibo River, in 1899 an international tribunal ruled the land belonged to Great Britain. Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966 and became a republic on 23 February 1970, the US State Department and the US Central Intelligence Agency, along with the British government, played a strong role in influencing political control in Guyana during this time. The American government supported Forbes Burnham during the years of independence because Cheddi Jagan was identified as a Marxist. In 1978, Guyana received international notice when 918 members of the American cult, Peoples Temple, however, most of the suicides were by Americans and not Guyanese
Guyana
–
Map of British Guiana.
Guyana
–
Flag
Guyana
–
Rupununi Savannah.
Guyana
–
Anomaloglossus beebei (Kaieteur), specific to the Guianas.
46.
Senior Advocate
–
The title of Senior Counsel or State Counsel is given to a senior lawyer in some countries that were formerly part of the British Empire. Just as a junior counsel is called to the Bar, a Senior Counsel is, in some jurisdictions, Senior Counsel may informally style themselves as silks, like their British counterparts. This is the case in Ireland, Australia, Hong Kong, a second usage, prevalent in the United Kingdom itself refers to a solicitor who is senior and autonomous, but is neither a partner nor on the career path to partnership. In Hong Kong, Senior Counsel must wear the black robe, in the Republic of Ireland, Senior Counsel wear a silk gown which differs from that of a Junior Counsel. The wig is optional in the Republic of Ireland, the rank of Senior Counsel has also been introduced in most states and territories of Australia, even though the Queen remains head of state. Between 1993 and 2008 all Australian jurisdictions except the Northern Territory replaced the rank of Queens Counsel with that of Senior Counsel, however, in 2013 Queensland restored the rank of Queens Counsel and there was talk of other Australian states following suit. Senior Counsel replaced QC in the law of Hong Kong after the transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Queens Counsel who had been appointed QC in HK or British Queens Counsel who had admitted to practice in Hong Kong generally prior to the handover became Senior Counsel automatically. Queens Counsel from England or other senior counsel from other jurisdictions are not accorded any precedence if they are admitted generally in Hong Kong, the Irish Free State became independent in 1922 as a Dominion of the British Crown. Shortly after the Courts of Justice Act 1924 came into effect, the title KC continued to be used by many Senior Counsels, both those created before July 1924 and those after. In 1949, shortly before the coming into force of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 which broke the link with the British Crown. As late as the 1960s, R. G. L, leonard was described in the official Irish law reports as Queen’s Counsel, reflecting the British change from King to Queen in 1952. The title Senior Counsel was briefly established in New Zealand from 2007 until 2009 and it was abolished by the following Government in favour of restoring the title of Queens Counsel on the basis of the respect felt accorded to those appointed Queens Counsel. Those appointed as Senior Counsel have been given the option of becoming Queens Counsel or remaining as Senior Counsel, Senior Counsel is used in the law of Singapore. There is no independent bar in Singapore and Senior Counsel practice as members of law firms, a judge in the High Court in the province of Gauteng ruled that under the 1993 Constitution, the President did not have the power to grant Senior Counsel status. This judgment has been overturned by the Supreme Court of appeal, in the United Kingdom, the position of Senior Counsel is used to denote an experienced solicitor, who is not on the path to partnership. This position is analogous to the American title Of counsel, and is not directly comparable to the position of Queens Counsel. Other jurisdictions have adopted similar titles, Senior Advocate under the law of Bangladesh, laws of India, Law of Pakistan, and that of Nigeria
Senior Advocate
–
An example of dress in court
47.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
48.
Bangladesh
–
Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
Bangladesh
–
Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the
Pundra Kingdom
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
–
Asia in 323 BC, the
Gangaridai Empire in relation to the
Nanda Empire,
Alexander 's Empire and neighbours
Bangladesh
–
The
Somapura Mahavihara, once the largest
Buddhist vihara in South Asia, built by Emperor
Dharmapala of Bengal
49.
Sri Lanka
–
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
–
Avukana Buddha statue, a 12 metres (39 ft) standing Buddha statue belongs to the reign of
Dhatusena of Anuradhapura, 5th century
Sri Lanka
–
Flag
Sri Lanka
–
Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first century CE, in a 1535 publication.
Sri Lanka
–
The
Sigiriya rock fortress
50.
Traditional Chinese characters
–
Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
Traditional Chinese characters
–
Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese characters
–
Job announcement in a Filipino Chinese daily newspaper written in Traditional Chinese characters.
Traditional Chinese characters
–
A Series of Reading workbook in Traditional Chinese used in some Elementary schools in the Philippines.
.jpg)
