1.
Radiology
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Radiology is a specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases seen within the body. Interventional radiology is the performance of medical procedures with the guidance of imaging technologies, the acquisition of medical images is usually carried out by the Radiographer, often known as a Radiologic Technologist. Depending on location, the Diagnostic Radiologist, or Reporting Radiographer, then interprets or reads the images and produces a report of their findings and this report is then transmitted to the Clinician who requested the imaging, either routinely or emergently. Radiographs are produced by transmitting X-rays through a patient, the X-rays are projected through the body onto a detector, an image is formed based on which rays pass through versus those that are absorbed or scattered in the patient. Röntgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895 and received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery in 1901, in film-screen radiography, an X-ray tube generates a beam of X-rays, which is aimed at the patient. The film is then developed chemically and an image appears on the film, film-screen radiography is being replaced by computed radiography but more recently by digital radiography and the EOS imaging. In the two latest systems, the X-rays strike sensors that converts the signals generated into digital information, in digital radiography the sensors shape a plate, but in the EOS system, which is a slot-scanning system, a linear sensor vertically scans the patient. Plain radiography was the imaging modality available during the first 50 years of radiology. Due to its availability, speed, and lower costs compared to other modalities, also despite the large amount of data in CT scans, MR scans and other digital-based imaging, there are many disease entities in which the classic diagnosis is obtained by plain radiographs. Examples include various types of arthritis and pneumonia, bone tumors, fractures, congenital skeletal anomalies, mammography and DXA are two applications of low energy projectional radiography, used for the evaluation for breast cancer and osteoporosis, respectively. Fluoroscopy and angiography are special applications of X-ray imaging, in which a fluorescent screen and this allows real-time imaging of structures in motion or augmented with a radiocontrast agent. Two radiocontrast agents are presently in common use, barium sulfate is given orally or rectally for evaluation of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple forms, is given by oral, rectal, intra-arterial or intravenous routes. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in areas more or less than in normal tissues. CT imaging uses X-rays in conjunction with computing algorithms to image the body, in CT, an X-ray tube opposite an X-ray detector in a ring-shaped apparatus rotate around a patient, producing a computer-generated cross-sectional image. CT is acquired in the plane, with coronal and sagittal images produced by computer reconstruction. Radiocontrast agents are used with CT for enhanced delineation of anatomy. Although radiographs provide higher resolution, CT can detect more subtle variations in attenuation of X-rays
2.
Projectional radiography
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Projectional radiography is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using x-ray radiation. Radiographic exams are performed by radiographers, trained, licensed medical professionals. Projectional radiography is the cornerstone of modern medical imaging, and can be used to image almost every part of the human body, mammography, DXA and dental radiography are specialized variants of projectional radiography. Computed tomography also uses x-radiation, but its different image acquisition parameters allow for images to be acquired in the axial plane, projectional radiography relies on the characteristics of x-ray radiation and knowledge of how it interacts with human tissue to create diagnostic images. X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation, meaning it has sufficient energy to remove electrons from an atom, thus giving it a charge. Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to human tissue. When an exposure is made, x-ray radiation exits the tube as what is known as the primary beam, when the primary beam passes through the body, some of the radiation is absorbed in a process known as attenuation. Anatomy that is denser has a rate of attenuation than anatomy that is less dense. What remains of the beam after attenuation is known as the remnant beam. The remnant beam is responsible for exposing the image receptor, areas on the image receptor that receive the most radiation will be more heavily exposed, and therefore will be processed as being darker. Conversely, areas on the receptor that receive the least radiation will be less exposed. This is why bone, which is dense, process as being ‘white’ on radio graphs, and the lungs. Radiographic density is the measure of overall darkening of the image, density is a logarithmic unit that describes the ratio between light hitting the film and light being transmitted through the film. A higher radiographic density represents more opaque areas of the film, with digital imaging, however, density may be referred to as brightness. The brightness of the radiograph in digital imaging is determined by computer software, contrast is defined as the difference in radiographic density between adjacent portions of the image. The range between black and white on the final radiograph, high contrast, or short-scale contrast, means there is little gray on the radiograph, and there are fewer gray shades between black and white. Low contrast, or long-scale contrast, means there is much gray on the radiograph, closely related to radiographic contrast is the concept of exposure latitude. Images having a short-scale of contrast will have narrow exposure latitude, images having long-scale contrast will have a wide exposure latitude, that is, the radiographer will be able to utilize a broader range of technical factors to produce a diagnostic-quality image
3.
Screening (medicine)
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Screening, in medicine, is a strategy used in a population to identify the possible presence of an as-yet-undiagnosed disease in individuals without signs or symptoms. This can include individuals with pre-symptomatic or unrecognized symptomatic disease, as such, screening tests are somewhat unusual in that they are performed on persons apparently in good health. Screening interventions are designed to identify disease in a community early, thus enabling earlier intervention and management in the hope to reduce mortality and suffering from a disease. For these reasons, a test used in a program, especially for a disease with low incidence. Several types of screening exist, universal screening involves screening of all individuals in a certain category, case finding involves screening a smaller group of people based on the presence of risk factors. Screening interventions are not designed to be diagnostic, and often have significant rates of false positive and false negative results. In 1968 the World Health Organization published guidelines on the Principles and practice of screening for disease, the principles are still broadly applicable today, The condition should be an important health problem. There should be a treatment for the condition, facilities for diagnosis and treatment should be available. There should be a latent stage of the disease, There should be a test or examination for the condition. The test should be acceptable to the population, the natural history of the disease should be adequately understood. There should be a policy on whom to treat. The total cost of finding a case should be balanced in relation to medical expenditure as a whole. Case-finding should be a process, not just a once. • The objectives of screening should be defined at the outset, • There should be a defined target population. • There should be evidence of screening programme effectiveness. • The programme should integrate education, testing, clinical services, • There should be quality assurance, with mechanisms to minimize potential risks of screening. • The programme should ensure informed choice, confidentiality and respect for autonomy, • The programme should promote equity and access to screening for the entire target population. • Programme evaluation should be planned from the outset, • The overall benefits of screening should outweigh the harm
4.
X-ray
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X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
5.
Radiographer
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Radiographers are infrequently, and almost always erroneously, known as x-ray technicians. Radiographers work in public and private healthcare and can be physically located in any setting where appropriate diagnostic equipment is located. Their practice varies country to country and can vary between hospitals in the same country. Until around 1918 radiographers were known as skiagraphers, the term is derived from the Ancient Greek words for shadow and it is not uncommon for radiographers to now conduct procedures which would have previously been undertaken by a cardiologist, urologist, radiologist or oncologist autonomously. Contrary to what could be inferred, radiographers conduct and contribute to investigations which are not necessarily radiological in nature, e. g. sonography, Radiographers often have opportunities to enter military service due to their role in healthcare. As with most other occupations in the field many radiographers have rotating shifts that include night duties. Radiography is a deeply diverse profession with many different modalities and specialities, as a result of this the typical career pathway for a radiographer is hard to summarise. Upon qualifying it is common for radiographers to focus solely on plain film radiography before specialising in any one chosen modality, after a number of years in the profession, non-imaging based roles often become open and radiographers may then move into these positions. Generally, imaging modalities are all diagnostic, all have the potential to be used therapeutically in order to deliver an intervention, modalities include but are not limited to, 1Prefixes such as paediatric, geriatric, trauma are routinely placed used in conjunction with professional titles. 2This list of technologies is not exhaustive, non-imaging modalities vary, and are often undertaken in addition to imaging modalities. They commonly include, Academia - Education role, Clinical Management - Clinical managerial role which can be varied, may include managing audits, rotas, department budgets, etc. Medical Physics - Multidisciplinary role ensuring the correct calibration of and most efficient use of diagnostic equipment, PACS Management - Managerial role concerned with maintaining and supervising appropriate and correct use of the RIS and PACS systems. Radiation Protection - A managerial role concerned with monitoring the level of ionising radiation absorbed by anyone who comes into contact with ionising radiation at their site, Reporting Radiography - A clinical role involved with interpretation of radiographs and various other radiological media for diagnosis. Education varies worldwide due to limitations on scope of practice. In Germany radiographers must complete a 3-year, self-funded programme before they qualify as a Medizinisch-technischer Radiologieassistent, only after qualifying do radiographers in Germany fulfil the requirements to practise as a fully qualified MTR. Similar to other countries, they work within the areas of radiography diagnostics, radiation therapy, radiation dosimeters, Radiographers in the Republic of Ireland must be registered with CORU before they can practice in the Republic of Ireland. Student radiographers training in the ROI will typically study for 4 years on a bachelors degree program. Applications for registration with qualifications outside of this are considered on an individual basis, the professional body representing Radiographers in the ROI is the Irish Institute of Radiography and Radiation Therapy
6.
Electromagnetic radiation
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In physics, electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through space carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, X-, classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum. The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation. The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source is a sphere, the position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated, and these waves can interact with other charged particles. EM waves carry energy, momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle, quanta of EM waves are called photons, whose rest mass is zero, but whose energy, or equivalent total mass, is not zero so they are still affected by gravity. Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field, in this language, the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them, specifically, electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena. In the quantum theory of electromagnetism, EMR consists of photons, quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation. The energy of a photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by Plancks equation E = hν, where E is the energy per photon, ν is the frequency of the photon, a single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light. The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the power and its frequency. EMR of visible or lower frequencies is called non-ionizing radiation, because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules, the effects of these radiations on chemical systems and living tissue are caused primarily by heating effects from the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation since individual photons of high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds. These radiations have the ability to cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond that resulting from simple heating, Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the speed of light. Maxwell’s equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves, according to Maxwells equations, a spatially varying electric field is always associated with a magnetic field that changes over time. Likewise, a varying magnetic field is associated with specific changes over time in the electric field. In an electromagnetic wave, the changes in the field are always accompanied by a wave in the magnetic field in one direction
7.
X-ray generator
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An X-ray generator is a device that produces X-rays. It is commonly used in a variety of applications including medicine, fluorescence, electronic assembly inspection, in medical applications, X-ray generators are used by radiographers to acquire x-ray images of the internal structures of living organisms, and also in sterilization. X-rays are typically generated by an X-ray tube, when the electrons collide with the target, about 1% of the resulting energy is emitted as X-rays, with the remaining 99% released as heat. Due to the energy of the electrons that reach relativistic speeds the target is usually made of tungsten even if other material can be used particularly in XRF applications. A cooling system is necessary to cool the anode, many X-ray generators use water or oil recirculating systems, the discovery of X-rays came from experimenting with Crookes tubes, an early experimental electrical discharge tube invented by English physicist William Crookes around 1869-1875. In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays emanating from Crookes tubes, one of the first X-ray photographs was made of the hand of Röntgens wife. The image displayed both her wedding ring and bones, on January 18,1896 an X-ray machine was formally displayed by H. L. Smith. A fully functioning unit was introduced to the public at the 1904 Worlds Fair by Clarence Dally, in the 1940s and 1950s, X-ray machines were used in stores to help sell footwear. These were known as Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes, however, as the harmful effects of X-ray radiation were properly considered, they finally fell out of use. Shoe-fitting use of the device was first banned by the state of Pennsylvania in 1957, together with Robert J. Van de Graaff, John G. Trump developed one of the first million-volt X-ray generators. X-ray photons are produced by a beam that is accelerated to a very high speed. The electrons that make up the beam are emitted from a cathode filament. The electrons are focused and accelerated by an electrical field towards an angled anode target. The point where the beam strikes the target is called the focal spot. Most of the energy contained in the electron beam is converted to heat, but around 1% of the energy is converted into X-ray photons. There is a round window in the X-ray tube directly above the angled target. This window allows the X-rays to exit the tube with little attenuation while maintaining a vacuum seal required for the X-ray tube operation. Other than the tube window or port the remaining portion of the x-ray tube housing is lined with lead to absorb all remaining x-rays not usable for image creation
8.
X-ray detector
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X-ray detectors are devices used to measure the flux, spatial distribution, spectrum, and/or other properties of X-rays. Detectors can be divided into two categories, imaging detectors and dose measurement devices. X-rays are partially blocked by dense tissues such as bone, areas where the X-rays strike darken when developed, causing bones to appear lighter than the surrounding soft tissue. Contrast compounds containing barium or iodine, which are radiopaque, can be ingested in the tract or injected in the artery or veins to highlight these vessels. The contrast compounds have high atomic numbered elements in them that essentially block the X-rays, in the pursuit of nontoxic contrast materials, many types of high atomic number elements were evaluated. Modern contrast material has improved and, while there is no way to determine who may have a sensitivity to the contrast, typical x-ray film contains silver halide crystal grains, typically primarily silver bromide. Grain size and composition can be adjusted to affect the film properties, when the film is exposed to radiation the halide is ionised and free electrons are trapped in crystal defects. Silver ions are attracted to these defects and reduced, creating clusters of transparent silver atoms, in the developing process these are converted to opaque silver atoms which form the viewable image, darkest where the most radiation was detected. Further developing steps stabilise the sensitised grains and remove unsensitised grains to prevent further exposure, the first radiographs were made by the action of X-rays on sensitized glass photographic plates. X-ray film soon replaced the glass plates, and film has been used for decades to acquire medical and industrial images, gradually, digital computers gained the ability to store and display enough data to make digital imaging possible. The metal silver is a non-renewable resource although silver can easily be reclaimed from spent X-ray film, where X-ray films required wet processing facilities, newer digital technologies do not. Digital archiving of images also saves physical storage space, because photographic plates are sensitive to X-rays, they provide a means of recording the image, but they also require much X-ray exposure. An alternative method of recording the X-rays is the use of photostimulated luminescence, a photostimulable phosphor plate is used in place of the photographic plate. After the plate is X-rayed, excited electrons in the phosphor material remain trapped in colour centres in the crystal lattice until stimulated by a laser beam passed over the plate surface, the PSP plate can be reused, and existing X-ray equipment requires no modification to use them. X-rays are also used in procedures such as angiography or contrast studies of the hollow organs using fluoroscopy. Angioplasty, medical interventions of the system, rely heavily on X-ray-sensitive contrast to identify potentially treatable lesions. Solid state detectors use semiconductors to detect x-rays, direct digital detectors are so-called because they directly convert x-ray photons to electrical charge and thus a digital image. Indirect systems may have intervening steps for example first converting x-ray photons to visible light, both systems typically use thin film transistors to read out and convert the electronic signal to a digital image
9.
Photographic film
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This article is mainly concerned with still photography film. For motion picture film, please see film stock, photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet, X-rays. Unmodified silver halide crystals are only to the blue part of the visible spectrum. This problem was overcome with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, first orthochromatic and finally panchromatic films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their subjective brightness, by similar techniques special-purpose films can be made sensitive to the infrared region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by a filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the layers below. Next come a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a sensitive layer. During development, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step. It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, the earliest practical photographic process, the daguerreotype, introduced in 1839, did not use film. The light-sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a copper sheet
10.
Two-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
11.
Industrial radiography
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Industrial radiography is a method of non-destructive testing where many types of manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity of the specimen. Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-rays or gamma rays, both are forms of electromagnetic radiation. The difference between forms of electromagnetic energy is related to the wavelength. X and gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and this property leads to the ability to penetrate, travel through, Radiography started in 1895 with the discovery of X-rays, a type of electromagnetic radiation. Soon after the discovery of X-rays, radioactivity was discovered, by using radioactive sources such as radium, far higher photon energies could be obtained than those from normal X-ray generators. Soon these found various applications, with one of the earliest users being Loughborough College, X-rays and gamma rays were put to use very early, before the dangers of ionizing radiation were discovered. After World War II new isotopes such as caesium-137, iridium-192 and cobalt-60 became available for industrial radiography, gamma radiation sources, most commonly iridium-192 and cobalt-60, are used to inspect a variety of materials. The vast majority of concerns the testing and grading of welds on pressurized piping, pressure vessels, high-capacity storage containers, pipelines. Other tested materials include concrete, welders test coupons, machined parts, plate metal, non-metal components such as ceramics used in the aerospace industries are also regularly tested. Theoretically, industrial radiographers could radiograph any solid, flat material or any hollow cylindrical or spherical object, the result is a two-dimensional projection of the part onto the film, producing a latent image of varying densities according to the amount of radiation reaching each area. It is known as a graph, as distinct from a photograph produced by light. Because film is cumulative in its response, relatively weak radiation can be detected by prolonging the exposure until the film can record an image that will be visible after development, the radiograph is examined as a negative, without printing as a positive as in photography. This is because, in printing, some of the detail is always lost, before commencing a radiographic examination, it is always advisable to examine the component with ones own eyes, to eliminate any possible external defects. Defects such as delaminations and planar cracks are difficult to detect using radiography, very important as most construction standards permit some level of defect acceptance, depending on the type and size of the defect. For purposes of inspection, including weld inspection, there exist several exposure arrangements, first, there is the panoramic, one of the four single-wall exposure/single-wall view arrangements. This exposure is created when the places the source of radiation at the center of a sphere, cone. Depending upon client requirements, the radiographer would then place film cassettes on the outside of the surface to be examined and this exposure arrangement is nearly ideal – when properly arranged and exposed, all portions of all exposed film will be of the same approximate density. The major disadvantage of the panoramic is that it may be impractical to reach the center of the item or the source may be too weak to perform in this arrangement
12.
Airport security
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Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers, staff and planes which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and other threats. Large numbers of pass through airports every day. This presents potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of people located in one place, Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft. While some countries may have an agency that protects all of their airports, the primary personnel will vary and can include, A police force hired and dedicated to the airport e. g. Travelers are screened by metal detectors, explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry-on and checked baggage and these detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography. A recent development is the use of backscatter X-rays to detect hidden weapons. These devices, which use Compton scattering, require that the stand close to a flat panel. Alternately, the passengers step fully shoed onto a device which scans in under 1.2 seconds for objects as small as a razor blade. In some countries, specially trained individuals may engage passengers in a conversation to detect rather than solely relying on equipment to find threats. A single backscatter scan exposes the target to between 0.05 and 0.1 microsievert of radiation, in comparison, the exposure from a standard chest x-ray is almost 100 times higher. Generally people are screened through airport security into areas where the gates to the aircraft are located. These areas are often called secure, sterile and airside, Airport food outlets have started using plastic glasses and utensils as opposed to glasses made out of glass and utensils made out of metal to reduce the usefulness of such items as weapons. In the United States non-passengers were once allowed on the concourses to meet arriving friends or relatives at their gates, non-passengers must obtain a gate pass to enter the secure area of the airport. The most common reasons that a non-passenger may obtain a pass is to assist children. In the United States, at least 24 hours notice is required for those planning to attend a business meeting inside the secure area of the airport. Other countries, such as Canada or Australia do not restrict non-travellers from accessing the airside area, sensitive areas in airports, including airport ramps and operational spaces, are restricted from the general public
13.
Backscatter X-ray
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Backscatter X-ray is an advanced X-ray imaging technology. Traditional X-ray machines detect hard and soft materials by the variation in x-ray intensity transmitted through the target, in contrast, backscatter X-ray detects the radiation that reflects from the target. It has potential applications where less-destructive examination is required, and can even if only one side of the target is available for examination. A competing technology is millimeter wave scanner, one can refer to an airport security machine of this type as a body scanner, whole body imager, security scanner or naked scanner. In the European Union, backscatter X-ray screening of passengers was banned in 2012 to protect passenger safety. Backscatter technology is based on the Compton scattering effect of X-rays, unlike a traditional X-ray machine, which relies on the transmission of X-rays through the object, backscatter X-ray detects the radiation that reflects from the object and forms an image. The backscatter pattern is dependent on the property and is good for imaging organic material. In contrast to millimeter wave scanners, which create a 3D image, for airport screening, images are taken from both sides of the human body. Backscatter X-ray was first applied in a commercial low-dose personnel scanning system by Dr. Steven W. Smith, Smith developed the Secure 1000 whole-body scanner in 1992 and then sold the device and associated patents to Rapiscan Systems, who now manufactures and distributes the device. American Science and Engineering Tek84 Engineering Group LLC, formerly Spectrum San Diego Inc, some backscatter X-ray scanners can scan much larger objects, such as trucks and containers. This scan is faster than a physical search and could potentially allow a larger percentage of shipping to be checked for smuggled items, weapons, drugs. It is being promoted as a means of examining the contents of vehicles, containers, other companies in the industry are Smiths Detection and Rapiscan. There are also gamma-ray-based systems coming to market, like the MVACIS, Backscatter x-ray technology has been proposed as an alternative to personal searches at airport and other security checkpoints easily penetrating clothing to reveal concealed weapons. It raises privacy concerns about what is seen by the person viewing the scan, some worry that viewing the image violates confidential medical information, such as the fact a passenger uses a colostomy bag, has a missing limb or wears a prosthesis, or is transgender. The ACLU and the Electronic Privacy Information Center are opposed to use of the technology. The ACLU refers to backscatter x-rays as a strip search. According to the Transportation Security Administration, in one trial 79 percent of the public opted to try backscatter over the traditional pat-down in secondary screening, according to the TSA, further distortion is used in the Phoenix airports trial system where photo-quality images are replaced by chalk outlines. The TSA has also commented that screening procedures such as having the screener viewing the image located far away from the person being screened could be a possibility
14.
Medical diagnosis
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Medical diagnosis is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a persons symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history, often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as diagnostic tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes Posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis, Diagnosis is often challenging, because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific. For example, redness of the skin, by itself, is a sign of many disorders, thus differential diagnosis, in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted, must be performed. This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns, occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom that is pathognomonic. Diagnosis is a component of the procedure of a doctors visit. From the point of view of statistics, the procedure involves classification tests. The first recorded examples of medical diagnosis are found in the writings of Imhotep in ancient Egypt, a Babylonian medical textbook, the Diagnostic Handbook written by Esagil-kin-apli, introduced the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in the diagnosis of an illness or disease. Traditional Chinese Medicine, as described in the Yellow Emperors Inner Canon or Huangdi Neijing, specified four diagnostic methods, inspection, auscultation-olfaction, interrogation, hippocrates was known to make diagnoses by tasting his patients urine and smelling their sweat. This article uses diagnostician as any of these person categories, a diagnostic procedure does not necessarily involve elucidation of the etiology of the diseases or conditions of interest, that is, what caused the disease or condition. Such elucidation can be useful to optimize treatment, further specify the prognosis or prevent recurrence of the disease or condition in the future, the initial task is to detect a medical indication to perform a diagnostic procedure. Indications include, Detection of any deviation from what is known to be normal, such as can be described in terms of, for example, anatomy, physiology, pathology, psychology, a complaint expressed by a patient. The fact that a patient has sought a diagnostician can itself be an indication to perform a diagnostic procedure, even during an already ongoing diagnostic procedure, there can be an indication to perform another, separate, diagnostic procedure for another, potentially concomitant, disease or condition. A diagnostic test is any kind of medical test performed to aid in the diagnosis or detection of disease, Diagnostic tests can also be used to provide prognostic information on people with established disease. Processing of the answers, findings or other results, consultations with other providers and specialists in the field may be sought. There are a number of methods or techniques that can be used in a diagnostic procedure, in reality, a diagnostic procedure may involve components of multiple methods. The final result may also remain a list of possible conditions, the resultant diagnostic opinion by this method can be regarded more or less as a diagnosis of exclusion
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Attenuation
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In physics, attenuation is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, in electrical engineering and telecommunications, attenuation affects the propagation of waves and signals in electrical circuits, in optical fibers, and in air. Electrical attenuators and optical attenuators are commonly manufactured components in this field, in many cases, attenuation is an exponential function of the path length through the medium. In chemical spectroscopy, this is known as the Beer–Lambert law, in engineering, attenuation is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in question. Attenuation also occurs in earthquakes, when the waves move farther away from the epicenter. One area of research in which figures strongly is in ultrasound physics. Attenuation in ultrasound is the reduction in amplitude of the beam as a function of distance through the imaging medium. Accounting for attenuation effects in ultrasound is important because a reduced signal amplitude can affect the quality of the image produced. By knowing the attenuation that an ultrasound beam experiences traveling through a medium, ultrasound attenuation measurement in heterogeneous systems, like emulsions or colloids, yields information on particle size distribution. There is an ISO standard on this technique, ultrasound attenuation can be used for extensional rheology measurement. There are acoustic rheometers that employ Stokes law for measuring extensional viscosity, wave equations which take acoustic attenuation into account can be written on a fractional derivative form, see the article on acoustic attenuation or e. g. the survey paper. Attenuation coefficients are used to different media according to how strongly the transmitted ultrasound amplitude decreases as a function of frequency. Attenuation coefficients vary widely for different media, in biomedical ultrasound imaging however, biological materials and water are the most commonly used media. Ultrasound propagation through homogeneous media is associated only with absorption and can be characterized with absorption coefficient only, propagation through heterogeneous media requires taking into account scattering. When the sun’s radiation reaches the sea-surface, the radiation is attenuated by the water. The intensity of light at depth can be calculated using the Beer-Lambert Law, in clear open waters, visible light is absorbed at the longest wavelengths first. Thus, red, orange, and yellow wavelengths are absorbed at higher water depths, because the blue and violet wavelengths are absorbed last compared to the other wavelengths, open ocean waters appear deep-blue to the eye. In near-shore waters, sea water contains more phytoplankton than the very clear central ocean waters, chlorophyll-a pigments in the phytoplankton absorb light, and the plants themselves scatter light, making coastal waters less clear than open waters
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Photon
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A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. The photon has zero rest mass and is moving at the speed of light. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and particles. For example, a photon may be refracted by a lens and exhibit wave interference with itself. The quanta in a light wave cannot be spatially localized, some defined physical parameters of a photon are listed. The modern concept of the photon was developed gradually by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century to explain experimental observations that did not fit the classical model of light. The benefit of the model was that it accounted for the frequency dependence of lights energy. The photon model accounted for observations, including the properties of black-body radiation. In that model, light was described by Maxwells equations, in 1926 the optical physicist Frithiof Wolfers and the chemist Gilbert N. Lewis coined the name photon for these particles. After Arthur H. Compton won the Nobel Prize in 1927 for his studies, most scientists accepted that light quanta have an independent existence. In the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and other particles are described as a necessary consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of particles, such as charge, mass and it has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances. Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers, in 1900, the German physicist Max Planck was studying black-body radiation and suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In his 1901 article in Annalen der Physik he called these packets energy elements, the word quanta was used before 1900 to mean particles or amounts of different quantities, including electricity. In 1905, Albert Einstein suggested that waves could only exist as discrete wave-packets. He called such a wave-packet the light quantum, the name photon derives from the Greek word for light, φῶς. Arthur Compton used photon in 1928, referring to Gilbert N. Lewis, the name was suggested initially as a unit related to the illumination of the eye and the resulting sensation of light and was used later in a physiological context. Although Wolferss and Lewiss theories were contradicted by many experiments and never accepted, in physics, a photon is usually denoted by the symbol γ
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Calcium
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Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
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Radiographic anatomy
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Radioanatomy is anatomy discipline which involves the study of anatomy through the use of radiographic films. The x-ray film represents two-dimensional image of an object due to the summary projection of different anatomical structures onto a planar surface. It requires certain skills for the interpretation of such images. Radiological anatomy is a component of training for radiologists as well as medical students. RadAnatomy, The KU Radiographic Anatomy Program
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Charge-coupled device
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A charge-coupled device is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by shifting the signals between stages within the one at a time. CCDs move charge between capacitive bins in the device, with the shift allowing for the transfer of charge between bins, in recent years CCD has become a major technology for digital imaging. In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal-oxide-semiconductors capacitors, the charge-coupled device was invented in 1969 at AT&T Bell Labs by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith. The lab was working on bubble memory when Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook. The device could be used as a shift register, the essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the device, which was developed at Philips Research Labs during the late 1960s. The first patent on the application of CCDs to imaging was assigned to Michael Tompsett, the initial paper describing the concept listed possible uses as a memory, a delay line, and an imaging device. The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on a silicon surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. The first working CCD made with integrated circuit technology was a simple 8-bit shift register and this device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight pixel linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate, by 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas Instruments, picked up on the invention, fairchilds effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2-D100 x 100 pixel device. Steven Sasson, an engineer working for Kodak, invented the first digital still camera using a Fairchild 100 x 100 CCD in 1975. The first KH-11 KENNAN reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array technology for imaging was launched in December 1976, under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony also started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their camcorders, before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982, subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. He was also awarded the 2012 IEEE Edison Medal For pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras, in a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region, and a transmission region made out of a shift register. An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array, once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor. The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, by repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages
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3D rendering
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3D rendering is the 3D computer graphics process of automatically converting 3D wire frame models into 2D images with 3D photorealistic effects or non-photorealistic rendering on a computer. Rendering is the process of creating the actual 2D image or animation from the prepared scene. This can be compared to taking a photo or filming the scene after the setup is finished in real life, several different, and often specialized, rendering methods have been developed. These range from the distinctly non-realistic wireframe rendering through polygon-based rendering, to advanced techniques such as, scanline rendering, ray tracing. Rendering may take from fractions of a second to days for a single image/frame, in general, different methods are better suited for either photo-realistic rendering, or real-time rendering. Rendering for interactive media, such as games and simulations, is calculated and displayed in real time, in real-time rendering, the goal is to show as much information as possible as the eye can process in a fraction of a second. The primary goal is to achieve an as high as possible degree of photorealism at an acceptable minimum rendering speed, rendering software may simulate such visual effects as lens flares, depth of field or motion blur. These are attempts to simulate visual phenomena resulting from the characteristics of cameras. These effects can lend an element of realism to a scene and this is the basic method employed in games, interactive worlds and VRML. The rapid increase in processing power has allowed a progressively higher degree of realism even for real-time rendering, including techniques such as HDR rendering. Real-time rendering is often polygonal and aided by the computers GPU, animations for non-interactive media, such as feature films and video, are rendered much more slowly. Non-real time rendering enables the leveraging of limited processing power in order to obtain higher image quality, rendering times for individual frames may vary from a few seconds to several days for complex scenes. Rendered frames are stored on a hard disk then can be transferred to media such as motion picture film or optical disk. These frames are then displayed sequentially at high rates, typically 24,25, or 30 frames per second. When the goal is photo-realism, techniques such as ray tracing or radiosity are employed and this is the basic method employed in digital media and artistic works. Techniques have been developed for the purpose of simulating other naturally occurring effects, examples of such techniques include particle systems, volumetric sampling, caustics, and subsurface scattering. The rendering process is expensive, given the complex variety of physical processes being simulated. Computer processing power has increased rapidly over the years, allowing for a higher degree of realistic rendering
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Radiocontrast agent
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Radiocontrast agents are per definition of drugs, but lack therapeutic effects. Contrast medium is used to enhance the visibility of internal structures in X-ray-based imaging techniques such as computed tomography, radiography, radiocontrast agents are typically iodine or barium compounds. Magnetic resonance imaging functions through different principles and thus utilizes different contrast agents and these compounds work by altering the magnetic properties of nearby hydrogen nuclei. Radiocontrast agents used in X-ray examinations can be grouped based on its use, iodine-based contrast media are usually classified as ionic or non-ionic. Both types are used most commonly in radiology due to their relatively harmless interaction with the body, contrast media are primarily used to visualize vessels and changes in tissues on radiography and CT. Contrast media can also be used for tests of the tract, uterus. It may cause the patient to feel as if he or she has urinated on him- or herself and it also puts a metallic taste in the mouth of the patient. Modern intravenous contrast agents are based on iodine. This may be either in an organic compound or an ionic compound. Ionic agents were developed first and are still in use depending on the requirements. Organic agents which covalently bind the iodine have fewer side effects as they do not dissociate into component molecules, many of the side effects are due to the hyperosmolar solution being injected. I. e. they deliver more iodine atoms per molecule, the more iodine, the more dense the X-ray effect. Organic iodine molecules used for contrast include iohexol, iodixanol and ioversol and these contrast agents are sold as clear, colorless water solutions, with the concentration usually expressed as mg I/ml. Modern iodinated contrast agents can be used almost anywhere in the body, most often they are used intravenously, but for various purposes they can also be used intraarterially, intrathecally and intraabdominally – just about any body cavity or potential space. Iodine contrast agents are used for the following, Angiography Venography VCUG HSG IVU Ionic contrast media typically, non-ionic contrast media have lower osmolality and tend to have fewer side-effects. Barium sulfate is used in the imaging of the digestive system. The substance exists as a white powder that is made into a slurry with water. Depending on how it is to be administered the compound is mixed with water, thickeners, de-clumping agents, as the barium sulfate doesnt dissolve, this type of contrast agent is an opaque white mixture
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Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
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Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry is a means of measuring bone mineral density. Two X-ray beams, with different energy levels, are aimed at the patients bones, when soft tissue absorption is subtracted out, the BMD can be determined from the absorption of each beam by bone. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry is the most widely used and most thoroughly studied bone density measurement technology, DXA scans are used primarily to evaluate bone mineral density. DXA scans can also be used to total body composition. DXA scans are used to assess adiposity in children, especially to conduct clinical research. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that women over the age of 65 should get a DXA scan, the date at which men should be tested is uncertain but some sources recommend age 70. At risk women should consider getting a scan when their risk is equal to that of a normal 65-year-old woman, special considerations are involved in the use of DXA to assess bone mass in children. Specifically, comparing the bone density of children to the reference data of adults will underestimate the BMD of children. This would lead to an over-diagnosis of osteopenia for children, to avoid an overestimation of bone mineral deficits, BMD scores are commonly compared to reference data for the same gender and age. Also, there are variables in addition to age that are suggested to confound the interpretation of BMD as measured by DXA. One important confounding variable is bone size, DXA has been shown to overestimate the bone mineral density of taller subjects and underestimate the bone mineral density of smaller subjects. This error is due to the way by which DXA calculates BMD, in DXA, bone mineral content is divided by the area of the site being scanned. Because DXA calculates BMD using area, it is not a measurement of true bone mineral density. In order to distinguish DXA BMD from volumetric bone-mineral density, researchers sometimes refer to DXA BMD as a bone mineral density. The confounding effect of differences in size is due to the missing depth value in the calculation of bone mineral density. Despite DXA technologys problems with estimating volume, it is still a fairly accurate measure of bone mineral content, methods to correct for this shortcoming include the calculation of a volume that is approximated from the projected area measure by DXA. DXA BMD results adjusted in this manner are referred to as the bone mineral apparent density and are a ratio of the mineral content versus a cuboidal estimation of the volume of bone. Like the results for aBMD, BMAD results do not accurately represent true bone mineral density, BMAD is used primarily for research purposes and is not yet used in clinical settings
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Lumbar vertebrae
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The lumbar vertebrae are, in human anatomy, the five vertebrae between the rib cage and the pelvis. They are designated L1 to L5, starting at the top, the lumbar vertebrae help support the weight of the body, and permit movement. The figure on the left depicts the characteristics of the first through fourth lumbar vertebrae. The fifth vertebra contains certain peculiarities, which are detailed below, as with other vertebrae, each lumbar vertebra consists of a vertebral body and a vertebral arch. The vertebral arch, consisting of a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae, encloses the vertebral foramen, the vertebral body of each lumbar vertebra is large, wider from side to side than from front to back, and a little thicker in front than in back. It is flattened or slightly concave above and below, concave behind, the pedicles are very strong, directed backward from the upper part of the vertebral body, consequently, the inferior vertebral notches are of considerable depth. The pedicles change in morphology from the upper lumbar to the lower lumbar and they increase in sagittal width from 9 mm to up to 18 mm at L5. They increase in angulation in the plane from 10 degrees to 20 degrees by L5. The pedicle is sometimes used as a portal of entrance into the body for fixation with pedicle screws or for placement of bone cement as with kyphoplasty or vertebroplasty. The laminae are broad, short, and strong and they form the posterior portion of the vertebral arch. In the upper lumbar region the lamina are taller than wide, the lamina connects the spinous process to the pedicles. The vertebral foramen within the arch is triangular, larger than the thoracic vertebrae, the spinous process is thick, broad, and somewhat quadrilateral, it projects backward and ends in a rough, uneven border, thickest below where it is occasionally notched. The superior and inferior articular processes are well-defined, projecting respectively upward and downward from the junctions of pedicles, the facets on the superior processes are concave, and look backward and medialward, those on the inferior are convex, and are directed forward and lateralward. The former are wider apart than the latter, since in the column the inferior articular processes are embraced by the superior processes of the subjacent vertebra. The transverse processes are long and slender and they are horizontal in the upper three lumbar vertebrae and incline a little upward in the lower two. They are situated in front of the articular processes instead of them as in the thoracic vertebrae. Three portions or tubercles can be noticed in a process of a lower lumbar vertebrae, the lateral or costiform process, the mammillary process. The costiform is lateral, the mammillary is superior, and the accessory is inferior, the mammillary is connected in the lumbar region with the back part of the superior articular process
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Transverse plane
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The transverse plane is an imaginary plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts. It is perpendicular to the coronal and sagittal planes and it is one of the planes of the body used to describe the location of body parts in relation to each other. The other two commonly used terms are the plane and the sagittal plane. Typically located at the level of S1, anatomical terms of location Horizontal plane Coronal plane Sagittal plane
. PMID 10194791.
