1.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
2.
East Jerusalem
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East Jerusalem or Eastern Jerusalem is the sector of Jerusalem that was not part of Israeli-held West Jerusalem at the end of the 1948–1949 Arab–Israeli War. Despite its name, East Jerusalem includes neighborhoods to the north, east and south of the Old City and this arrangement was formalized in the Rhodes Agreement in March 1949. A week after David Ben-Gurion presented his partys assertion that Jewish Jerusalem is an organic, inseparable part of the State of Israel in December 1949 and these decisions were confirmed respectively in the Knesset in January 1950 and the Jordanian Parliament in April 1950. On being captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, East Jerusalem, with expanded borders, in the Palestine Liberation Organization s Palestinian Declaration of Independence of 1988, Jerusalem is stated to be the capital of the State of Palestine. East Jerusalem has been occupied by Israel since 1967 and was annexed by Israel in 1980. On 27–28 June 1967, East Jerusalem was integrated into Jerusalem by extension of its borders and was placed under the law. In a unanimous General Assembly resolution, the UN declared the measures trying to change the status of the city invalid, following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jerusalem was divided into two parts. The western portion, populated primarily by Jews, came under Israeli rule, while the eastern portion, populated mainly by Muslim and Christian Palestinians, following the 1967 Six-Day War, the eastern part of Jerusalem came under Israeli rule, along with the entire West Bank. Shortly after the Israeli takeover, East Jerusalem was annexed to West Jerusalem, in November 1967, United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 was passed, calling for Israel to withdraw from territories occupied in the recent conflict in exchange for peace treaties. This declaration was determined to be null and void by United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, East Jerusalem is a term heavy with political implications. Israelis call the Arab populated part of the city East Jerusalem because of its location in the part of the single larger Jerusalem city unit. The term East Jerusalem is ambiguous and may be used to refer to either of the following, Jerusalem was to be an international city under the 1947 UN Partition Plan. It was not included as a part of either the proposed Jewish or Arab states, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the western part of Jerusalem was captured by Israel, while East Jerusalem was captured by Jordan. The war came to an end with the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreements, upon its capture, the Jordanians immediately expelled all the Jewish residents of the Jewish Quarter. The ancient Jewish cemetery on Mount of Olives was desecrated, Jordan also destroyed the Jewish villages of Atarot and Neve Yaakov just north of Jerusalem. East Jerusalem absorbed some of the refugees from West Jerusalems Arab neighborhoods that came under Israeli rule, thousands of Arab refugees who were displaced from their homes in Israeli-held West Jerusalem were settled in the previously Jewish areas of East Jerusalem. In 1950 East Jerusalem, along with the rest of the West Bank, was annexed by Jordan. During the period of Jordanian rule, East Jerusalem lost much of its importance, as it was no longer a capital and it even saw a population decrease, with merchants and administrators moving to Amman
3.
Ultra-Orthodox
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Haredi Judaism is a broad spectrum of groups within Orthodox Judaism, all characterized by a rejection of modern secular culture. Its members are referred to as strictly Orthodox or ultra-Orthodox in English. The term ultra-Orthodox, however, is considered pejorative by some of its adherents, Haredim regard themselves as the most religiously authentic group of Jews, although this claim is contested by other streams. However, there are many Haredi communities in which getting a degree or establishing a business is encouraged. Haredi communities are found in Israel, North America. Their estimated global population currently numbers 1. 3–1.5 million, and, due to an absence of interfaith marriage. Their numbers have also boosted by a substantial number of secular Jews adopting a Haredi lifestyle as part of the Baal teshuva movement. The term most commonly used by outsiders, including most American news organizations, is ultra-Orthodox Judaism, Hillel Halkin suggests the origins of the term may date to the 1950s, a period in which Haredi survivors of the Holocaust first began arriving in America. Haredi is a Modern Hebrew adjective derived from the Biblical verb hared which appears in the Book of Isaiah and is translated as trembles at the word of God. The word connotes an awe-inspired fear and anxiety to perform the will of God and is used to describe staunchly Orthodox Jews, others, however, dispute the characterization of the term as pejorative. Ari L. Goldman, a professor at Columbia University, notes that the term simply serves a purpose to distinguish a specific part of the Orthodox community. Sometimes the community has been characterized as Traditional Orthodox, in contradistinction to the Modern Orthodox, Haredi Jews also use other terms to refer to themselves. Common Yiddish words include Yidn or erlekhe Yidn, Ben Torah, frum, according to its adherents, the forebears of the contemporary Haredim were the traditionalists of Eastern Europe who fought against modernization. Indeed, adherents see its beliefs as part of a tradition dating from the revelation at Sinai. However, most historians of Orthodoxy consider Haredi Judaism, in its modern incarnation, for centuries, before Jewish emancipation, European Jews were forced to live in ghettos where Jewish culture and religious observance were preserved. Change began in the wake of the Age of Enlightenment when some European liberals sought to include the Jewish population in the emerging empires, the influence of the Haskalah movement was also evidence. Supporters of the Haskalah held that Judaism must change in keeping with the changes around them. Other Jews insisted on strict adherence to halakha and his approach was to accept the tools of modern scholarship and apply them in defence of Orthodoxy
4.
Israeli-occupied territories
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The Israeli-occupied territories are the territories occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War of 1967. Originally, those included the Syrian Golan Heights, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict, termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for the right of every state in the area to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries. From 1967 to 1982, the four areas were governed under the Israeli Military Governorate, the IMG was dissolved in 1982, after the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Between 1998 and 2012, the term Palestinian territories, Occupied was used to refer to territories controlled by the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank, the International Court of Justice, the UN General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council regards Israel as the Occupying Power. UN Special Rapporteur Richard Falk called Israels occupation an affront to international law, the Israeli High Court of Justice has ruled that Israel holds the West Bank under belligerent occupation. Israeli governments have preferred the term disputed territories in the case of the West Bank, officially Israel maintains that the West Bank is disputed territory. Israel asserts that since the disengagement of Israel from Gaza in 2005, the significance of the designation of these territories as occupied territory is that certain legal obligations fall on the occupying power under international law. Under international law there are laws of war governing military occupation, including the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. In 2015, over 800,000 Israelis resided over the 1949 Armistice Lines, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt in the 1967 Six-Day War. It established settlements along the Gulf of Aqaba and in the northeast portion and it had plans to expand the settlement of Yamit into a city with a population of 200,000, though the actual population of Yamit did not exceed 3,000. The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in stages beginning in 1979 as part of the Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty, as required by the treaty, Israel evacuated Israeli military installations and civilian settlements prior to the establishment of normal and friendly relations between it and Egypt. Israel dismantled eighteen settlements, two air bases, a naval base, and other installations by 1982, including the only oil resources under Israeli control. The evacuation of the population, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers might try to return to their homes after the evacuation, since 1982, the Sinai Peninsula has not been regarded as occupied territory. Israels stated purpose for the Security Belt was to create a space separating its northern border towns from terrorists residing in Lebanon, during the stay in the security belt, the IDF held many positions and supported the SLA. The SLA took over daily life in the security zone, initially as the force of the Free Lebanon State. Notably, the South Lebanon Army controlled the prison in Khiam, in addition, United Nations forces and the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon were deployed to the security belt
5.
Six-Day War
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The Six-Day War, also known as the June War,1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10,1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the period leading up to June 1967, tensions became dangerously heightened. In reaction to the mobilisation of Egyptian forces along the Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians were caught by surprise, and nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air superiority. Simultaneously, the Israelis launched an offensive into the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. After some initial resistance, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the evacuation of the Sinai, Israeli forces rushed westward in pursuit of the Egyptians, inflicted heavy losses, and conquered the Sinai. Nasser induced Syria and Jordan to begin attacks on Israel by using the initially confused situation to claim that Egypt had defeated the Israeli air strike. Israeli counterattacks resulted in the seizure of East Jerusalem as well as the West Bank from the Jordanians, on June 11, a ceasefire was signed. Arab casualties were far heavier than those of Israel, fewer than a thousand Israelis had been killed compared to over 20,000 from the Arab forces. Israels military success was attributed to the element of surprise, an innovative and well-executed battle plan, Israel seized control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israeli morale and international prestige was greatly increased by the outcome of the war, across the Arab world, Jewish minority communities were expelled, with refugees going to Israel or Europe. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a United Nations Emergency Force in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements, in the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a defense agreement with Egypt. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back, King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordans aid, and hiding behind UNEF skirts. In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border, the right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations. On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact, the following day, at Jordans invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent, on June 1, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on June 4 the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a surprise air strike that was the opening of the Six-Day War. Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning from sorties and this has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces
6.
Ramot
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Ramot, also known as Ramot Alon, is a large neighborhood in a northern part of East Jerusalem. Ramot is one of Jerusalems Ring Neighborhoods, the land was annexed by Israel after the Six-Day War, though that annexation has not been recognized internationally. As part of Ramot was established in East Jerusalem, the community considers it an Israeli settlement. The international community considers Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem illegal under international law, according to tradition, Rama was situated on one of the highest peaks of the Judean Hills,885 meters above sea level. The Tomb of Samuel is located 1.3 kilometers north of Ramot, between the 1949 Armistice Agreements and the Six-Day War in 1967, the area that is today Ramot was in the demilitarized zone between Israeli and Jordanian lines. After the death of Yigal Allon, Israeli military and political figure, Ramot is north and west of the center of Jerusalem. The neighborhood is built upon two elongated ridges about 100–200 meters above the surrounding landscape, between the ridges is the Golda Meir highway, leading to Tel Aviv. Travel time to the center of Jerusalem is about 15 minutes, the Jerusalem light rail system will be expanded to include Ramot. Lakewood East, officially Beth Medrash Govoha of America in Eretz Yisroel is located in Ramot, ateret Yerushalayim, An English speaking post-high school Yeshiva. Ohr Torah Stone - Jacob Sapirstein Junior High and High School for Boys, Yeshiva Ohr HaTzafon, An English speaking post-high school Yeshiva. Ahavat Yisrael - Rappaport for boys, a Chardal primary and Jr, Ramot has a population of 50,000. Ramot Alon is an example of the change in Jerusalem. When it was established in 1974, the population was 70% secular, since 2000, Ramot Alef, Gimel and Daled have become partially Haredi, and the percentage of Orthodox Jews in all of Ramot Alon has risen to 75%. One side of Ramot Gimel is mostly Chareidi, and the side is more Modern Orthodox. Ramot Vav also contains a Chareidi population, in throughout all of Ramot there is a mix of other types of residents including Dati Leumi, Modern Orthodox, and Chardal. There are a few Chabad Synagogues as well, Ramot is administered by Israel as being within Jerusalem. However, since part of the neighborhood has been built across the Green Line in East Jerusalem, the U. S. government has traditionally refrained from calling Israeli neighborhoods in East Jerusalem settlements. The Clinton Parameters and Geneva accords proposed keeping Ramot under Israeli sovereignty, possibly in exchange for other land, spokesperson for the U. S. State Department, Jen Psaki, said We consider now and have always considered the settlements to be illegitimate
7.
Har Hotzvim
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Har Hotzvim, also Campus of Science-Rich Industries is a high-tech industrial park located in northwest Jerusalem. In addition to companies, the park also hosts about 100 small and medium-sized high-tech companies. In 2011, Har Hotzvim provided employment for 10,000 people, the park was founded in the early 1970s by the Jerusalem Economic Corporation, in order to facilitate the development of a high tech industry in Jerusalem. The first major corporation to establish a base at Har Hotzvim was Intel. In the early 1990s, as Jerusalem was awarded the status of a development zone for the high-tech industry. The expansion took place in three stage and by the mid 2000s most of the plots have been developed. In 2005, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries opened a new, state-of-the-art pharmaceutical manufacturing plant in Har Hotzvim and it initially produced about 4 billion tablets a year, rising to 8 billion a year when the second phase of building was completed. In 2008 Intel closed its aging Fab 8 chip plant and started converting the facility to a die preparation plant, the plant was inaugurated in November 2009, the company planned to operate it on Saturdays in accordance with its business needs, requiring continuous operation of the production line. This angered the Haredi Jewish community living in nearby religious neighborhoods, for several weeks they gathered every Saturday outside the building, some threw rocks at the building and the police. Eventually representatives of the Haredi community reached an agreement with Intel to keep the plant open on Saturdays, but allow only non-Jews to work
8.
Shuafat
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Shuafat, also Shufat and Shafat, is a Palestinian Arab neighborhood of East Jerusalem, forming part of north-eastern Jerusalem. Located on the old Jerusalem-Ramallah road about three miles north of the Old City, Shufat has a population of 35,000 residents. Shufat borders Pisgat Zeev and Beit Hanina on the north, Shufat refugee camp on the east, French Hill on the south, Shufat is located in the part of the West Bank which was included in the municipal boundaries of Jerusalem after its occupation in 1967. The houses have well-preserved floors, containing various installations and an array of pottery vessels, flint tools, a bowl. To date, this is the only Chalcolithic site in the Jerusalem area where houses, before this find, it was already known that Shuafat has been the site of intermittent habitation since at least 2000 BCE. Biblical identifications include Gebim, a village in north Jerusalem whose inhabitants fled the approaching Assyrian army, according to the Book of Isaiah, Mizpah in Benjamin, tell el-Ful is located on the neighbourhoods outskirts. The settlement was described as a sophisticated community impeccably planned by the Roman authorities, with rows of houses. The findings are said be the first indication of an active Jewish settlement in the area of Jerusalem after the city fell in 70 A. D, the main indication that the settlement was a Jewish one is the assemblage of stone vessels found there. Such vessels, for storage and serving, were only used by Jews because they were believed not to transmit impurity. However, no remains of baths were discovered, therefore doubts remains about whether the inhabitants were Jews. The baths were used by the Roman soldiers. The place was known to the Crusaders as Dersophath or Dersophach, in March 1179, it was noted that its revenues went to the abbey of St Mary of Mount Sion as the result of a grant made by Anselm de Parenti. Remains of a Crusader structure in the center of the village have been found, some fine ashlars of antique appearance had been used, along with other smaller material, in the construction of this little church. However, Schick found no church, simply an old Crusading building with two preserved windows, the walls are about 6 feet thick, against which the fellaheen houses are built and so it is not easy to recognise. It was a kind of built in the usual Crusading way. The village was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine and it had eight Muslim families who paid taxes on wheat, barley, vineyards and other agricultural produce. Local legend holds that the settlement was established several hundred years ago by immigrants from the Hejaz. He described the houses as for the most part fairly old and he noted the remains of a church called al-Kanisa, facing east
9.
Shlomo Zalman Auerbach
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Shlomo Zalman Auerbach was a renowned Orthodox Jewish rabbi, posek, and rosh yeshiva of the Kol Torah yeshiva in Jerusalem, Israel. The Jerusalem neighborhood Ramat Shlomo is named after Rabbi Auerbach, Rabbi Auerbach was the first child to be born in the Shaarei Chesed neighborhood of Jerusalem founded by his maternal grandfather, Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Porush, after whom he was named. His father, Rabbi Chaim Yehuda Leib Auerbach, was rosh yeshiva of Shaar Hashamayim Yeshiva, by the age of eleven he was proficient in the entire talmudic tractate of Kiddushin. As a teenager he attended the Etz Chaim Yeshiva in Jerusalem and he was known for his diligence which is illustrated by an event which occurred while he was in yeshiva. On the day the first automobile rolled into Jerusalem along the Jaffa Road, only young Shlomo Zalman remained in his chair immersed in his studies. Following his marriage he studied under Rabbi Zvi Pesach Frank at Kollel Kerem Tzion which focused on the laws of the Land of Israel and he was known as one of the Charedi Ashkenazi supporters for Heter Mechira during the Shmita year. His first major published work, Meorei Esh, was the first ever written on the subject of using electricity on Shabbat. The work was endorsed by Rabbi Chaim Ozer Grodzinski who read it and declared and he became the pre-eminent halachic decisor of his time in Israel, respected by all streams of Orthodox Judaism. He was unique in his approach to halacha through thought experiments, renowned for his lucid classes as Rosh Yeshiva, his thousands of students continue to influence the Torah world today. An estimated 300,000 -500,000 people attended his funeral in 1995 and he was interred on Har HaMenuchot. He was the brother-in-law of Rabbi Sholom Schwadron, who married his sister Leah, the two shared a long and close relationship as learning partners and personal friends. Rabbi Auerbach had seven sons and three daughters, most of Rabbi Auerbachs halachic rulings were delivered orally and not published formally. Rabbi Neuwirth also made many of Rabbi Auerbachs rulings on Hilkhot Shabbat widely known in his bestselling book, rav Shlomo Zalman Auerbach ztl Video of Rabbi Auerbach ztl Volume 1 of shut Minchat Shlomo Volume 2 of shut Minchat Shlomo Volume 3 of shut Minchat Shlomo
10.
Teddy Stadium
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The Teddy Stadium is a football stadium in Jerusalem, Israel. Three football teams use the stadium, Beitar Jerusalem, Hapoel Jerusalem. The stadium is named for long-time Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek, who was in office during the time of its construction and was one of its prominent advocates, for Beitar, the stadium was a major upgrade after years of playing at the YMCA Stadium, nicknamed The Sandbox. In the first stage, only the west and east sides of the stadium were built, in 1999, work was finished on a north side that increased capacity to 21,600. The stadium itself is one of the newest in Israel and one of the few that are close to meeting all European standards. It is accessible to the disabled, has modern bathrooms, and has ample concession stands, the stadium has 5,000 parking spots on its premises, and is connected to the Malha Mall and its parking facilities by a pedestrian bridge. The stadium is located at the terminus of the Begin Expressway and just past the Malha Train Station, with stands close to the pitch and excellent acoustics, Teddy Stadium has hosted several Israel national football team matches, the Maccabiah Games opening ceremony, and other public events. A south side stand was completed on June 3,2013, Teddy Stadium was one of the venues for the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship and hosted the tournaments final match. During Beitar matches, the La Familia group occupies the eastern sections of the stadium and they are known for being the most vocal and controversial of fans in the venue. From September 2016 a new system which can produce 685 KW per hour is being installed on the roof of Teddy stadium
11.
Malha
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Malha is a neighborhood in southwest Jerusalem, between Pat, Ramat Denya and Kiryat Hayovel in the Valley of Rephaim. Before 1948, Malha was a Palestinian Arab village known as al-Maliha, the official Hebrew name of the neighborhood is Manahat named for the biblical town of Manahath, but residents of Jerusalem continue to call it Malha. Excavations in Malha revealed Intermediate Bronze Age domestic structures, a dig in the Rephaim Valley carried out by the Israel Antiquities Authority in the region of the Malha shopping mall and Biblical Zoo uncovered a village dating back to the Middle Bronze Age II B. Beneath this, remains of a village were found from the Early Bronze Age IV. According to the archaeologists who excavated there in 1987-1990, Malha is believed to be the site of Manahat, remains of the village have been preserved at the Biblical Zoo. In 1596, al-Maliha was part of the Ottoman Empire, nahiya of Jerusalem under the Liwa of Jerusalem and it paid taxes on wheat, barley, and olive and fruit trees, goats and beehives. An Ottoman village list from about 1870 showed Malha with a population of 340, in 75 houses, though the population count included men, only. In 1883, the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine described the village as being of moderate size, to the south was Ayn Yalu. In 1945 the population of Malha was 1,940,1,930 Muslims and 10 Christians, and the total land area was 6,828 dunams, according to an official land and population survey. Of the land, a total of 2,618 dunams were plantations and irrigable land and 1,259 were for cereals, while a total of 328 dunams were built-up land. In the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the village of al-Maliha, with a population of 2,250, was occupied as part of the battle for south Jerusalem. In the early part of the war, Al-Maliha, along with al-Qastal, Sur Baher and Deir Yassin, on April 12,1948, in the wake of the Deir Yassin Massacre, villagers from al Maliha, Qaluniya and Beit Iksa began to flee in panic. The Irgun attacked Malha in early morning hours of July 14,1948, several hours later, the Palestinian Arabs launched a counter-attack and seized one of the fortified positions. When Irgun reinforcements arrived, the Palestinians retreated and Malha was in Jewish control, the Arab inhabitants fled to Bethlehem, which remained under Jordanian control. The depopulated homes were occupied by Jewish refugees from Middle Eastern countries, some of the land in Malha had been purchased before the establishment of the state by the Valero family, a family of Sephardi Jews that owned large amounts of property in Jerusalem and environs. The first Palestinian fedayeen raid in Israel took place in November 1951 in Malha when a woman, under the aegis of the Jerusalem Municipality, the neighborhood was modernised and a large housing development was established on the nearby hill and its eastern slopes. At the bottom of the hill are the Malha Shopping Mall, Teddy Stadium, Malha is now considered an upscale neighborhood. Schools include a high school and an elementary school, the Shalom School
12.
Beit Hanina
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Beit Hanina is a Palestinian neighborhood in East Jerusalem. It is on the road to Ramallah, eight kilometers north of central Jerusalem, at an elevation of 780 meters above sea level. Beit Hanina is bordered by Hizma to the east, Shuafat to the south, Beit Iksa and Nabi Samwil to the west, the total area of Beit Hanina is 16.3 sq. kilometers or 16,284 dunams, of which 2,775 are built up. In 2007, Beit Hanina had a population of over 27,000, literally, Beit Hanina means House of Hanina, suggesting that it is named after a person, possibly a woman. Some scholars say that Hanina is derived from the Assyrian Han-nina which means the one who deserves pity and it could also be derived from the word hana meaning camped. In June 2013, Israel Antiquities Authority unearthed an 1800-year-old Roman road in Beit Hanina, some of the stones were highly polished, indicating heavy pedestrian use, the authority added. Beit Hanina may date back to the Canaanite period, according to the 19th-century French traveler Victor Guérin, Beit Hanina is the biblical Ananiah of the Tribe of Benjamin. Albright maintained that Ananiah is the village of al-Eizariya in East Jerusalem, guerin also wrote that it was sometimes called Bayt Anina. In 636, Beit Hanina was annexed by the Islamic Caliphate led by Umar Ibn al-Khattab as a result of a decisive Muslim victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk, in the early centuries of Islamic rule over Palestine, Yemenite and Qaisi Arabs migrated to Beit Hanina. The economy was agricultural, based primarily on olives, figs, barley, in 1099, Crusader armies captured Jerusalem, including Beit Hanina, inflicting heavy casualties on the Muslim population and causing most of the residents to flee. They later returned to cultivate their orchards and grain fields, the town was recaptured by the Ayyubid Dynasty led by Salah ad-Din. To ensure a Muslim majority and protect it from a renewed Crusader invasion, Salah ad-Din brought powerful Bedouin tribes from the Negev desert and the northern Hejaz to settle in the area. The Friday Mosque in Beit Hanina, Sultan Ibrahim Ibn Adham Mosque, is dedicated to Ibrahim ibn Adham, in 1927 Tawfiq Canaan published the inscription above the gate of the mosque, which commemorated its building in 637/1239-1240 CE. The village was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine and it had a population of 28 Muslim households. In 1883, the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine described it as a village of moderate size, of stone houses and it is surrounded with olives, and has springs to the west at some little distance. Vineyards also occur near the village, in 1945 Bein Hanina had a population of 1,590, all Arabs, with 14,948 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Of this,3,072 dunams were plantations and irrigable land,4,304 used for cereals, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Beit Hanina was captured by Jordanian forces, along with the rest of the West Bank, and became a part of Jordan until 1967. By examining the map, one can identify a number of Palestinian villages which have been excluded from the boundaries of greater East Jerusalem, for example, in the west, the villages of Beit Iksa and Beit Hanina are considered outside the boundaries while their lands are inside
13.
Kikar Safra
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Safra Square is the site of Jerusalems city hall. The compound was named for Jacob and Esther Safra, parents of the Lebanese-Jewish philanthropist Edmond J. Safra, construction began in 1988 but was only completed in 1993. Safra Square, at the end of Jaffa Road, is bounded on the east by Shivtei Yisrael Street and forming a triangle with Tzahal Square. Some of the buildings of the Russian Compound were restored and incorporated into the municipal complex. The location of the square, on the seam line between west and east Jerusalem, was chosen to symbolize its goal of serving all residents of Jerusalem. The original Jerusalem Municipality complex was built by the British in 1930, the decentralized municipal government decreased in efficiency, and it was decided that a single building was needed to house Jerusalems local government. After lengthy deliberations, the current location was selected, despite the challenge of preserving the number of historic. The ten existing buildings would be preserved and rehabilitated in order to retain a sense of the character of the city. The steps leading up to the complex from Jaffa Road are lined with 48 palm trees, several statues of lions, the symbol of Jerusalem, also adorn the square. At the entrance of the complex is Daniel Garden, named for Jerusalem mayor Daniel Auster, Safra Square hosted an exhibition of the United Buddy Bears,1382 metre bear sculptures, each designed by a different artist. List of mayors of Jerusalem Jerusalem Municipality Jerusalem Historical City Hall Building Safra Square on Jerusalem Municipality official website
14.
Joe Biden
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Joseph Robinette Joe Biden Jr. is an American politician who was the 47th Vice President of the United States from 2009 to 2017, having been jointly elected twice with President Barack Obama. A member of the Democratic Party, he represented Delaware as a United States Senator from 1973 until becoming Vice President in 2009, Biden was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1942, and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware. He became an attorney in 1969, and was elected to the New Castle County council in 1970 and he was first elected to the Senate in 1972, and became the sixth-youngest senator in U. S. history. He was re-elected to the Senate six times, and was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation to assume the Vice Presidency in 2009 and he was a long-time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee. He opposed the Gulf War in 1991, but advocated U. S. and he voted in favor of the resolution authorizing the Iraq War in 2002, but opposed the surge of U. S. troops in 2007. He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U. S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork, Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and in 2008, both times dropping out after lacklucster showings. In the 2008 U. S. presidential election, Barack Obama chose Biden to be his mate in the race. He became the first Roman Catholic, and the first Delawarean, in 2011, he opposed going ahead with the military mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden. Obama and Biden were re-elected in 2012, in October 2015, after months of speculation, Biden chose not to run for President of the United States in 2016. On January 12,2017, Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, after leaving office, Biden was named the Benjamin Franklin Presidential Practice professor at the University of Pennsylvania. Biden was born on November 20,1942, at St. Marys Hospital in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Catherine Eugenia Jean Biden and Joseph Robinette Joe Biden Sr. He was the first of four siblings in a Catholic family, with a sister, Valerie and his mother was of either Irish or Northern Irish descent, with roots variously attributed to County Louth or County Londonderry. His paternal grandparents, Mary Elizabeth and Joseph H. Biden, an oil businessman from Baltimore, Maryland, were of English, French and his paternal great-great-great grandfather, William Biden, was born in Sussex, England, and immigrated to the United States. His maternal great-grandfather, Edward Francis Blewitt, was a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate, Bidens father had been very well-off earlier in his life, but suffered several business reversals by the time his son was born. For several years, the family had to live with Bidens maternal grandparents, when the Scranton area went into economic decline during the 1950s, Bidens father could not find enough work. In 1953, the Biden family moved to an apartment in Claymont, Delaware, Joe Biden Sr. was then more successful as a used car salesman, and the familys circumstances were middle class. He played on the team as well. During these years, he participated in an anti-segregation sit-in at a Wilmington theatre, academically, he was an above-average student, was considered a natural leader among the students, and was elected class president during his junior and senior years
15.
Palestinian Authority
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Following elections in 2006 and the subsequent Gaza conflict between the Fatah and Hamas parties, its authority had extended only in areas A and B of the West Bank. Since January 2013, the Fatah-controlled Palestinian Authority uses the name State of Palestine on official documents, the Palestinian Authority was formed in 1994, pursuant to the Oslo Accords between the Palestine Liberation Organization and the government of Israel, as a five-year interim body. Further negotiations were then meant to place between the two parties regarding its final status. The remainder of the territories, including Israeli settlements, the Jordan Valley region, East Jerusalem was excluded from the Accords. In the Palestinian legislative elections on 25 January 2006, Hamas emerged victorious, however, the national unity Palestinian government effectively collapsed, when a violent conflict between Hamas and Fatah erupted, mainly in the Gaza Strip. The move wasnt recognized by Hamas, thus resulting in two separate administrations – the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and a rival Hamas government in the Gaza Strip. The reconciliation process to unite the Palestinian governments achieved some progress over the years, the PA received financial assistance from the European Union and the United States. All direct aid was suspended on 7 April 2006, as a result of the Hamas victory in parliamentary elections, shortly thereafter, aid payments resumed, but were channeled directly to the offices of Mahmoud Abbas in the West Bank. In November 2012, the United Nations voted to recognize Palestine as a non-member UN observer state, the Palestinian Authority was created by the Gaza–Jericho Agreement, pursuant to the 1993 Oslo Accords. The administrative responsibilities accorded to the PA were limited to civil matters and internal security, Palestinians in the diaspora and inside Israel were not eligible to vote in elections for the offices of the Palestinian Authority. General elections were held for its first legislative body, the Palestinian Legislative Council, the expiration of the bodys term was 4 May 1999, but elections were not held because of the prevailing coercive situation. Bush stated that the establishment of a Palestinian state by the end of 2005 was unlikely due to instability and we will give the Palestinian Authority technical help by sending equipment, training people. We will give the Palestinian Authority helicopters and also communication equipment, the Palestinian Authority became responsible for civil administration in some rural areas, as well as security in the major cities of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This increased the percentage of land in the Gaza Strip nominally governed by the PA from 60 percent to 100 percent, Palestinian legislative elections took place on 25 January 2006. Hamas was victorious and Ismail Haniyeh was nominated as Prime Minister on 16 February 2006, Hamas rejected these demands, which resulted in the Quartet suspension of its foreign assistance program and Israel imposed economic sanctions. In an attempt to resolve the financial and diplomatic impasse, the Hamas-led government together with Fatah Chairman Mahmoud Abbas agreed to form a unity government, as a result, Haniyeh resigned on 15 February 2007 as part of the agreement. The unity government was formed on 18 March 2007 under Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh and consisted of members from Hamas, Fatah and other parties. The situation in the Gaza strip however quickly deteriorated into a feud between the Hamas and Fatah, which eventually resulted in the Brothers War
16.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
17.
Benjamin Netanyahu
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Benjamin Bibi Netanyahu is the current Prime Minister of Israel. Netanyahu also currently serves as a member of the Knesset and Chairman of the Likud party, born in Tel Aviv to secular Jewish parents, Netanyahu is the first Israeli prime minister born in Israel after the establishment of the state. Netanyahu joined the Israel Defense Forces shortly after the Six-Day War in 1967, Netanyahu took part in many missions, including Operation Inferno, Operation Gift and Operation Isotope, during which he was shot in the shoulder. Netanyahu achieved the rank of captain before being discharged, after graduating from MIT with Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees, Netanyahu was recruited as an economic consultant for the Boston Consulting Group. Netanyahu returned to Israel in 1978 to found the Yonatan Netanyahu Anti-Terror Institute, named after his brother Yonatan Netanyahu, Netanyahu served as the Israeli ambassador to the United Nations from 1984 to 1988. Netanyahu became the leader of Likud in 1993, Netanyahu won the 1996 elections, becoming Israels youngest ever Prime Minister, serving his first term from June 1996 to July 1999. Netanyahu moved from the arena to the private sector after being defeated in the 1999 election for prime minister by Ehud Barak. As Minister of Finance, Netanyahu engaged in a reform of the Israeli economy. Netanyahu retook the Likud leadership in December 2005, after Sharon left to form a new party, in December 2006, Netanyahu became the official Leader of the Opposition in the Knesset and Chairman of Likud. Following the 2009 parliamentary election, in which Likud placed second and right-wing parties won a majority, after the victory in the 2013 elections, he became the second person to be elected to the position of Prime Minister for a third term, after Israels founder David Ben-Gurion. In March 2015, Netanyahu was elected to his term as prime minister. Netanyahu has been elected Prime Minister of Israel four times, matching David Ben-Gurions record, Netanyahu is the only prime minister in Israels history to have been elected three times in a row. Netanyahu was born in 1949 in Tel Aviv, Israel, to an Israeli mother, Tzila Segal and a Warsaw-born father, Prof. Benzion Netanyahu, Netanyahu is of mixed Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jewish heritage. He was initially raised and educated in Jerusalem, where he attended Henrietta Szold Elementary School, to this day, he speaks fluent English, with a noticeable Philadelphia accent. After graduating from school in 1967, Netanyahu returned to Israel to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces. He trained as a soldier and served for five years in an elite special forces unit of the IDF. He took part in numerous cross-border assault raids during the 1967–70 War of Attrition and he was wounded in combat on multiple occasions. He was involved in other missions, including Operation Inferno
18.
Green Line (Israel)
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It served as the de facto borders of the State of Israel from 1949 until the Six-Day War in 1967. The name comes from the ink used to draw the line on the map while the armistice talks were going on. After the Six-Day War, the territories captured by Israel beyond the Green Line came to be designated as East Jerusalem, the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights and these territories are often referred to as Israeli-occupied territories. The Green Line was intended as a line rather than a permanent border. The 1949 Armistice Agreements were clear that they were not creating permanent borders, similar provisions are contained in the Armistice Agreements with Jordan and Syria. The Green Line refers to the lines, rather than permanent borders. All movement across the lines was banned and monitored by the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization. Most commonly, the term was applied to the boundary between Jordan-controlled Jerusalem and the West Bank and Israel, the Palestinian and Arab leaders had repeatedly rejected any permanent partition of Mandatory Palestine. Although Israel has always argued that the Green Line has no legal significance. The territories beyond the Green Line were administered by the Israeli military or later also by the Palestinian Authority, citizenship by residence, for example, was determined with reference to the Green Line, as well as a persons refugee status. The extension of the municipality boundary of Jerusalem in 1980 was an exception to this position and this claim has not been recognised by any country or by the United Nations Security Council. A notional Green Line continues to divide Jerusalem at the boundary of East Jerusalem, the Golan Heights are another exception, having been informally incorporated by Israel with the 1981 Golan Heights Law. The UN Security Council declared this to be null and without any legal effect. Israeli settlements in these areas are subject to the laws of Israel rather than those of the Palestinian Authority. The sections of the Green Line that delineate the boundaries between Israel, the West Bank and Gaza run through heavily populated regions, consequently, the Green Line underwent various slight adjustments, and special arrangements were made for limited movement in certain areas. Jerusalem was divided in half, into East and West Jerusalem, the village of Bartaa, partially due to errors on the map, was left with one third of its area on the Israeli side and two thirds outside of it. Kibbutz Ramat Rachel was left almost entirely outside the Israeli side of the Green Line, the green line was redrawn in blue ink on the southern map to give the impression that a movement in the green line had been made. During the war in 1947-48, Jews residing east of the Line, all but a few of the Gush Etzion defenders were massacred
19.
Positions on Jerusalem
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There is significant disagreement in the international community on the legal and diplomatic status of Jerusalem. Legal scholars disagree on how to resolve the dispute under international law, many United Nations member states formally adhere to the United Nations proposal that Jerusalem should have an international status. The chief dispute revolves around the status of East Jerusalem. As a result, foreign embassies are located in Tel Aviv. Jerusalem is one of the key issues in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, both Israelis and the Palestinians want it as their capital. The European Union has stated that Jerusalems status is that of corpus separatum, from 1517 until the First World War, Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire. Since the 1860s, Jews have formed the largest religious group in the city and since around 1887, in the 19th century, European powers vied for influence in the city, usually on the basis of extending protection over Christian churches and Holy Places. A number of countries also established consulates in Jerusalem. In 1917 and following the First World War, Great Britain was in control of Jerusalem, however, the Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine were in mortal dispute and Britain sought United Nations assistance in resolving the dispute. Jewish representatives accepted the plan, however, representatives of the Palestinian Arabs, in May 1948, the Jewish community in Palestine issued the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel. The new state was quickly recognised de facto by the United States, Iran, Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania, and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first nation to fully recognize Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, the United States extended official recognition after the first Israeli election, on 31 January 1949. Israel became a member of the United Nations on 11 May 1949, the states recognizing Israel did not recognize its sovereignty over Jerusalem generally citing the UN resolutions which called for an international status for the city. With the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel and the subsequent invasion by surrounding Arab states, the 1949 Armistice Agreements left Jordan in control of the eastern parts of the city, while the western sector was held by Israel. Each side recognised the de facto control of their respective sectors. Soon after Israel declared that Jerusalem was a part of the State of Israel. In 1950, Jordan annexed eastern Jerusalem, following the 1967 war, Israel declared that Israeli law would be applied to East Jerusalem and enlarged its eastern boundaries, approximately doubling its size. The action was deemed unlawful by other states who did not recognize it and it was condemned by the UN Security Council and General Assembly who described it as an annexation in violation of the rights of the Palestinian population
20.
Israeli settlement
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Such settlements within Palestinian territories currently exist in Area C of the West Bank and in East Jerusalem, and within Syrian territory in the Golan Heights. Israel dismantled 18 settlements in the Sinai Peninsula in 1982, while in 2005 all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip were dismantled, but only four in the West Bank. In the West Bank, however, Israel continues to expand its remaining settlements as well as settling new areas, the International Court of Justice also says these purportedly annexed settlements are illegal in a 2004 advisory opinion. Similar criticism was advanced by the EU and the US, Israel disputes the position of the international community and the legal arguments that were used to declare the settlements illegal. Most of the spending goes to the security of the Israeli citizens living there, on 30 June 2014, according to the Yesha Council,382,031 Israeli citizens lived in the 121 officially recognised Israeli settlements in the West Bank, almost exclusively Jewish citizens of Israel. In January 2015 the Israeli Interior Ministry gave figures of 389,250 Israeli citizens living in the West Bank, settlements range in character from farming communities and frontier villages to urban suburbs and neighborhoods. The four largest settlements, Modiin Illit, Maale Adumim, Beitar Illit, Ariel has 18,000 residents, while the rest have around 37,000 to 55,500 each. The 1967 Six-Day War left Israel in control of the entire West Bank of the Jordan River, the entire Sinai Peninsula up to the Suez Canal, and the Gaza strip. Most of the Golan Heights, since 1981, administered under the Golan Heights Law, as early as 1967, Israeli settlement policy was started by the Labor government of Levi Eshkol. The basis for Israeli settlement in the West Bank became the Allon Plan and it implied Israeli annexation of major parts of the Israeli-occupied territories, especially East Jerusalem, Gush Etzion and the Jordan Valley. The settlement policy of the government of Yitzhak Rabin, was derived from the Allon Plan. The first settlement was Kfar Etzion, in the southern West Bank, many settlements began as Nahal settlements. They were established as military outposts and later expanded and populated with civilian inhabitants, Ariel Sharon declared in the same year that there was a plan to settle 2 million Jews in the West Bank by 2000. Since 1967, government-funded settlement projects in the West Bank are implemented by the Settlement Division of the World Zionist Organization, though formally a non-governmental organization, it is funded by the Israeli government and leases lands from the Civil Administration to settle in the West Bank. It is authorized to create settlements in the West Bank on lands licensed to it by the Civil Administration, traditionally, the Settlement Division has been under the responsibility of the Agriculture Ministry. Since the Olso Accords, it was housed within the Prime Ministers Office. In 2007, it was moved back to the Agriculture Ministry, in 2009, the Netanyahu Government decided to subject all settlement activities to additional approval of the Prime Minister and the Defense Minister. In 2011, Netanyahu sought to move the Settlement Division again under the control of PMO
21.
New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
22.
Fourth Geneva Convention
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It was adopted in August 1949, and defines humanitarian protections for civilians in a war zone. There are currently 196 countries party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, including this, a number of articles specify how Protecting Powers, ICRC and other humanitarian organizations may aid Protected persons. Protected person is the most important definition in this section because many of the articles in the rest of GCIV only apply to Protected persons, a protected person/s shall not have anything done to them of such a character as to cause physical suffering or extermination. The physical suffering or extermination of protected persons in their hands and this prohibition applies not only to murder, torture, corporal punishments, mutilation and medical or scientific experiments not necessitated by the medical treatment. The prohibition on scientific experiments was added, in part, in response to experiments by German and Japanese doctors during World War II, no protected person may be punished for an offense he or she has not personally committed. Collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited. Pillage is prohibited. Reprisals against protected persons, under the 1949 Geneva Conventions, collective punishment is a war crime. By collective punishment, the drafters of the Geneva Conventions had in mind the reprisal killings of World War I, in the First World War, the Germans executed Belgian villagers in mass retribution for resistance activity during the Rape of Belgium. In World War II, both the Germans and the Japanese carried out a form of punishment to suppress resistance. Entire villages or towns or districts were responsible for any resistance activity that occurred at those places. The conventions, to counter this, reiterated the principle of individual responsibility and they are opposed to all principles based on humanity and justice. Additional Protocol II of 1977 explicitly forbids collective punishment, but as fewer states have ratified this protocol than GCIV, GCIV Article 33 is the one more commonly quoted. Articles 47-78 impose substantial obligations on occupying powers, nevertheless, the Occupying Power may undertake total or partial evacuation of a given area if the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. Such evacuations may not involve the displacement of protected persons outside the bounds of the territory except when for material reasons it is impossible to avoid such displacement. Persons thus evacuated shall be transferred back to their homes as soon as hostilities in the area in question have ceased, the Protecting Power shall be informed of any transfers and evacuations as soon as they have taken place. The Occupying Power shall not detain protected persons in a particularly exposed to the dangers of war unless the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, the Occupying Power shall, with the cooperation of the national and local authorities, facilitate the proper working of all institutions devoted to the care and education of children. The Occupying Power shall take all steps to facilitate the identification of children. It may not, in any case, change their personal status, a special section of the Bureau set up in accordance with Article 136 shall be responsible for taking all necessary steps to identify children whose identity is in doubt
23.
Military occupation
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Military occupation is effective provisional control by a certain ruling power over a territory which is not under the formal sovereignty of that entity, without the volition of the actual sovereign. Military government may be characterized as the administration or supervision of occupied territory. Military government is distinguished from law, which is the temporary rule by domestic armed forces over disturbed areas. The rules of government are delineated in various international agreements, primarily the Hague Convention of 1907. A country that establishes a government and violates internationally agreed upon norms runs the risk of censure, criticism. In the current era, the practices of government have largely become a part of customary international law. Article 42 of the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare specify that erritory is considered occupied when it is placed under the authority of the hostile army. The form of administration by which an occupying power exercises government authority over occupied territory is called military government, neither the Hague Conventions nor the Geneva Conventions specifically define or distinguish an act of invasion. The terminology of occupation is used exclusively, the clear distinction has been recognized among the principles of international law since the end of the Napoleonic wars in the 19th century. These customary laws of belligerent occupation which evolved as part of the laws of war gave some protection to the population under the occupation of a belligerent power. The first two articles of that state, Art. Territory is considered occupied when it is placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established, in 1949 these laws governing belligerent occupation of an enemy states territory were further extended by the adoption of the Fourth Geneva Convention. Much of GCIV is relevant to protected persons in occupied territories and Section III, Article 6 restricts the length of time that most of GCIV applies, The present Convention shall apply from the outset of any conflict or occupation mentioned in Article 2. In the territory of Parties to the conflict, the application of the present Convention shall cease on the close of military operations. GCIV emphasised an important change in international law, the Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies. S. are not signatory to this additional protocol. The military government of the occupying power will continue past the point in time when the peace treaty comes into force. Military government continues until legally supplanted is the rule, as stated in Military Government and Martial Law, by William E. Birkhimer, see Birkhimer, p. 25–26, No proclamation of part of the victorious commander is necessary to the lawful inauguration and enforcement of military government
24.
Quarry
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A quarry is a place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate has been excavated from the ground. A quarry is the thing as an open-pit mine from which minerals are extracted. The only non-trivial difference between the two is that open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries, the word quarry can also include the underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone. The surfaces are polished and finished with varying degrees of sheen or luster, polished slabs are often cut into tiles or countertops and installed in many kinds of residential and commercial properties. Natural stone quarried from the earth is considered a luxury and tends to be a highly durable surface. Quarries in level areas with shallow groundwater or which are located close to surface water often have engineering problems with drainage, generally the water is removed by pumping while the quarry is operational, but for high inflows more complex approaches may be required. For example, the Coquina quarry is excavated to more than 60 feet below sea level, to reduce surface leakage, a moat lined with clay was constructed around the entire quarry. Ground water entering the pit is pumped up into the moat, as a quarry becomes deeper, water inflows generally increase and it also becomes more expensive to lift the water higher during removal, this can become the limiting factor in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are worked from beneath the water, by dredging, many people and municipalities consider quarries to be eyesores and require various abatement methods to address problems with noise, dust, and appearance. One of the effective and famous examples of successful quarry restoration is Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC. A further problem is pollution of roads from trucks leaving the quarries, to control and restrain the pollution of public roads, wheel washing systems are becoming more common. Many quarries naturally fill with water after abandonment and become lakes, water-filled quarries can be very deep with water, often 50 feet or more, that is often surprisingly cold. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmers muscles to weaken, it can also cause shock. Though quarry water is very clear, submerged quarry stones. Several people drown in quarries each year, however, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites
25.
Second Temple
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The Second Temple was the Jewish Holy Temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple, the accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible. According to the Bible, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great, the events take place in the second half of the 5th century BCE. Listed together with the Book of Ezra as Ezra-Nehemiah, it represents the chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible. The original core of the book, the memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era, the book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata, there he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israels enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem and he finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law. A wide interest was felt in this movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators. The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the work, Zerubbabel and the elders, however, declined all such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple without help. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews, according to Ezra 4,5, the Samaritans sought to frustrate their purpose and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended. Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, on his death, the false Smerdis, an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, the Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first. Some of the artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 597 BCE. In the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included, The Menorah for the Hekhal The Table of Showbread The golden altar of incense, with golden censers. According to the Mishnah, the Foundation Stone stood where the Ark used to be, the Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great. According to the Babylonian Talmud, however, the Temple lacked the Shekinah, the dwelling or settling divine presence of God, and the Ruach HaKodesh, judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria
26.
Herod the Great
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Herod, also known as Herod the Great and Herod I, was a Roman client king of Judea, referred to as the Herodian kingdom. Vital details of his life are recorded in the works of the 1st century CE Roman–Jewish historian Josephus, Herod also appears in the Christian Gospel of Matthew as the ruler of Judea who orders the Massacre of the Innocents at the time of the birth of Jesus. Despite his successes, including singlehandedly forging a new aristocracy from practically nothing and his reign polarizes opinion amongst scholars and historians, some viewing his legacy as evidence of success, or a reminder of his tyrannical rule. It is generally accepted that Herod was born around 73 BCE in Idumea, however, some authors think that he was born in about 72/71 BCE. He was the son of Antipater the Idumaean, a high-ranked official under ethnarch Hyrcanus II, and Cypros. Herods father was by descent an Edomite whose ancestors had converted to Judaism, Herod was raised as a Jew. A loyal supporter of Hyrcanus II, Antipater appointed his son governor of Galilee in 47 BCE and his elder brother, Phasael, was appointed governor of Jerusalem. Herod enjoyed the backing of Rome, but his brutality was condemned by the Sanhedrin, in 41 BCE, Herod and his brother Phasael, were named as tetrarchs by the Roman leader Mark Antony. They were placed in this role to support Hyrcanus II, later, Antigonus, Hyrcanus nephew, took the throne from his uncle with the help of the Parthians. Herod fled to Rome to plead with the Romans to restore Hyrcanus II to power, the Romans had a special interest in Judea because their general Pompey the Great had conquered Jerusalem in 63 BCE, thus placing the region in the Roman sphere of influence. In Rome, Herod was unexpectedly appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate, Josephus puts this in the year of the consulship of Calvinus and Pollio, but Appian places it in 39 BCE. Herod went back to Judea to win his kingdom from Antigonus, toward the end of the campaign against Antigonus, Herod married the granddaughter of Hyrcanus II, Mariamne, who was also a niece of Antigonus. Herod did this in an attempt to secure his claim to the throne, however, Herod already had a wife, Doris, and a young son, Antipater, and chose therefore to banish Doris and her child. After three years of conflict, Herod and the Romans finally captured Jerusalem and Herod sent Antigonus for execution to Marc Antony, Herod took the role as sole ruler of Judea and the title of basileus for himself, ushering in the Herodian Dynasty and ending the Hasmonean Dynasty. Josephus reports this as being in the year of the consulship of Agrippa and Gallus, but also says that it was exactly 27 years after Jerusalem fell to Pompey, cassius Dio also reports that in 37 BCE the Romans accomplished nothing worthy of note in the area. According to Josephus, Herod ruled for 37 years,34 of them after capturing Jerusalem, as Herods family were converts to Judaism, his religious commitment was questioned by some elements of Jewish society. Herod later executed several members of his own family, including his wife Mariamne I, Herods rule marked a new beginning in the history of Judea. Judea had been ruled autonomously by the Hasmonean kings from 140 BCE until 63 BCE, the Hasmoneans retained their titles, but became clients of Rome after the conquest by Pompey in 63 BCE
27.
Chabad
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Chabad, also known as Lubavitch, Habad and Chabad-Lubavitch, is an Orthodox Jewish, Hasidic movement. Chabad is today one of the worlds best known Hasidic movements and is known for its outreach. It is the largest Hasidic group and Jewish religious organization in the world, the name Lubavitch is the Yiddish name for the originally Belorussian village Lyubavichi, now in Russia, where the movements leaders lived for over 100 years. He established a network of more than 3,600 institutions that provide religious, social and humanitarian needs in over 1,000 cities, spanning more than 80 countries and all 50 American states. Studies conducted between 1993 and 1996 stated the movement is thought to number between 40,000 and 200,000 adherents, in 2005 the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs reported that up to one million Jews attend Chabad services at least once a year. In 2013, Chabad forecast that their Chanukah activities would reach up to 8,000,000 Jews in 80 countries worldwide, the movement was based in Lyubavichi for over a century, then briefly centered in the cities of Rostov-on-Don, Riga, and Warsaw. Since 1940, the center has been in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn. While the movement has spawned a number of groups, the Chabad-Lubavitch branch appears to be the only one still active. Sarna has characterized Chabad as having enjoyed the fastest rate of growth of any Jewish religious movement for the period 1946-2015, in the early 1900s, Chabad-Lubavitch legally incorporated itself under Agudas Chasidei Chabad. The Chabad movement has been led by a succession of Hasidic rebbes, the main line of the movement, Chabad-Lubavitch, has had seven rebbes in total, Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, founded the Chabad movement in the town of Liozna. He later moved the center to the town of Liadi. Rabbi Shneur Zalman was the youngest disciple of Rabbi Dovber of Mezritch, the Chabad movement began as a separate school of thought within the Hasidic movement, focusing of the spread of Hasidic mystical teachings using logical reasoning. Shneur Zalmans main work is the Tanya, the Tanya is the central book of Chabad thought and is studied daily by followers of the Chabad movement. Shneur Zalmans successors went by last names such as Schneuri and Schneersohn and he is commonly referred to as the Alter Rebbe or Admur Hazoken. Rabbi Dovber Schneuri, son of Rabbi Shneur Zalman, led the Chabad movement in the town of Lyubavichi and his leadership was initially disputed by Rabbi Aaron Halevi of Stroselye, however, Rabbi Dovber was generally recognized as his fathers rightful successor, and the movements leader. Rabbi Dovber published a number of his writings on Hasidic thought and he also published some of his fathers writings. Many of Rabbi Dovbers works have been republished by the Chabad movement. He is commonly referred to as the Mitteler Rebbe, or Admur Haemtzoei, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn, a grandson of Rabbi Shneur Zalman and son-in-law of Rabbi Dovber
28.
770 Eastern Parkway
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The building is the center of the Chabad-Lubavitch world movement, and considered by many to be an iconic site in Judaism. The house, in Gothic revival style, was built in the 1930s, Rabbi Schneersohn was paralyzed and required a wheelchair when he arrived in the United States in 1940. A building with an elevator needed to be purchased for his use as both a home and as a synagogue, during the 1940s, the building, which soon became known as 770 became the hub and central location for Chabad. It served as the main Chabad synagogue, a Yeshiva and offices for the Merkos LInyonei Chinuch, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn lived in an apartment on the second floor. When Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn arrived from Poland to New York in 1941, the younger Rabbi Schneersons office was located on the first floor of 770 near the synagogue. Rabbi Yosef Yitzchoks wife remained resident in her apartment on the floor until her death. Her two daughters would often visit her in her apartment, and during her lifetime the new Rebbe would conduct semi-private meals there for the family, today, the previous Rebbes apartment and office are closed to the public. Since 1994, Rabbi Menachem Mendels office on the first floor is used on Shabbat, from its inception the synagogue has served three parallel purposes. It is a place of prayer services, a study hall for advanced students. Here the Lubavitcher Rebbe or elder Chassidim would address Chassidim and other visitors about Torah observance and Chassidic philosophy, as the Lubavitch movement grew in the United States, the original synagogue became too small to house the chasidim and students who came to pray and study there. The synagogue was expanded in several stages, the first annex was added in 1960, with subsequent expansions taking place in the late 1960s and again in the mid-1970s. The synagogue then reached its current size, the original synagogue remains as a small study hall used by rabbinical students during the week. In 1988, Rabbi Schneersohn laid the cornerstone for a renovation project. The original building is part of a larger block maintained by the Agudas Chasidei Chabad and this block includes the larger synagogue, a Kollel, and the communitys library. It also houses the offices of the secretariat of the Lubavitch Movement,770 is an iconic site considered holy by members of the Chabad movement. It attracts thousands of visitors from around the world every year, the building is recognized as an Orthodox Jewish synagogue, which is open to all people, with a mens section on the ground floor and a womens section on the floor above it. On the Shabbat and holidays, smaller prayer groups can be found congregating throughout the building, including the lobby, the building contains a Yeshiva with approximately 1000 students. The Yeshiva is a part of a group of Yeshivot called Tomchei Temimim, after the 6th Rebbe Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn moved to the United States, within 24 hours he opened a yeshiva branch
29.
Haaretz
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It was founded in 1918, making it the longest running newspaper currently still in print in Israel, and is now published in both Hebrew and English in Berliner format. The English edition is published and sold together with the International New York Times, both Hebrew and English editions can be read on the Internet. In North America, it out as a weekly newspaper. It is known for its left-wing and liberal stances on domestic, as of 2016, the newspaper had a weekday exposure rate of 3. 9% in Israel, significantly lower than the countrys other national newspapers. Haaretz was first published in 1918 as a newspaper sponsored by the British military government in Palestine, in 1919, it was taken over by a group of socialist-oriented Zionists, mainly from Russia. The newspaper was established on 18 June 1919 by a group of businessmen including prominent philanthropist Isaac Leib Goldberg, later, the name was shortened to Haaretz. The literary section of the paper attracted leading Hebrew writers of the time, the newspaper was initially published in Jerusalem. From 1919 to 1922, the paper was headed by a succession of editors and it was shut down briefly due to a budgetary shortfall and reopened in Tel Aviv at the beginning of 1923 under the editorship of Moshe Glickson, who held the post for 15 years. The Tel Aviv municipality granted the financial support by paying in advance for future advertisements. Salman Schocken, a wealthy German Jewish Zionist who owned a chain of department stores in Germany and his son, Gershom Schocken, became the chief editor in 1939 and held that position until his death in 1990. Until August 2006, the Schocken family owned 100% of the Haaretz Group, the deal was negotiated with the help of former Israeli ambassador to Germany, Avi Primor. This deal was seen as controversial in Israel as DuMont Schaubergs father, Kurt Neven DuMont, was member of the German Nazi party, while his publishing house promoted Nazi ideology. On 12 June 2011, it was announced that Russian-Israeli businessman Leonid Nevzlin had purchased a 20% stake in the Haaretz Group, buying 15% from the family and this means that the Schocken family now owns 60% and M. DuMont Schauberg and Leonid Nevzlin have 20% each. In October 2012, a union strike mobilized to protest planned layoffs by the Haaretz management, as a consequence, both the Haaretz newspaper and its TheMarker business supplement were not printed for one day. According to Israel Radio, it was the first time since 1965 that a newspaper did not go to press on account of a strike, the newspapers editorial policy was defined by Gershom Schocken, who was editor-in-chief from 1939 to 1990. Schocken was succeeded as editor-in-chief by Hanoch Marmari, in 2004 David Landau replaced Marmari and was succeeded by Dov Alfon in 2008. The current editor-in-chief of the newspaper is Aluf Benn, who replaced Alfon in August 2011, charlotte Halle became editor of the English Print Edition in February 2008. Haaretz describes itself as having a liberal outlook both on domestic issues and on international affairs
30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
Jerusalem
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Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
32.
Old City (Jerusalem)
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The Old City is a 0.9 square kilometers walled area within the modern city of Jerusalem. Until 1860, when the Jewish neighborhood Mishkenot Shaananim was established, traditionally, the Old City has been divided into four uneven quarters, although the current designations were introduced only in the 19th century. Today, the Old City is roughly divided into the Muslim Quarter, Christian Quarter, Armenian Quarter, the Old Citys monumental defensive walls and city gates were built in the years 1535–1542 by the Turkish sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The current population of the Old City resides mostly in the Muslim and Christian quarters. As of 2007 the total population was 36,965, the breakdown of religious groups in 2006 was 27,500 Muslims,5,681 Christians, not including the 790 Armenians, and 3,089 Jews. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Old City was captured by Jordan, today, the Israeli government controls the entire area, which it considers part of its national capital. However, the Jerusalem Law of 1980, which effectively annexed East Jerusalem to Israel, was declared null, East Jerusalem is now regarded by the international community as part of occupied Palestinian territory. In 2010, Jerusalems oldest fragment of writing was found outside the Old Citys walls, according to the Bible, before King Davids conquest of Jerusalem in the 11th century BCE the city was home to the Jebusites. The Bible describes the city as heavily fortified with a city wall. The city ruled by King David, known as Ir David, or the City of David, was southeast of the Old City walls, outside the Dung Gate. His son King Solomon extended the city walls and then, in about 440 BCE, during the Persian period, Nehemiah returned from Babylon, in 41–44 CE, Agrippa, king of Judea, built a new city wall known as the Third Wall. Muslims occupied Jerusalem in the 7th Century under the second caliph and he granted its inhabitants an assurance treaty. Sophronius believed that Umar, a warrior who led an austere life, was a fulfillment of this prophecy. In the account by the Patriarch of Alexandria, Eutychius, it is said that Umar paid a visit to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and sat in its courtyard. Eutychius adds that Umar also wrote a decree which he handed to the Patriarch, in which he prohibited Muslims gathering in prayer at the site. In 1099, Jerusalem was captured by the Western Christian army of the First Crusade and it remained in their hands until recaptured by the Arab Muslims, led by Saladin and he summoned the Jews and permitted them to resettle in the city. In 1219, the walls of the city were razed by Muazzim Sultan of Damascus, in 1229, by treaty with Egypt, in 1239 he began to rebuild the walls, but they were demolished again by Daud, the emir of Kerak. In 1243, Jerusalem came again under the control of the Christians, the Kharezmian Tatars took the city in 1244 and Sultan Malik al-Muattam razed the walls, rendering it again defenseless and dealing a heavy blow to the citys status
33.
Armenian Quarter
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The Armenian Quarter is one of the four quarters of the walled Old City of Jerusalem. Located in the corner of the Old City, it can be accessed through the Zion Gate. It occupies an area of 0.126 km², which is 14% of the Old Citys total, in 2007, it had a population of 2,424. In both criteria, it is comparable to the Jewish Quarter, the Armenian Quarter is separated from the Christian Quarter by David Street and by Habad Street from the Jewish Quarter. The Armenian presence in Jerusalem dates back to the fourth century AD when Armenia adopted Christianity as a national religion and it is thus considered the oldest living diaspora community outside the Armenian homeland. The quarter developed gradually around the St. James Monastery—which dominates the quarter—and took its shape by the 19th century. The monastery houses the Armenian Apostolic Churchs Jerusalem Patriarchate, which was established as a diocese in the seventh century, the patriarchate is the de facto administrator of the quarter and acts as a mini-welfare state for the Armenian residents. The Armenian community has been in decline since the mid-20th century, although formally separate from Greek Orthodox and Latin Christians, the Armenians consider their quarter to be part of the Christian Quarter. The three Christian patriarchates of Jerusalem and the government of Armenia have publicly expressed their opposition to any division of the two quarters. However, for all intents and purposes, the Armenians living in the Armenian Quarter are considered Palestinians by Israel and they have faced many of the same restrictions on their lives as have the Palestinians. The Armenian Quarter is located in the corner of Jerusalems Old City. The quarter can be accessed through the Zion Gate and Jaffa Gate, according to a 2007 study published by the International Peace and Cooperation Center the quarter occupies an area of 0.126 km², which is 14% of the Old Citys total. The Armenian Quarter is formally separated from the Christian Quarter by David Street, according to a 2007 study published by the International Peace and Cooperation Center, the quarter occupies an area of 0.126 km², which is 14% of the Old Citys total. In the early fourth century Armenia, under king Tiridates III, a large number of Armenian monks are recorded to have settled in Jerusalem as early as the fourth century, after the uncovering of Christian holy places in the city. However, the first written records are from the fifth century, Jerusalem is thus considered the oldest living diaspora community outside the Armenian homeland. Armenian churches were constructed during that period, including the St. James Monastery, the latter was last expanded in the mid-12th century. An Armenian scriptorium was in operation by the mid-fifth century, a secular community composed of merchants and artisans was established in the sixth century in the Zion Quarter, where an Armenian street existed. In the First Council of Dvin, the Armenian Church broke off from the rest of Christianity by rejecting the dual nature of Christ, thus the Armenians found themselves in direct confrontation with the Byzantine Empire
34.
Christian Quarter
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The Christian Quarter is one of the four quarters of the walled Old City of Jerusalem, the other three being the Jewish Quarter, the Muslim Quarter and the Armenian Quarter. The Christian quarter contains about 40 Christian holy places, among them is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of Christianitys holiest places. The Christian quarter was built around the Church of the Holy Sepulchre which is the heart of the quarter, around the church there are other churches and monasteries. In general the quarter contains few houses, which are concentrated in the southern-eastern part of the quarter. It contains mostly religious tourists and educational buildings, such as the Lutheran school, Christian buildings stand on much of the quarter. The quarter also contains shops, coffee houses, restaurants. The shops are concentrated in the street, David Street. Some of the hotels, such as the Casa Nova hotel, the quarter contains some small museums, such as the museum of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate. In the southwestern part of the quarter there is a pool called Hezekiahs Pool that was used to store water for the area. In the 19th century, European countries sought to expand their influence in Jerusalem, at the end of the 19th century, there was no further free land for development in the Christian Quarter. In the same period, the Suez Canal had opened and many Christians travelled to the Holy Land and this led to intensified competition between the European powers for influence in Jerusalem. France built hospitals, a monastery, and hostels for visitors outside the Old City adjacent to the Christian quarter - an area became known as the French area. The Russians located themselves in the nearby Russian Compound, in 1898, the Ottomans accepted the request of the European countries and breached a new gate in the Old City walls, in the area of the new development. The gate was called The New Gate
35.
Muristan
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The Muristan is a complex of streets and shops in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. The site was the location of the first hospital of the Knights Hospitaller, the area just south of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre has a long tradition dating to the days of Judas Maccabeus based on incidents recorded in the Second Book of Maccabees. According to the legend, King Antiochus V proceeded to Jerusalem to punish the High Priest for plundering Davids Tomb. While on Golgotha, the king was directed in a vision to pardon the High Priest. In 1496, William Caoursin, Vice-Chancellor of the Hospitallers, wrote that Judas Maccabaeus, in 130, Hadrian visited the ruins of Jerusalem, in Judaea, left after the First Roman-Jewish War of 66–73. He rebuilt the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina after himself and Jupiter Capitolinus, Hadrian placed the citys main Forum at the junction of the main Cardo and Decumanus Maximus, now the location for the Muristan. Hadrian built a temple to the goddess Venus, which later became the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This hospice was most likely destroyed about fourteen years later when Jerusalem fell to the Persian army and the Christian inhabitants were slaughtered, the building was probably restored after Jerusalem fell again under Roman dominion in 629. Arab rule after 637 allowed freedom of worship, and the hospice was probably allowed to continue serving its original purpose. In 800, Charlemagne, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, enlarged the hostel, bernard the Monk, who wrote an account of his visit to Jerusalem in 870, mentions a Benedictine hospital close to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 993, Hugh Marquis of Tuscany and his wife endowed the hospital with considerable property in Italy, in 1009, Fatimid caliph Al Hakim destroyed the hostel and a large number of other buildings in Jerusalem. In 1023, merchants from Amalfi and Salerno in Italy were given permission by the caliph Ali az-Zahir to rebuild the hospice, monastery, John of Jerusalem the Knights Hospitaller. In Palestine and Syria, there was a revolt among the Bedouins, the hospice, which was built on the site of the monastery of Saint John the Baptist, took in Christian pilgrims travelling to visit the holy sites. To the east of this hospital, separated from it by a lane, both hospitals remained under the control of the Benedictine abbot. In 1078, Jerusalem was captured by the Seljuk Turks who abused the Christian population, forced pilgrims to pay a tax to visit the Holy Places. In spite of the persecution, the Benedictine hospital continued its ministry, archbishop John of Amalfi records that during his pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1082, he visited the hospital. In August 1098, the Turks were ousted by the Egyptian vizier, in the First Crusade, during the siege of Jerusalem, the Egyptian governor, Iftikhar ad Dawla, imprisoned Brother Gerard. When Jerusalem fell to Godfrey of Bouillon, he freed Brother Gerard, allowed him to resume his management of the Hospital for Men, Gerard adopted the policy of receiving all needy patients, irrespective of religion
36.
Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)
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The Jewish Quarter is one of the four traditional quarters of the Old City of Jerusalem. In the early 20th century, the Jewish population of the quarter reached 19,000, the quarter is inhabited by around 2,000 residents and is home to numerous yeshivas and synagogues, most notably the Hurva Synagogue, destroyed numerous times and rededicated in 2010. In CE135, when the Roman Emperor Hadrian built the city of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of ancient Jerusalem, new structures, such as a Roman bathhouse, were built over the Jewish ruins. The Jewish quarter was located near the Gate of the Moors and Coponius Gate. Most of the property consisted of Muslim religious endowments, and was rented out to Jews. The population of the quarter was not homogeneously Jewish, such a rule being neither desired by the Jewish inhabitants nor enforced by the Ottoman rulers, during the Ottoman era, most of the homes in the quarter were leased from Muslim property owners. This is one of the reasons for the growth of buildings west of the city in the last years of the Ottoman Empire since land outside the city wall was freehold and easier to acquire. While most residents of Jerusalem in the 19th century preferred to live near members of their own community, there were Muslims living in the Jewish Quarter, many Jews moved to the Muslim Quarter toward the end of the century due to intense overcrowding in the Jewish Quarter. In 1857, an organization of Dutch and German Jews named Kolel Hod bought a plot of land on which, between 1860 and 1890, the Batei Mahse housing complex was built. The most prominent building of the project, the two-storey Rothschild House, built in 1871 with money donated by Baron Wilhelm Carl von Rothschild, between December 1917 and May 1948, the entire city of Jerusalem was part of British-administered Palestine, known after 1920 as Mandatory Palestine. In 1948, during the Arab-Israeli War, the population of the Jewish Quarter counted about 2,000 Jews, who were besieged, defeated, the defenders surrendered on May 28,1948. Colonel Abdullah el Tell, local commander of the Jordanian Arab Legion, with whom Mordechai Weingarten negotiated the surrender terms, the operations of calculated destruction were set in motion. I knew that the Jewish Quarter was densely populated with Jews who caused their fighters a good deal of interference, I embarked, therefore, on the shelling of the Quarter with mortars, creating harassment and destruction. Only four days after our entry into Jerusalem the Jewish Quarter had become their graveyard, death and destruction reigned over it. As the dawn of Friday, May 28,1948, was about to break, the Jordanian commander is reported to have told his superiors, For the first time in 1,000 years not a single Jew remains in the Jewish Quarter. Not a single building remains intact and this makes the Jews return here impossible. The Hurva Synagogue, originally built in 1701, was blown up by the Jordanian Arab Legion, during the nineteen years of Jordanian rule, a third of the Jewish Quarters buildings were demolished. According to a complaint Israel made to the United Nations, all, the synagogues were razed or pillaged and stripped and their interiors used as hen-houses or stables
37.
Muslim Quarter
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The Muslim Quarter is one of the four quarters of the ancient, walled Old City of Jerusalem. It covers 31 hectares of the sector of the Old City. The Via Dolorosa starts in the quarter, the population of the Muslim Quarter is 22,000. The Muslim quarter had a population of Jews, Muslims. Some 60 Jewish families now live in the Muslim Quarter, yeshivat Ateret Yerushalayim is the largest yeshiva. In 2007, the Israeli government started funding the construction of The Flowers Gate development plan and it would include 20 apartments and a synagogue. Jewish landmarks include the Kotel Katan or Little Western Wall, and the Western Wall Tunnels, there are many Roman and Crusader remains in the quarter. The first seven Stations of the Cross on Via Dolorosa are located there
38.
Bab al-Huta
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Bab al-Huta is a neighborhood in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem to the north of the Haram al-Sharif. It is named after the gate in the Haram compound which is Arabic for Forgiveness Gate, in the late 15th century, Mujir ad-Din described it as one of the largest quarters in Jerusalem. A census taken by the Ottoman authority registered only Muslims in the quarter, at the beginning of the 20-th century, the quarter had boundaries defined as follows, North and East - the city walls between St Stephens and Herod gates. South - the north side of the Temple Mount, west - Zawiyat el-Hunud Street, Aqabet er-Rahibat, Bab el-Ghawanima Street. Around the end of the 19th century, Jews were a majority of Jerusalems population, the neighborhood is considered one of the poorest areas in the Old City. It is home to the Dom Romani community of the Old City, known in Arabic as al-Nawar, led by mukhtar Abed-Alhakim Mohammed Deeb Salim
39.
Emblem of Jerusalem
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See Jerusalem cross for the coat of arms used by the historical Kingdom of Jerusalem The municipal emblem of Jerusalem is the official symbol of the city of Jerusalem since 1950. The emblems main figure is a Lion, shown rampant, which represents the lion of Judah, the emblem background represents the Walls of Jerusalem and the Western Wall, and the olive branch represents the quest for peace. The inscription above the crest is the Hebrew word for Jerusalem, shortly after the founding of the state of Israel, the Citys mayor Gershon Agron created a design competition among graphic designers for the citys national emblem. The winning design was made by a led by Eliyahu Koren, the founding director of the Jewish National Funds graphics department. In 1943 the Jerusalem Municipality had approved a different emblem for the city, flag of Jerusalem Jerusalem Municipality Lion of Judah Jerusalem Civil Ensign
40.
Arzei HaBira
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Arzei Habira is a Haredi neighborhood in Jerusalem, Israel. It is bordered by Maalot Dafna to the north, Shmuel HaNavi to the west, Beit Yisrael to the south, Arzei Habira literally means Cedars of the Capital. It could also mean Nations Capital, referring to Jerusalem, Arzei Habira was established after the 1967 Six-Day War in an area which had previously been classified as no-mans land bordering Ramat Eshkol. It was originally considered a sub-neighborhood of Maalot Dafna, which was developed around the same time and it is a densely developed area of high quality apartment housing situated around a large, central grass park. It is home to more than 200 families, mordechai Shakovitsky was the rabbi of Arzei Habira as well as the posek for neighboring Yeshivat Ohr Somayach from 1977 until his death in 1998. Yosef Efrati, aide to Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv Chaim Yaakov Goldvicht, rosh yeshiva, Kerem BYavneh Yaakov Hillel Hanoch Teller Harav Chaim Tzvi Yair Senter Rosh Hayeshiva Yeshiva Aderes Hatorah
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Batei Ungarin
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Batei Ungarin is a Haredi neighborhood in Jerusalem. It was built by Kolel Ungarin, a Hungarian Jewish charity supporting Jews living in the Land of Israel, Batei Ungarin was established in 1891. By World War I, there were 100 homes, a synagogue, a beit midrash, the original inhabitants of the neighborhood came from Hungary, and many of the residents who live there today can trace their lineage to Hungary. A major Hasidic group called Toldos Aharon has its headquarters on the edge of Batei Ungarin
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Beit David
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Beit David was the fourth Jewish neighborhood outside the walls of Jerusalem. This courtyard neighborhood was established in 1873, Beit David was founded as an almshouse for needy Jews on a plot of land donated by a kollel. It was named for the philanthropist, David Reis, the name also alludes to the historical House of David and to the book known as Beit David, a treatise on Jewish law written by Joseph Ben David in the 18th century. Because Beit David was far from the center in the Old City. The residence of Abraham Isaac Kook, Israels first Askenanzic chief rabbi was on the floor of the building. The Rabbi Kook House is now a museum of the life of Rabbi Kook, the Museum of Psalms, located on the ground floor for many years, featured the paintings of Moshe Tzvi HaLevi Berger, a Kabbalist and painter. Berger was evicted in 2014 to make room for a yeshiva
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Beit Ya'akov, Jerusalem
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Beit Yaakov is a small neighborhood in Jerusalem, founded in 1877, the ninth Jewish neighborhood outside the walls of the Old City. The neighborhood borders Jaffa Road and Avishar Road, the Mahane Yehuda Market is located there today. Beit Yaakov was the last neighborhood in Jerusalem founded before the First Aliyah, in the 1860s and 1870s, the Old Yishuv expanded beyond the walls of the Old City, which was until then the traditional residential limit for Jerusalem residents. Other new neighborhoods were founded and Jerusalem grew and this building and expansion spawned new public and cultural institutions, intense activities which were driven by economic necessity, crowding and poverty in the traditional community. The development of neighborhoods in the end of the 19th century was more like evolution. A fine example may be found in the works of Joseph Rivlin, the 1870s saw the meeting between the Old Yishuv and the new immigrants of the First Aliyah. The neighborhood was called Beit Yaakov because 70 houses that the founders planned for it, based on the Biblical verse that 70 people came with Yaakov to Egypt. Pinchas Grievsky explains in his book The Yishuv Outside the City Walls that the land of the neighborhood is 44,000 square cubits in area, the construction was typical for the outer Jerusalem neighborhoods of that era. A wide yard, with a cistern that served to collect. In the neighborhood were public facilities like a house, a flour storehouse, a bakery. Around the common yard, single-story residences were built to face the yard, until now there stand twenty houses, a large pit, and a large and beautiful Beth Midrash. This group, though its leaders are honored and active, most of them are poor and miserable, Grievsky in his book adds, This neighborhood, when it was founded in 1876-7, was too far from the city. The surrounding was a desert with jagged rocks. People arriving from Yafo passed by, riding on donkeys and horses, and here, of all places, the builders decided to pave a road for all comers and to establish a neighborhood for Jews, and they called it Beit Yaakov. Establishment of the neighborhood suffered great difficulties, until 1881 the neighborhood had only 20 houses. In the first years, because of the isolation of the neighborhood, אב ריבלין, ירושלים – תולדות היישוב העברי במאה היט, הוצאת אלף, תשכו
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Beit Yisrael
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Beit Yisrael is a predominantly Haredi neighborhood in central Jerusalem, Israel. It is located just north of Mea Shearim, according to tradition, the neighborhood is built on the location on which the sacrificial remnants of the Second Temple were disposed. Beit Yisrael was built in the 1880s as an extension of Mea Shearim, Rabbi Aryeh Leib Dayan purchased the plot for a cheap price, after which they drained the water and began to build. Another main street, which connected the neighborhood to Mea Shearim, was built later, two-story houses lined the roads, with spacious courtyards behind them and a shared well for every two houses. The inhabitants were poor people who could not afford housing in other neighborhoods. By 1900, there were sixty houses and two synagogues, throughout the years of Mandate Palestine, the neighborhood continued to grow, eventually expanding to the north. During the Israeli War of Independence, from 1947-1949, Beit Yisrael was on the front lines, and from 1949 until 1967, it was situated right near the Armistice Line and the border with Jordan. On March 2,2002, eleven people were killed and over 50 were injured in the Yeshivat Beit Yisrael massacre in the neighborhood, the neighborhoods main synagogue, Beit Yaakov, was established in 1887 using funds donated by a donor who wished to remain anonymous. The marble plaque, which can still be seen on the wall, relates some of the background of the donation, a local legend relates that a wealthy resident often lent money to local businessmen. Once, after forgetting one of his debtors, Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Porush. Rabbi Porush insisted that he had paid, so they went to Rav Shmuel Salant. According to Jewish monetary law, in such a scenario the debtor must swear that he repaid the loan to the creditor, the debtor, even after swearing, and now absolved from paying, paid a second time. When the creditor discovered his error, he went back to the debtor in order to return the money. Rabbi Porush refused the money, saying he doesnt want to take money which he made an oath over, instead he donated the money to build Beit Yaakov. The Beit Yaakov synagogue also has a number of rooms, known as shteiblach. According to the administration, more people pray there daily than in any other synagogue in Jerusalem. The entire complex was refurbished and modernized in the last few years, to the west of the synagogue building is the Machane Yisrael Yeshiva for baalei teshuva. There are also many synagogues of various Hasidic sects, including Pinsk-Karlin, Lelov, Lubavitch, also located in Beit Yisrael is the Mir Yeshiva, the largest yeshiva in the world, boasting over 7,500 students
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Bukharim quarter
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The Bukharan Quarter, known in vernacular Heblish as Bukharim Quarter, is a neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem. Many of the residents today are Haredi Jews, the quarter borders Tel Arza on the west, the Shmuel HaNavi neighborhood on the north, Arzei HaBira on the east and Geula on the south. The first immigrants of Bukharan Jews from Russian Turkestan settled in Jerusalem in the 1870s and 1880s and they bought land and employed architect Conrad Schick to design a neighborhood for them. In 1890, seven members of the Bukharan Jewish community formed the Hovevei Zion Association of the Jewish communities of Bukhara, Samarkand, in 1891, the association drew up a charter stating that the new quarter would be built in the style of Europes major cities. The streets were three times wider than other streets in Jerusalem at the time, and spacious mansions were built with large courtyards, the homes were designed with neo-Gothic windows, European tiled roofs, neo-Moorish arches and Italian marble. Facades were decorated with Jewish motifs such as the Star of David, in 1905-1908, a dairy was opened and cotton fields were planted on the outskirts of the neighborhood. Construction of the quarter continued into the early 1950s, a total of 200 houses were built. During World War I, the Turkish army occupied several buildings, in 1920, a factory for weaving Persian carpets opened, providing employment for 80 women. Between 1905–1914 Bukharan merchant Elisha Yehudayoff and his son-in-law, Yisrael Haim Hefetz, built the Armon using local limestone, the Armon hosted many of the leading figures of the time. During World War I, the Turkish army had its headquarters there, when the British conquered Jerusalem in 1917, a celebratory reception was held in the Armon. 200 Jewish soldiers serving in the British army attended a Passover Seder there, in 1921, the founding convention of the Chief Rabbinate took place at the Armon, at which Rabbis Abraham Isaac Kook and Jacob Meir were elected. At the end of the British Mandate the Armon served as a place for the Irgun. The Davidoff House, built in 1906, now serves as the community center, shlomo Moussaieff Dorrit Moussaieff Yitzhak Ben-Zvi Moshe Sharett History of Jerusalem
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Downtown Triangle (Jerusalem)
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The Downtown Triangle is a central commercial and entertainment district in Jerusalem, Israel. Measuring 29,000 square metres, the area is bounded by Jaffa Road on the north, King George Street on the west, and Ben Yehuda Street on the southeast. Its vertices are the intersections of Jaffa Road and King George Street, King George and Ben Yehuda Streets, following the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the expansion of the city away from the downtown core, the commercial viability of the Triangle declined. The area was revitalized by the conversion of Ben Yehuda Street, over the next two decades, outdoor cafes and souvenir shops moved in, cementing the reputation of the Triangle as a popular shopping and entertainment venue for tourists and young Israelis. Before the British Mandatory government took over in 1917, the commercial district in Jerusalem was in the Old City. However, the Mamilla development did not garner as much interest as the Triangle, the British developed the field into a triangular district demarcated by Jaffa Road, Ben Yehuda Street and King George Street. Lots were sold to companies and cooperatives as well as private businesses. Other streets adjacent to the Triangle – Shlomzion Hamalka, Mamilla, Agron, according to Jerusalem architectural historian David Kroyanker, the heyday of the Downtown Triangle lasted from the early 1930s to the 1970s. Many stores and restaurants were opened by German Jewish immigrants who sought to recreate a European ambience in the city center and their upscale boutiques, coffeehouses, delicatessens, and exclusive restaurants were frequented by senior Mandate officials and wealthy, English-speaking tourists. Unlike Israeli stores that all kinds of unrelated products under one roof. Some shops offered unique extras, such as coffeehouses that included an orchestra and dance floor, the European immigrant-owned bookstores fueled the demand for detective fiction, historical reading, and periodicals from Germany and England. Steimatzky, which opened its first bookstore on Jaffa Road in the Triangle in 1925, identified the growing taste for imported newspapers and magazines, the European immigrants also created a market for cold cuts and cheeses, with three competing delicatessens on King George and Ben Yehuda Streets. For many years, the Triangle was also the place where Jerusalem residents could purchase clothing, shoes, furniture. At its peak, the district was home to 14 cinemas screening the newest Hollywood fare, located in close proximity to one another, the cinemas would attract both adults and youth, who would afterwards patronize the coffeehouses and restaurants. The Downtown Triangle was the heart of the city and the place to see. The cosmopolitan flavor of the Triangle extended to its buildings, the Sansur building, for example, has an eclectic design that combines neo-Renaissance and classicist elements. Approximately 15 buildings in the Triangle were designed by architect Reuven Avraham Rabinowitz, following the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967, the city embarked on significant expansion. Large commercial centers were opened in the new, outlying neighborhoods of Talpiot, Givat Shaul, government offices began moving out as well, precipitating the economic decline of the Downtown Triangle in the 1970s
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Geula
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Geula is a neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem, populated mainly by Haredi Jews. Geula is bordered by Zikhron Moshe and Mekor Baruch on the west, the Bukharim neighborhood on the north, Mea Shearim on the east and it was originally a mixed neighborhood of secular and religious Jews. The British consul to Jerusalem, James Finn, built his home in the area in 1855 and it was the third building constructed outside the walls of the Old City. Geula was named for the main street, Geula Street. Geula Street was the center for various local communities such as Kerem Avraham, Yagiya Kapayim, Zikhron Moshe, Batei Horenstein. Today these communities are known as the Geula neighborhood. Malkhei Yisrael Street is lined with dozens of small shops, the neighborhood is home to many yeshivas and synagogues. Kikar HaShabbat is the main intersection, the Zion Blumenthal Orphanage, founded in 1900, and Camp Schneller – formerly the Schneller Orphanage, founded in 1860 – became part of Geula as the neighborhood expanded. The Gur yeshiva, with a beit midrash of 10,000 seats, is also in Geula, the neighborhood is also home to Kretshme, Jerusalems first Haredi bar. A self-learning center for English as a second opened in Geula in 2007. It is the first such business catering to Haredim as a means of increasing their employment, the founder, Laurin Lewis, is a veteran ESL educator at the Jerusalem College of Technology. Growing up in “Geula”, Socialization and family living in an ultra-Orthodox Jewish subculture, in, Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, Vol 21,1984, 37–55. Yaffi Spodek and Josh Tapper, Get Your Kosher Ice Cream, A New Parlor Draws Crowds and Critics, Journey to Jerusalem,24 April 2010
