1.
Projection (linear algebra)
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In linear algebra and functional analysis, a projection is a linear transformation P from a vector space to itself such that P2 = P. That is, whenever P is applied twice to any value, though abstract, this definition of projection formalizes and generalizes the idea of graphical projection. One can also consider the effect of a projection on an object by examining the effect of the projection on points in the object. For example, the function maps the point in three-dimensional space R3 to the point is an orthogonal projection onto the x–y plane. This function is represented by the matrix P =, the action of this matrix on an arbitrary vector is P =. To see that P is indeed a projection, i. e. P = P2, a simple example of a non-orthogonal projection is P =. Via matrix multiplication, one sees that P2 = = = P. proving that P is indeed a projection, the projection P is orthogonal if and only if α =0. Let W be a finite dimensional space and P be a projection on W. Suppose the subspaces U and V are the range and kernel of P respectively, then P has the following properties, By definition, P is idempotent. P is the identity operator I on U ∀ x ∈ U, P x = x and we have a direct sum W = U ⊕ V. Every vector x ∈ W may be decomposed uniquely as x = u + v with u = P x and v = x − P x = x, the range and kernel of a projection are complementary, as are P and Q = I − P. The operator Q is also a projection and the range and kernel of P become the kernel and range of Q and we say P is a projection along V onto U and Q is a projection along U onto V. In infinite dimensional spaces, the spectrum of a projection is contained in as −1 =1 λ I +1 λ P. Only 0 or 1 can be an eigenvalue of a projection, the corresponding eigenspaces are the kernel and range of the projection. Decomposition of a space into direct sums is not unique in general. Therefore, given a subspace V, there may be many projections whose range is V, if a projection is nontrivial it has minimal polynomial x 2 − x = x, which factors into distinct roots, and thus P is diagonalizable. The product of projections is not, in general, a projection, if projections commute, then their product is a projection. When the vector space W has a product and is complete the concept of orthogonality can be used
2.
Coxeter element
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In mathematics, the Coxeter number h is the order of a Coxeter element of an irreducible Coxeter group. Note that this assumes a finite Coxeter group. For infinite Coxeter groups, there are multiple classes of Coxeter elements. There are many different ways to define the Coxeter number h of a root system. A Coxeter element is a product of all simple reflections, the product depends on the order in which they are taken, but different orderings produce conjugate elements, which have the same order. The Coxeter number is the number of roots divided by the rank, the number of reflections in the Coxeter group is half the number of roots. The Coxeter number is the order of any Coxeter element, if the highest root is ∑miαi for simple roots αi, then the Coxeter number is 1 + ∑mi The dimension of the corresponding Lie algebra is n, where n is the rank and h is the Coxeter number. The Coxeter number is the highest degree of an invariant of the Coxeter group acting on polynomials. Notice that if m is a degree of a fundamental invariant then so is h +2 − m, the eigenvalues of a Coxeter element are the numbers e2πi/h as m runs through the degrees of the fundamental invariants. Since this starts with m =2, these include the primitive hth root of unity, ζh = e2πi/h, an example, has h=30, so 64*30/g =12 -3 -6 -5 + 4/3 + 4/5 = 2/15, so g = 1920*15/2= 960*15 =14400. Coxeter elements of A n −1 ≅ S n, considered as the group on n elements, are n-cycles, for simple reflections the adjacent transpositions, …. The dihedral group Dihm is generated by two reflections that form an angle of 2 π /2 m, and thus their product is a rotation by 2 π / m. For a given Coxeter element w, there is a unique plane P on which w acts by rotation by 2π/h and this is called the Coxeter plane and is the plane on which P has eigenvalues e2πi/h and e−2πi/h = e2πi/h. This plane was first systematically studied in, and subsequently used in to provide uniform proofs about properties of Coxeter elements, for polytopes, a vertex may map to zero, as depicted below. Projections onto the Coxeter plane are depicted below for the Platonic solids, in three dimensions, the symmetry of a regular polyhedron, with one directed petrie polygon marked, defined as a composite of 3 reflections, has rotoinversion symmetry Sh, order h. Adding a mirror, the symmetry can be doubled to symmetry, Dhd. In orthogonal 2D projection, this becomes dihedral symmetry, Dihh, in four dimension, the symmetry of a regular polychoron, with one directed petrie polygon marked is a double rotation, defined as a composite of 4 reflections, with symmetry +1/h, order h. In five dimension, the symmetry of a regular polyteron, with one directed petrie polygon marked, is represented by the composite of 5 reflections
3.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
4.
Uniform 8-polytope
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In eight-dimensional geometry, an eight-dimensional polytope or 8-polytope is a polytope contained by 7-polytope facets. Each 6-polytope ridge being shared by exactly two 7-polytope facets, a uniform 8-polytope is one which is vertex-transitive, and constructed from uniform 7-polytope facets. Regular 8-polytopes can be represented by the Schläfli symbol, with v 7-polytope facets around each peak, There are exactly three such convex regular 8-polytopes, - 8-simplex - 8-cube - 8-orthoplex There are no nonconvex regular 8-polytopes. The topology of any given 8-polytope is defined by its Betti numbers, the value of the Euler characteristic used to characterise polyhedra does not generalize usefully to higher dimensions, and is zero for all 8-polytopes, whatever their underlying topology. This inadequacy of the Euler characteristic to distinguish between different topologies in higher dimensions led to the discovery of the more sophisticated Betti numbers. Similarly, the notion of orientability of a polyhedron is insufficient to characterise the surface twistings of toroidal polytopes, There are 135 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings. Bowers-style acronym names are given in parentheses for cross-referencing, see also a list of 8-simplex polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes. The B8 family has symmetry of order 10321920, There are 255 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings. See also a list of B8 polytopes for symmetric Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes, the D8 family has symmetry of order 5,160,960. This family has 191 Wythoffian uniform polytopes, from 3x64-1 permutations of the D8 Coxeter-Dynkin diagram with one or more rings,127 are repeated from the B8 family and 64 are unique to this family, all listed below. See list of D8 polytopes for Coxeter plane graphs of these polytopes, the E8 family has symmetry order 696,729,600. There are 255 forms based on all permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams with one or more rings, eight forms are shown below,4 single-ringed,3 truncations, and the final omnitruncation are given below. Bowers-style acronym names are given for cross-referencing, see also list of E8 polytopes for Coxeter plane graphs of this family. However, there are 4 noncompact hyperbolic Coxeter groups of rank 8, T. Gosset, On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, Messenger of Mathematics, Macmillan,1900 A. S. M. Miller, Uniform Polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 Wiley, Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, N. W, johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D
5.
Rectification (geometry)
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In Euclidean geometry, rectification or complete-truncation is the process of truncating a polytope by marking the midpoints of all its edges, and cutting off its vertices at those points. The resulting polytope will be bounded by vertex figure facets and the facets of the original polytope. A rectification operator is denoted by the symbol r, for example, r is the rectified cube. Conway polyhedron notation uses ambo for this operator, in graph theory this operation creates a medial graph. Rectification is the point of a truncation process. The highest degree of rectification creates the dual polytope, a rectification truncates edges to points. A birectification truncates faces to points, a trirectification truncates cells to points, and so on. New vertices are placed at the center of the edges of the original polygon, each platonic solid and its dual have the same rectified polyhedron. The rectified polyhedron turns out to be expressible as the intersection of the original platonic solid with an appropriated scaled concentric version of its dual, the rectified octahedron, whose dual is the cube, is the cuboctahedron. The rectified icosahedron, whose dual is the dodecahedron, is the icosidodecahedron, a rectified square tiling is a square tiling. A rectified triangular tiling or hexagonal tiling is a trihexagonal tiling, examples If a polyhedron is not regular, the edge midpoints surrounding a vertex may not be coplanar. The resulting medial graph remains polyhedral, so by Steinitzs theorem it can be represented as a polyhedron, the Conway polyhedron notation equivalent to rectification is ambo, represented by a. Applying twice aa, is Conways expand operation, e, which is the same as Johnsons cantellation operation, t0,2 generated from regular polyhedral, each Convex regular 4-polytope has a rectified form as a uniform 4-polytope. Its rectification will have two types, a rectified polyhedron left from the original cells and polyhedron as new cells formed by each truncated vertex. A rectified is not the same as a rectified, however, a further truncation, called bitruncation, is symmetric between a 4-polytope and its dual. Examples A first rectification truncates edges down to points, If a polytope is regular, this form is represented by an extended Schläfli symbol notation t1 or r. A second rectification, or birectification, truncates faces down to points, If regular it has notation t2 or 2r. For polyhedra, a birectification creates a dual polyhedron, higher degree rectifications can be constructed for higher dimensional polytopes
6.
8-simplex
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In geometry, an 8-simplex is a self-dual regular 8-polytope. It has 9 vertices,36 edges,84 triangle faces,126 tetrahedral cells,126 5-cell 4-faces,84 5-simplex 5-faces,36 6-simplex 6-faces and its dihedral angle is cos−1, or approximately 82. 82°. It can also be called an enneazetton, or ennea-8-tope, as a 9-facetted polytope in eight-dimensions, the name enneazetton is derived from ennea for nine facets in Greek and -zetta for having seven-dimensional facets, and -on. This construction is based on facets of the 9-orthoplex and this polytope is a facet in the uniform tessellations,251, and 521 with respective Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams, This polytope is one of 135 uniform 8-polytopes with A8 symmetry. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. 8D uniform polytopes x3o3o3o3o3o3o3o - ene, Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
7.
Tetrahedron
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In geometry, a tetrahedron, also known as a triangular pyramid, is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertex corners. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra, the tetrahedron is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a Euclidean simplex. The tetrahedron is one kind of pyramid, which is a polyhedron with a polygon base. In the case of a tetrahedron the base is a triangle, like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere on which all four vertices lie, a regular tetrahedron is one in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have known since antiquity. In a regular tetrahedron, not only are all its faces the same size and shape, regular tetrahedra alone do not tessellate, but if alternated with regular octahedra they form the alternated cubic honeycomb, which is a tessellation. The regular tetrahedron is self-dual, which means that its dual is another regular tetrahedron, the compound figure comprising two such dual tetrahedra form a stellated octahedron or stella octangula. This form has Coxeter diagram and Schläfli symbol h, the tetrahedron in this case has edge length 2√2. Inverting these coordinates generates the dual tetrahedron, and the together form the stellated octahedron. In other words, if C is the centroid of the base and this follows from the fact that the medians of a triangle intersect at its centroid, and this point divides each of them in two segments, one of which is twice as long as the other. The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron, the symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to half of those of a cube, those that map the tetrahedra to themselves, and not to each other. The tetrahedron is the only Platonic solid that is not mapped to itself by point inversion, the regular tetrahedron has 24 isometries, forming the symmetry group Td, isomorphic to the symmetric group, S4. The first corresponds to the A2 Coxeter plane, the two skew perpendicular opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron define a set of parallel planes. When one of these intersects the tetrahedron the resulting cross section is a rectangle. When the intersecting plane is one of the edges the rectangle is long. When halfway between the two edges the intersection is a square, the aspect ratio of the rectangle reverses as you pass this halfway point. For the midpoint square intersection the resulting boundary line traverses every face of the tetrahedron similarly, if the tetrahedron is bisected on this plane, both halves become wedges
8.
Vertex figure
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In geometry, a vertex figure, broadly speaking, is the figure exposed when a corner of a polyhedron or polytope is sliced off. Take some vertex of a polyhedron, mark a point somewhere along each connected edge. Draw lines across the faces, joining adjacent points. When done, these form a complete circuit, i. e. a polygon. This polygon is the vertex figure, more precise formal definitions can vary quite widely, according to circumstance. For example Coxeter varies his definition as convenient for the current area of discussion, most of the following definitions of a vertex figure apply equally well to infinite tilings, or space-filling tessellation with polytope cells. Make a slice through the corner of the polyhedron, cutting all the edges connected to the vertex. The cut surface is the vertex figure and this is perhaps the most common approach, and the most easily understood. Different authors make the slice in different places, Wenninger cuts each edge a unit distance from the vertex, as does Coxeter. For uniform polyhedra the Dorman Luke construction cuts each connected edge at its midpoint, other authors make the cut through the vertex at the other end of each edge. For irregular polyhedra, these approaches may produce a figure that does not lie in a plane. A more general approach, valid for convex polyhedra, is to make the cut along any plane which separates the given vertex from all the other vertices. Cromwell makes a cut or scoop, centered on the vertex. The cut surface or vertex figure is thus a spherical polygon marked on this sphere, many combinatorial and computational approaches treat a vertex figure as the ordered set of points of all the neighboring vertices to the given vertex. In the theory of polytopes, the vertex figure at a given vertex V comprises all the elements which are incident on the vertex, edges, faces. More formally it is the -section Fn/V, where Fn is the greatest face and this set of elements is elsewhere known as a vertex star. A vertex figure for an n-polytope is an -polytope, for example, a vertex figure for a polyhedron is a polygon figure, and the vertex figure for a 4-polytope is a polyhedron. Each edge of the vertex figure exists on or inside of a face of the original polytope connecting two vertices from an original face
9.
Petrie polygon
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In geometry, a Petrie polygon for a regular polytope of n dimensions is a skew polygon such that every consecutive sides belong to one of the facets. The Petrie polygon of a polygon is the regular polygon itself. For every regular polytope there exists an orthogonal projection onto a plane such that one Petrie polygon becomes a regular polygon with the remainder of the interior to it. The plane in question is the Coxeter plane of the group of the polygon. These polygons and projected graphs are useful in visualizing symmetric structure of the regular polytopes. John Flinders Petrie was the son of Egyptologist Flinders Petrie. He was born in 1907 and as a schoolboy showed remarkable promise of mathematical ability, in periods of intense concentration he could answer questions about complicated four-dimensional objects by visualizing them. He first noted the importance of the skew polygons which appear on the surface of regular polyhedra. When my incredulity had begun to subside, he described them to me, one consisting of squares, six at each vertex, in 1938 Petrie collaborated with Coxeter, Patrick du Val, and H. T. Flather to produce The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra for publication, realizing the geometric facility of the skew polygons used by Petrie, Coxeter named them after his friend when he wrote Regular Polytopes. In 1972, a few months after his retirement, Petrie was killed by a car attempting to cross a motorway near his home in Surrey. The idea of Petrie polygons was later extended to semiregular polytopes, the Petrie polygon of the regular polyhedron has h sides, where h+2=24/. The regular duals, and, are contained within the same projected Petrie polygon, three of the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra have hexagonal, and decagrammic, petrie polygons. The Petrie polygon projections are most useful for visualization of polytopes of dimension four and this table represents Petrie polygon projections of 3 regular families, and the exceptional Lie group En which generate semiregular and uniform polytopes for dimensions 4 to 8. Coxeter, H. S. M. Regular Polytopes, 3rd ed, Section 4.3 Flags and Orthoschemes, Section 11.3 Petrie polygons Ball, W. W. R. and H. S. M. Coxeter Mathematical Recreations and Essays, 13th ed. The Beauty of Geometry, Twelve Essays, Dover Publications LCCN 99-35678 Peter McMullen, Egon Schulte Abstract Regular Polytopes, ISBN 0-521-81496-0 Steinberg, Robert, ON THE NUMBER OF SIDES OF A PETRIE POLYGON Weisstein, Eric W. Petrie polygon. Weisstein, Eric W. Cross polytope graphs, Weisstein, Eric W. Gosset graph 3_21
10.
Nonagon
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In geometry, a nonagon /ˈnɒnəɡɒn/ is a nine-sided polygon or 9-gon. The name nonagon is a hybrid formation, from Latin, used equivalently, attested already in the 16th century in French nonogone. The name enneagon comes from Greek enneagonon, and is more correct. A regular nonagon is represented by Schläfli symbol and has angles of 140°. Although a regular nonagon is not constructible with compass and straightedge and it can be also constructed using neusis, or by allowing the use of an angle trisector. The following is a construction of a nonagon using a straightedge. The regular enneagon has Dih9 symmetry, order 18, there are 2 subgroup dihedral symmetries, Dih3 and Dih1, and 3 cyclic group symmetries, Z9, Z3, and Z1. These 6 symmetries can be seen in 6 distinct symmetries on the enneagon, john Conway labels these by a letter and group order. Full symmetry of the form is r18 and no symmetry is labeled a1. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices or edges, cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms, only the g9 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges. The regular enneagon can tessellate the euclidean tiling with gaps and these gaps can be filled with regular hexagons and isosceles triangles. In the notation of symmetrohedron this tiling is called H with H representing *632 hexagonal symmetry in the plane, the K9 complete graph is often drawn as a regular enneagon with all 36 edges connected. This graph also represents an orthographic projection of the 9 vertices and 36 edges of the 8-simplex and they Might Be Giants have a song entitled Nonagon on their childrens album Here Come the 123s. It refers to both an attendee at a party at which everybody in the party is a many-sided polygon, slipknots logo is also a version of a nonagon, being a nine-pointed star made of three triangles. King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard have an album titled Nonagon Infinity, temples of the Bahai Faith are required to be nonagonal. The U. S. Steel Tower is an irregular nonagon, enneagram Trisection of the angle 60°, Proximity construction Weisstein, Eric W. Nonagon
11.
Coxeter group
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In mathematics, a Coxeter group, named after H. S. M. Coxeter, is an abstract group that admits a formal description in terms of reflections. Indeed, the finite Coxeter groups are precisely the finite Euclidean reflection groups, however, not all Coxeter groups are finite, and not all can be described in terms of symmetries and Euclidean reflections. Coxeter groups were introduced as abstractions of reflection groups, and finite Coxeter groups were classified in 1935, Coxeter groups find applications in many areas of mathematics. Examples of finite Coxeter groups include the groups of regular polytopes. The condition m i j = ∞ means no relation of the form m should be imposed, the pair where W is a Coxeter group with generators S = is called a Coxeter system. Note that in general S is not uniquely determined by W, for example, the Coxeter groups of type B3 and A1 × A3 are isomorphic but the Coxeter systems are not equivalent. A number of conclusions can be drawn immediately from the above definition, the relation m i i =1 means that 1 =2 =1 for all i, as such the generators are involutions. If m i j =2, then the r i and r j commute. This follows by observing that x x = y y =1, in order to avoid redundancy among the relations, it is necessary to assume that m i j = m j i. This follows by observing that y y =1, together with m =1 implies that m = m y y = y m y = y y =1. Alternatively, k and k are elements, as y k y −1 = k y y −1 = k. The Coxeter matrix is the n × n, symmetric matrix with entries m i j, indeed, every symmetric matrix with positive integer and ∞ entries and with 1s on the diagonal such that all nondiagonal entries are greater than 1 serves to define a Coxeter group. The Coxeter matrix can be encoded by a Coxeter diagram. The vertices of the graph are labelled by generator subscripts, vertices i and j are adjacent if and only if m i j ≥3. An edge is labelled with the value of m i j whenever the value is 4 or greater, in particular, two generators commute if and only if they are not connected by an edge. Furthermore, if a Coxeter graph has two or more connected components, the group is the direct product of the groups associated to the individual components. Thus the disjoint union of Coxeter graphs yields a product of Coxeter groups. The Coxeter matrix, M i j, is related to the n × n Schläfli matrix C with entries C i j = −2 cos , but the elements are modified, being proportional to the dot product of the pairwise generators
12.
Convex polytope
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A convex polytope is a special case of a polytope, having the additional property that it is also a convex set of points in the n-dimensional space Rn. Some authors use the terms polytope and convex polyhedron interchangeably. In addition, some require a polytope to be a bounded set. The terms bounded/unbounded convex polytope will be used whenever the boundedness is critical to the discussed issue. Yet other texts treat a convex n-polytope as a surface or -manifold, Convex polytopes play an important role both in various branches of mathematics and in applied areas, most notably in linear programming. A comprehensive and influential book in the subject, called Convex Polytopes, was published in 1967 by Branko Grünbaum, in 2003 the 2nd edition of the book was published, with significant additional material contributed by new writers. In Grünbaums book, and in other texts in discrete geometry. Grünbaum points out that this is solely to avoid the repetition of the word convex. A polytope is called if it is an n-dimensional object in Rn. Many examples of bounded convex polytopes can be found in the article polyhedron, a convex polytope may be defined in a number of ways, depending on what is more suitable for the problem at hand. Grünbaums definition is in terms of a set of points in space. Other important definitions are, as the intersection of half-spaces and as the hull of a set of points. This is equivalent to defining a bounded convex polytope as the hull of a finite set of points. Such a definition is called a vertex representation, for a compact convex polytope, the minimal V-description is unique and it is given by the set of the vertices of the polytope. A convex polytope may be defined as an intersection of a number of half-spaces. Such definition is called a half-space representation, there exist infinitely many H-descriptions of a convex polytope. However, for a convex polytope, the minimal H-description is in fact unique and is given by the set of the facet-defining halfspaces. A closed half-space can be written as an inequality, a 1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + ⋯ + a n x n ≤ b where n is the dimension of the space containing the polytope under consideration
13.
Cartesian coordinate
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Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axis, expressed as signed distances from the origin. One can use the principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes. In general, n Cartesian coordinates specify the point in an n-dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension n and these coordinates are equal, up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes can be described by Cartesian equations, algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, a familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering. They are the most common system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design. Nicole Oresme, a French cleric and friend of the Dauphin of the 14th Century, used similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes. The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes who published this idea in 1637 and it was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Many other coordinate systems have developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a role in the development of the Calculus by Isaac Newton. The two-coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces. Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space – that is, for a straight line—involves choosing a point O of the line, a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative, we say that the line is oriented from the negative half towards the positive half
14.
Rectified 9-orthoplexes
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In nine-dimensional geometry, a rectified 9-simplex is a convex uniform 9-polytope, being a rectification of the regular 9-orthoplex. There are 9 rectifications of the 9-orthoplex, vertices of the rectified 9-orthoplex are located at the edge-centers of the 9-orthoplex. Vertices of the birectified 9-orthoplex are located in the face centers of the 9-orthoplex. Vertices of the trirectified 9-orthoplex are located in the cell centers of the 9-orthoplex. These polytopes are part of a family 511 uniform 9-polytopes with BC9 symmetry, the rectified 9-orthoplex is the vertex figure for the demienneractic honeycomb. The vertices can be seen in 3 hyperplanes, with the 36 vertices rectified 8-simplexs cells on opposite sides, when combined with the 18 vertices of the 9-orthoplex, these vertices represent the 162 root vectors of the B9 and C9 simple Lie groups. Rectified 9-demicube Birectified enneacross trirectified enneacross H. S. M, coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
15.
Dihedral group
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In mathematics, a dihedral group is the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, which includes rotations and reflections. Dihedral groups are among the simplest examples of groups, and they play an important role in group theory, geometry. The notation for the group of order n differs in geometry. In geometry, Dn or Dihn refers to the symmetries of the n-gon, in abstract algebra, Dn refers to the dihedral group of order n. The geometric convention is used in this article, a regular polygon with n sides has 2 n different symmetries, n rotational symmetries and n reflection symmetries. Usually, we take n ≥3 here. The associated rotations and reflections make up the dihedral group D n, if n is odd, each axis of symmetry connects the midpoint of one side to the opposite vertex. If n is even, there are n/2 axes of symmetry connecting the midpoints of opposite sides, in either case, there are n axes of symmetry and 2 n elements in the symmetry group. Reflecting in one axis of symmetry followed by reflecting in another axis of symmetry produces a rotation through twice the angle between the axes, as with any geometric object, the composition of two symmetries of a regular polygon is again a symmetry of this object. With composition of symmetries to produce another as the binary operation, the following Cayley table shows the effect of composition in the group D3. R0 denotes the identity, r1 and r2 denote counterclockwise rotations by 120° and 240° respectively, for example, s2s1 = r1, because the reflection s1 followed by the reflection s2 results in a rotation of 120°. The order of elements denoting the composition is right to left, the composition operation is not commutative. In all cases, addition and subtraction of subscripts are to be performed using modular arithmetic with modulus n, if we center the regular polygon at the origin, then elements of the dihedral group act as linear transformations of the plane. This lets us represent elements of Dn as matrices, with composition being matrix multiplication and this is an example of a group representation. For example, the elements of the group D4 can be represented by the eight matrices. In general, the matrices for elements of Dn have the following form, rk is a rotation matrix, expressing a counterclockwise rotation through an angle of 2πk/n. Sk is a reflection across a line makes an angle of πk/n with the x-axis. Further equivalent definitions of Dn are, D1 is isomorphic to Z2, D2 is isomorphic to K4, the Klein four-group. D1 and D2 are exceptional in that, D1 and D2 are the only abelian dihedral groups, Dn is a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn for n ≥3
16.
1 52 honeycomb
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In geometry, the 152 honeycomb is a uniform tessellation of 8-dimensional Euclidean space. It contains 142 and 151 facets, in a birectified 8-simplex vertex figure and it is the final figure in the 1k2 polytope family. It is created by a Wythoff construction upon a set of 9 hyperplane mirrors in 8-dimensional space, the facet information can be extracted from its Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. Removing the node on the end of the 2-length branch leaves the 8-demicube,151, removing the node on the end of the 5-length branch leaves the 142. The vertex figure is determined by removing the ringed node and ringing the neighboring node and this makes the birectified 8-simplex,052. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 GoogleBook H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III
17.
9-demicube
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In geometry, a demienneract or 9-demicube is a uniform 9-polytope, constructed from the 9-cube, with alternated vertices truncated. It is part of an infinite family of uniform polytopes called demihypercubes. E. L. Elte identified it in 1912 as a semiregular polytope, Coxeter named this polytope as 161 from its Coxeter diagram, with a ring on one of the 1-length branches, and Schläfli symbol or. Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a demienneract centered at the origin are alternate halves of the enneract, with an odd number of plus signs. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strass, The Symmetries of Things 2008, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 Klitzing, Richard. 9D uniform polytopes x3o3o *b3o3o3o3o3o3o - henne, archived from the original on 4 February 2007
18.
E9 honeycomb
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In geometry, an E9 honeycomb is a tessellation of uniform polytopes in hyperbolic 9-dimensional space. T ¯9, also is a hyperbolic group, so either facets or vertex figures will not be bounded. E10 is last of the series of Coxeter groups with a bifurcated Coxeter-Dynkin diagram of lengths 6,2,1, there are 1023 unique E10 honeycombs by all combinations of its Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. There are no regular honeycombs in the family since its Coxeter diagram is a nonlinear graph, the 621 honeycomb is constructed from alternating 9-simplex and 9-orthoplex facets within the symmetry of the E10 Coxeter group. This honeycomb is highly regular in the sense that its symmetry group acts transitively on the k-faces for k ≤7, all of the k-faces for k ≤8 are simplices. It is created by a Wythoff construction upon a set of 10 hyperplane mirrors in 9-dimensional hyperbolic space, the facet information can be extracted from its Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. Removing the node on the end of the 2-length branch leaves the 9-orthoplex,711, removing the node on the end of the 1-length branch leaves the 9-simplex. The vertex figure is determined by removing the ringed node and ringing the neighboring node, the edge figure is determined from the vertex figure by removing the ringed node and ringing the neighboring node. The face figure is determined from the figure by removing the ringed node. The cell figure is determined from the figure by removing the ringed node. The 621 is last in a series of semiregular polytopes and honeycombs. Each member of the sequence has the previous member as its vertex figure, all facets of these polytopes are regular polytopes, namely simplexes and orthoplexes. The 261 honeycomb is composed of 251 9-honeycomb and 9-simplex facets and it is the final figure in the 2k1 family. It is created by a Wythoff construction upon a set of 10 hyperplane mirrors in 9-dimensional hyperbolic space, the facet information can be extracted from its Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. Removing the node on the branch leaves the 9-simplex. Removing the node on the end of the 6-length branch leaves the 251 honeycomb and this is an infinite facet because E10 is a paracompact hyperbolic group. The vertex figure is determined by removing the ringed node and ringing the neighboring node, the edge figure is the vertex figure of the edge figure. This makes the rectified 8-simplex,051, the face figure is determined from the edge figure by removing the ringed node and ringing the neighboring node
19.
Rectified 8-simplexes
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In eight-dimensional geometry, a rectified 8-simplex is a convex uniform 8-polytope, being a rectification of the regular 8-simplex. There are unique 3 degrees of rectifications in regular 8-polytopes, vertices of the rectified 8-simplex are located at the edge-centers of the 8-simplex. Vertices of the birectified 8-simplex are located in the face centers of the 8-simplex. Vertices of the trirectified 8-simplex are located in the cell centers of the 8-simplex. E. L. Elte identified it in 1912 as a semiregular polytope and it is also called 06,1 for its branching Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, shown as. The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the rectified 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 9-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the rectified 9-orthoplex. E. L. Elte identified it in 1912 as a semiregular polytope and it is also called 05,2 for its branching Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, shown as. The birectified 8-simplex is the figure of the 152 honeycomb. The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the birectified 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 9-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the birectified 9-orthoplex. E. L. Elte identified it in 1912 as a semiregular polytope and it is also called 04,3 for its branching Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, shown as. The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the trirectified 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 9-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the trirectified 9-orthoplex. This polytope is the figure of the 9-demicube, and the edge figure of the uniform 261 honeycomb. It is also one of 135 uniform 8-polytopes with A8 symmetry, coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. O3x3o3o3o3o3o3o - rene, o3o3x3o3o3o3o3o - brene, o3o3o3x3o3o3o3o - trene Olshevsky, archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
20.
Truncated 8-simplexes
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In eight-dimensional geometry, a truncated 8-simplex is a convex uniform 8-polytope, being a truncation of the regular 8-simplex. There are a four unique degrees of truncation, vertices of the truncation 8-simplex are located as pairs on the edge of the 8-simplex. Vertices of the bitruncated 8-simplex are located on the faces of the 8-simplex. Vertices of the tritruncated 8-simplex are located inside the cells of the 8-simplex. Truncated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the truncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the truncated 9-orthoplex. Bitruncated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the bitruncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the bitruncated 9-orthoplex. Tritruncated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the tritruncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the tritruncated 9-orthoplex. The quadritruncated 8-simplex an isotopic polytope, constructed from 18 tritruncated 7-simplex facets, octadecazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the quadritruncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the quadritruncated 9-orthoplex and this polytope is one of 135 uniform 8-polytopes with A8 symmetry. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, x3x3o3o3o3o3o3o - tene, o3x3x3o3o3o3o3o - batene, o3o3x3x3o3o3o3o - tatene, o3o3o3x3x3o3o3o - be Olshevsky, George. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
21.
Cantellated 8-simplexes
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In eight-dimensional geometry, a cantellated 8-simplex is a convex uniform 8-polytope, being a cantellation of the regular 8-simplex. There are six unique cantellations for the 8-simplex, including permutations of truncation, small rhombated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the cantellated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the cantellated 9-orthoplex, small birhombated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the bicantellated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the bicantellated 9-orthoplex, small trirhombihexadecaexon The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the tricantellated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the tricantellated 9-orthoplex, great rhombated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the cantitruncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the bicantitruncated 9-orthoplex, great birhombated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the bicantitruncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the bicantitruncated 9-orthoplex, great trirhombated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the tricantitruncated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of. This construction is based on facets of the bicantitruncated 9-orthoplex and this polytope is one of 135 uniform 8-polytopes with A8 symmetry. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, x3o3x3o3o3o3o3o - srene, o3x3o3x3o3o3o3o - sabrene, o3o3x3o3x3o3o3o - satrene, x3x3x3o3o3o3o3o - grene, o3x3x3x3o3o3o3o - gabrene, o3o3x3x3x3o3o3o - gatrene Olshevsky, George. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
22.
Runcinated 8-simplexes
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In eight-dimensional geometry, a runcinated 8-simplex is a convex uniform 8-polytope with 3rd order truncations of the regular 8-simplex. There are eleven unique runcinations of the 8-simplex, including permutations of truncation and cantellation, the triruncinated 8-simplex and triruncicantitruncated 8-simplex have a doubled symmetry, showing order reflectional symmetry in the A8 Coxeter plane. Runcinated enneazetton Small prismated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the runcinated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the runcinated 9-orthoplex. Biruncinated enneazetton Small biprismated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the biruncinated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the biruncinated 9-orthoplex. Triruncinated enneazetton Small triprismated enneazetton The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the triruncinated 8-simplex can be most simply positioned in 8-space as permutations of and this construction is based on facets of the triruncinated 9-orthoplex. This polytope is one of 135 uniform 8-polytopes with A8 symmetry, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973 Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. X3o3o3x3o3o3o3o - spene, o3x3o3o3x3o3o3o - sabpene, o3o3x3o3o3x3o3o - satpeb Olshevsky, archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Polytopes of Various Dimensions Multi-dimensional Glossary
