1.
Local government
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Local government is a form of public administration which, in a majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within a given state. Local governments generally act within powers delegated to them by legislation or directives of the level of government. The question of autonomy is a key question of public administration. The institutions of government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies. Local government traditionally had limited power in Egypts highly centralized state, under the central government were twenty-six governorates. These were subdivided into districts and villages or towns, at each level, there was a governing structure that combined representative councils and government-appointed executive organs headed by governors, district officers, and mayors, respectively. Governors were appointed by the president, and they, in turn, the coercive backbone of the state apparatus ran downward from the Ministry of Interior through the governors executive organs to the district police station and the village headman. The extension of officials into the countryside permitted the regime to bring development, State penetration did not retreat under Sadat and Mubarak. The earlier effort to mobilize peasants and deliver services disappeared as the party and cooperative withered. The local power of the old families and the headmen revived, the district police station balanced the notables, and the system of local government integrated them into the regime. Sadat took several measures to decentralize power to the provinces and towns, governors acquired more authority under Law Number 43 of 1979, which reduced the administrative and budgetary controls of the central government over the provinces. The elected councils acquired, at least formally, the right to approve or disapprove the local budget, in an effort to reduce local demands on the central treasury, local government was given wider powers to raise local taxes. But local representative councils became vehicles of pressure for government spending, under Mubarak decentralization and local autonomy became more of a reality, and local policies often reflected special local conditions. Thus, officials in Upper Egypt often bowed to the powerful Islamic movement there, in recent years, Mali has undertaken an ambitious decentralization program, which involves the capital district of Bamako, seven regions subdivided into 46 cercles, and 682 rural community districts. The state retains a role in administrative and fiscal matters, and it provides technical support, coordination. Opportunities for direct participation, and increased local responsibility for development have been improved. In August–September 1998, elections were held for urban council members, in May/June 1999, citizens of the communes elected their communal council members for the first time. Female voter turnout was about 70% of the total, and observers considered the process open, eventually, the cercles will be reinstituted with a legal and financial basis of their own
2.
Municipal government in Canada
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In Canada, municipal government is a type of local council authority that provides local services, facilities, safety and infrastructure for communities. Canada has three levels of government, federal, provincial and municipal, according to Section 92 of the Constitution Act,1867, In each Province the Legislature may exclusively make Laws in relation to. There are about 3,700 municipal governments in Canada, technically the municipal government is not sanctioned in the Constitution but may be established pursuant to provincial/territorial authority. Like many Canadian political institutions, municipal government has its roots in the system of government in England. Famously, the city of Winchester was given its charter in 1185, and the granting of freedoms became endorsed in Magna Carta, the first formal municipality in Canada was the city of Saint John in New Brunswick, which received royal approval in 1785. For municipal government, this began an almost 50-year hiatus of receiving approval from the government, in 1835, the British parliament passed the Municipal Corporations Act, which specified how municipalities were to function and be elected. The ideas from this law were transferred to Canada by Lord Durham, in late 1840 to early 1841 the governments of what was Canada at the time enacted various acts which established municipal government in all areas of the country. It delegated authority to the governments so they could raise taxes. It also established a hierarchy of types of governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages. Changes to the boundaries of new governments could be made by petitioning the provincial Municipal Board or by requesting a change through the legislature. By the early 20th century, Canada was deeply involved in a period of municipal reform. As such, the idea that a larger municipality should have more councillors was the same as having a board of directors for a larger company. Between the 1920s and the 1960s the municipalities received increased funding from their provincial government parents and this was partly due to the Great Depression, but further discussion about reform reared its head in the 1970s. The arguments over municipal government reform continue, seen in the recent City of Toronto Act 1997 dispute, Municipal governments are subdivisions of their province. While the municipality has autonomy on most decisions, all passed by that municipal government are subject to change by the provincial government at any time. An example of a municipal government structure can be found in New Brunswick. In some provinces, several municipalities in an area are also part of an upper tier of municipal government. Depending on the province, this second tier may be called a county, regional municipality, in Nova Scotia, three municipalities are designated as regional municipalities
3.
County
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A county is a geographical region of a country used for administrative or other purposes, in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French conté or cunté denoting a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of a count or a viscount. The modern French is comté, and its equivalents in other languages are contea, contado, comtat, condado, Grafschaft, graafschap, Gau, when the Normans conquered England, they brought the term with them. The Saxons had already established the districts became the historic counties of England. The Vikings introduced the term earl to the British Isles, thus, the Anglo-Saxons earl and earldom were taken as equivalent to the continental use of count and county under the conquering Normans, and over time the two blended and became equivalent terms. Further, the term became a synonym for the native English word scir or, in Modern English. Since a shire was a division of the kingdom, the term county evolved to designate an administrative division of states or of a national government in most other modern uses. A county may be subdivided into districts, hundreds, townships or other administrative jurisdictions within the county. A county usually, but not always, contains cities, towns, townships, villages, or other municipal corporations, Provinces in Argentina are divided into departments, except in the Buenos Aires Province, where they are called partidos. The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes, in the eastern states of Australia, counties are used in the administration of land titles. They do not generally correspond to a level of government, but are used in the identification of parcels of land, canadas five oldest provinces – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island – are divided into counties. In addition to counties, Ontario is also subdivided into districts, district municipalities, metropolitan municipalities. British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, the word county is used to translate the Chinese term xiàn. In Mainland China, governed by the Peoples Republic of China, counties are the level of local government. There are 1,464 counties in the PRC out of a total of 2,862 county-level divisions, the number of counties has remained more or less constant since the Han dynasty. The county remains one of the oldest levels of government in China, the county government was particularly important in imperial China because this was the lowest layer at which the imperial government functioned. The head of a county during imperial times was the magistrate, in older context, prefecture and district are alternative terms to refer to xiàn before the establishment of the Republic of China. The English nomenclature county was adopted following the establishment of the ROC, contrary to the typical rural location of a county in Western countries, a city in China may enclose several counties
4.
Land-use planning
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Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the unit can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use. Often one element of a plan, a land-use plan provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities. Despite confusing nomenclature, the function of land-use planning remains the same whatever term is applied. Land-use planning often leads to regulation, which typically encompasses zoning. The ambiguous nature of the term “planning”, as it relates to use, is historically tied to the practice of zoning. Zoning in the US came about in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to protect the interests of property owners, the practice was found to be constitutionally sound by the Supreme Court decision of Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. in 1926. Soon after, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act gave authority to the states to regulate land use, even so, the practice remains controversial today. The “taking clause” of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from taking property for public use without just compensation. The case of Dolan v. City of Tigard demonstrated the criteria that determine the threshold of what is considered taking, one interpretation of the taking clause is that any restriction on the development potential of land through zoning regulation is a “taking”. A deep-rooted anti-zoning sentiment exists in America, that no one has the right to another what he can or cannot do with his land. Ironically, although people are averse to being told how to develop their own land. The urban sprawl that most US cities began to experience in the century was, in part. Zoning without planning created unnecessarily exclusive zones, thoughtless mapping of these zones over large areas was a big part of the recipe for suburban sprawl. It was from the deficiencies of this practice that land-use planning developed, to envision the changes that development would cause, as America grew and sprawl was rampant, the much-loved America of the older towns, cities, or streetcar suburbs essentially became illegal through zoning. Unparalleled growth and unregulated development changed the look and feel of landscapes and communities and they strained commercial corridors and affected housing prices, causing citizens to fear a decline in the social, economic and environmental attributes that defined their quality of life. Zoning regulations became politically contentious as developers, legislators, and citizens struggled over altering zoning maps in a way that was acceptable to all parties, Land use planning practices evolved as an attempt to overcome these challenges
5.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
6.
Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo
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The Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo sometimes is a specialized municipality located in northeastern Alberta. Formed as a result of the amalgamation of the City of Fort McMurray and Improvement District No.143 on April 1,1995, it is the second largest municipality in Alberta by area. It is home to vast oil deposits, also known as the Athabasca Oil Sands. Until the Alberta electoral boundary re-distribution of 2004, the municipality was divided between the electoral districts of Fort McMurray and Athabasca-Wabasca. The re-distribution amalgamated the municipality into an electoral district covering the entire municipality. As a result, the new Wood Buffalo electoral district became the most populous district in Alberta. The Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo is in the basin of the Athabasca River watershed. Local rivers include the Hangingstone River, Clearwater River and Christina River, the Hangingstone River drains an area of 1,070 km2, which is dominated by muskeg, and flows into the Clearwater River just upstream of the Athabasca River at Fort McMurray. The river often experiences high flows in the spring during snow melt, during heavy rainfall events, the RMWB warns citizens of the potential for sudden flash floods especially in populated areas adjacent to the Athabasca River, Clearwater River and Christina River. Water levels have been monitored by the Water Survey of Canada since 1970, the lack of significant oil sands developments means that the Clearwater River can be used as a baseline river system to provide information on the variability and characteristics of natural systems. By June 12,2013 after many days of heavy rain, Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo declared a state of emergency. From May 3,2016 on, over 80,000 people were affected by evacuations, by May 3 at 6,49 pm, making it Albertas largest evacuation for a wildfire. 2% from its 2011 population of 65,565. With a land area of 61,777.65 km2, it had a population density of 1. 2/km2 in 2016. In the 2011 Census, the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo had a population of 65,565 living in 23,077 of its 28,000 total dwellings, a change of 27. 3% from its 2006 population of 51,496. With a land area of 63,637.47 km2, the determination of the RM of Wood Buffalos population has twice been subject to controversy since 2007. Second, the RM of Wood Buffalo published a population of 103,334 as a result of its 2008 municipal census. Alberta Municipal Affairs rejected the result as the total population was generated through the use of extrapolation instead of door-to-door census enumeration. As of the 2006 census, nearly 11% of residents identified themselves as visible minorities, nearly 85% of residents identified English, and 3% identified French, as their first language
7.
Specialized municipalities of Alberta
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A specialized municipality is a type of municipal status used in the Canadian Province of Alberta. Albertas specialized municipalities are local governments formed without the creation of special legislation. They typically allow for the coexistence of urban and rural areas within the jurisdiction of a municipal government. Applications for specialized municipality status are approved via orders in council made by the Lieutenant Governor in Council under recommendation from the Minister of AMA. Alberta has five specialized municipalities that had a population of 178,598. Albertas largest and smallest specialized municipalities are the Strathcona County and the Municipality of Jasper with populations of 92,490 and 4,051 respectively,44 elected officials provide specialized municipality governance throughout the province. An order in council to any municipality must give the municipality an official name. Of Albertas five specialized municipalities, two of them have branded themselves simply as municipalities in their names, while two others have branded themselves as counties. The remaining specialized municipality has branded itself as a regional municipality, the other major contributor to this common belief is that a county was a former municipal status type in Alberta prior to the County Act being repealed in 1995. The first specialized municipality was created on April 1,1995, the Municipality of Wood Buffalo was renamed as the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo on August 14,1996. The second specialized municipality was incorporated on January 1,1996, the Municipal District of Mackenzie No.23 became the third specialized municipality on June 23,1999. Its unique communities include the hamlets of Fort Vermilion, La Crete, the order in council that formed the MD of Mackenzie No.23 as a specialized municipality included a clause to automatically change it back to a municipal district on November 1,2001. This order in council was amended on January 30,2001, the MD of Mackenzie No.23 was renamed Mackenzie County on March 8,2007. The Jasper Improvement District was established as Albertas fourth specialized municipality under the name of the Municipality of Jasper on July 20,2001 and it was established as a specialized municipality to provide for the unique needs of residents living within the municipality. The order in council that formed the specialized municipality defined the Town of Jasper as those lands within the Jasper townsite as described in Canadas National Parks Act. The Municipality of Crowsnest Pass was originally formed as a town on January 1,1979, through the amalgamation of the towns of Blairmore and Coleman, the villages of Bellevue and Frank, and ID No.5. After another amalgamation with ID No.6 on January 1,1996, unlike those of the four other specialized municipalities, no specific reason was provided in the order in council that changed the status of Crowsnest Pass. On August 1,2007, the Town of Lac La Biche, Lac La Biche County initiated an investigation in April 2015 to change its status from municipal district to specialized municipality
8.
Fort McMurray
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Fort McMurray is a population centre, technically classified as an urban service area, in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo in Alberta, Canada. It is located in northeast Alberta, in the middle of the Athabasca oil sands and it has played a significant role in the development of the national petroleum industry. A severe wildfire in May 2016 led to the evacuation of its residents, formerly a city, Fort McMurray became an urban service area when it amalgamated with Improvement District No.143 on April 1,1995, to create the Municipality of Wood Buffalo. Despite its current official designation of service area, many locals, politicians. Fort McMurray was known simply as McMurray between 1947 and 1962, before the arrival of Europeans in the late 18th Century, the Cree were the dominant First Nations people in the Fort McMurray area. The Athabasca oil sands were known to the locals and the deposits were used to waterproof their canoes. In fur trade days the location of Fort McMurray was an important junction on the fur trade route from eastern Canada to the Athabasca country. In 1778, the first European explorer, Peter Pond, came to the region in search of furs, as the European demand for this commodity at the time was strong. Pond explored the region south along the Athabasca River and the Clearwater River. However, his post closed in 1788 in favour of Fort Chipewyan, in 1790, the explorer Alexander MacKenzie made the first recorded description of the oil sands. By that time, trading between the explorers and the Cree was already occurring at the confluence of the Clearwater and Athabasca Rivers, the Hudsons Bay Company and the North West Company were in fierce competition in this region. Fort McMurray was established there as a Hudsons Bay Company post by 1870 and it continued to operate as a transportation stopover in the decades afterwards. The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway arrived in 1915 complementing existing steamboat service, the community has played a significant role in the history of the petroleum industry in Canada. Oil exploration is known to have occurred in the early 20th century, by 1921, there was serious interest in developing a refining plant to separate the oil from the sands. Alcan Oil Company was the first outfit to begin bulk tests at Fort McMurray, the nearby community of Waterways was established to provide a terminus for waterborne transportation, until 1925, when the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway reached there. Abasands Oil was the first company to extract oil from the oil sands through hot water extraction by the 1930s. Fort McMurrays processing output gradually grew to over 1,100 barrels/day by World War II, Fort McMurray and Waterways amalgamated as the village of McMurray by 1947, and became a town a year later. Fort McMurray was granted the status of new town so it could get more provincial funding, by 1966, the towns population was over 2,000
9.
Northern Rockies Regional Municipality
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Although portrayed as a regional municipality in its official name, it is actually classified as a district municipality. The NRRM’s offices are located in Fort Nelson, formerly a town that amalgamated with the NRRD on February 6,2009 to form the NRRM. With the Peace River Regional District as the part, it was the northern part of the Peace River-Liard Regional District. The NRRM lies on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains and its southern boundary is the 58th parallel of latitude and is bisected by the Alaska Highway from its southeast to its northwest. The Northern Rockies Regional Municipality is primarily made up of heavily forested areas, the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality is the first of its kind in British Columbia in which an entire former regional district is governed and headed by a single municipal government. Its council comprises a mayor and six councillors, bill Streeper has been the NRRMs mayor since it was formed. With a 2011 population of 3,902, Fort Nelson is the largest community in the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality, all of the NRRMs offices and officials are based out of Fort Nelson. Fort Nelson First Nation is a band situated directly outside of the town of Fort Nelson. The reserve is home to about 700 residents, making Fort Nelson First Nation one of the largest reservations in northern British Columbia, dene and Cree are the most prevalent Aboriginal Canadian backgrounds found on the Fort Nelson First Nation reserve. The band operates Echo-Dene and the Liard Hot Springs lodge, as well as Chalo School, liz Logan is the Chief Councilor of the Fort Nelson First Nation, reelected in August 2014. The FNFN Band Council consists of seven councilors, an increase from six, the chosen councilors then decided amongst themselves the Chief Councilor. The Prophet River First Nation is the southernmost community in the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality, Prophet River’s main industries revolve around commercial services and provisions to the local and nearby oil and gas industry. Lynette Tsakoza is currently the chief of Prophet River First Nation which is a member of the Treaty 8 Tribal Association, tetsa River is a small community based on the Alaska Highway that is known for its eco-tourism and camping. Fishing, rafting, hunting, and other related activities are commonly practiced recreational attractants to the region. Tetsa River offers a fishing derby every August, in which residents from all over the region compete. Toad River is the largest regional community north of Fort Nelson in terms of population, the community is home to a highway maintenance camp, a small school accredited by the regions school district, a community hall, two campgrounds, and two lodges. Toad River’s economy relies primarily on tourism, and is a destination for travellers on the Alaska Highway. Muncho Lake is a community that is situated on the Muncho Lake Provincial Park, the park is known for its blue-coloured lake which attracts tourists to the area every year
10.
Fort Nelson, British Columbia
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Fort Nelson is a community in northeast British Columbia, Canada within the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality. It held town status prior to February 6,2009 when it amalgamated with the former Northern Rockies Regional District to form the NRRM, the NRRM is the first regional municipality in the province. The community lies east of the northern Rocky Mountains in the Peace River region along the Alaska Highway at mile 300, Fort Nelson is home to 3,902 residents, representing 70% of the NRRMs total population of 5,578. The majority of Fort Nelsons economic activity has historically been concentrated in the energy and tourism industries, the forests surrounding Fort Nelson are part of Canadas boreal forest. Fort Nelson is on the southwest edge of the Greater Sierra oil & gas field, Fort Nelson, named in honour of the British naval hero Horatio Nelson, was established by The Northwest Trading Company in 1805 as a fur-trading post. Due to fires, floods and feuds, Fort Nelson is currently situated in its fifth location, the Fort Nelson Airport played a key role in developing Fort Nelson as a community. Yukon Southern Air Transport began chartering flights to the airport in 1935. The Fort Nelson Airport was also an asset for allied military forces in World War II, as it served as an airbase for the United States Air Force. The United States Army built perhaps the most notable historical artifact in the area, construction began in 1942 out of a firm belief that Alaska faced significant threat of Japanese invasion. Highway construction attracted over 11,000 laborers to the area, after approximately nine lengthy and strenuous months, the highway was finally completed, making Fort Nelson a bustling service-center along the famous road. After the Japanese surrender of 1945, the U. S. Army ceded the Canadian portion of the highway to the Canadian government, which it made formally accessible to the public in 1948. In the years following World War II, the construction of the Alaska Highway, in the early 1950s the first five acres were sold to locals, which marked the start of the community as a separate entity from the military. The 1960s also had Fort Nelsons education system formally offer grades 1-12 education, after the completion of BC Hydros newly constructed natural-gas power plant to provide electricity to the region, Fort Nelson experienced true growth. A railroad was built up to Fort Nelson in the 1970s which allowed efficient transportation of the industrys major products to larger markets in the south. Fort Nelson lies near the confluence of Fort Nelson River, Muskwa River, the entire region of the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality, of which Fort Nelson is the largest community, constitutes 10% of the province’s total landmass. Fort Nelson is well known to be surrounded by mountainous beauty pertaining to the portion of the Rocky Mountains. The Northern Rockies Regional Municipality is home to a variety of wildlife which attracts many tourists. Wildlife found in the area include such as moose, black bear, grizzly bear, caribou, deer, elk, bison, stone sheep, mountain goat, wolves
11.
Liard River
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The Liard River flows through Yukon, British Columbia and the Northwest Territories, Canada. The river drains approximately 277,100 square kilometres of boreal forest, the river habitats are a subsection of the Lower Mackenzie Freshwater Ecoregion. The area around the river in the Yukon Territory is called the Liard River Valley, the Liard River is a crossing area for Nahanni wood bison. The origin of the name is obscure, but is derived from the French word for Eastern Cottonwood which grow in abundance along sections of the river. Among the early fur traders, the Liard above the Fort Nelson River was referred to as the West Branch, the first European to traverse most of the river was John McLeod of the Hudsons Bay Company. Leaving Fort Simpson on June 28,1831, McLeod and eight others ascended the river, four days later, they reached the Frances River, and mistakenly ascended it, thinking it was the Liards main branch. The Grand Canyon of the Liard is a 30-kilometre stretch of the beginning just east of Liard River Hotsprings. It contains numerous class IV and higher rapids and it is located between the Toad and Trout Rivers confluences with the Liard. 59°27′00″N 125°48′00″W The Liard Canyon is a canyon from the Grand Canyon. 59°59′00″N 128°36′00″W Liard River Hotsprings is a popular tourist attraction located at kilometre 765 of the Alaska Highway, the historic Liard River Suspension Bridge, built in 1944, is located at kilometre 798 of the Alaska Highway. The Liard River originates in part of the Yukon, on the slopes of Mount Lewis, at 61. 23654°N131. 62738°W /61.23654, -131.62738. It flows south and east, between the ranges of Pelly Mountains, then south through the Yukon Plateau, where it receives the waters of Prospect Creek and it turns east after it receives the waters of the Caribou Creek from Caribou Lakes, then the Swede and Junkers Creek. It then follows the rim of the St. Cyr Range of the Pelly Mountains. It follows the edge of the Simpson Range, receiving the waters of the Old Gold Creek, Rainbow Creek, Dome Creek, Quartz Creek. It receives the waters of Cormier Creek, then flows through the Liard Canyon and it flows south-east and east along the Alaska Highway, receiving the waters of Dease River, Kloye Creek, Trepanier Creek and Black Angus Creek. It continues east through the Dease Forest, where it receives the waters of the Hyland River south of Hyland River Provincial Park, then receives the Malcolm Creek, Tatisno Creek and Nustlo Creek. It turns eastwards along the margin of the Liard Plateau. It enters the Liard River Hot Springs Provincial Park, where the Trout River empties into the Liard and it continues south-east between the Barricade Range and Mount Rothenberg of the Sentinel Range, where the Moule Creek and Sulphur Creek flow in the Liard
12.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
13.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
14.
Census divisions of Ontario
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The census divisions of Ontario are used by Statistics Canada to aggregate census data. With two exceptions, they correspond to Ontarios first-level administrative divisions, of which there are three types, single-tier municipalities, upper-tier municipalities, and districts. These differ primarily in the services that they provide to their residents and they may comprise smaller municipalities or other types of administrative divisions, which are generally treated as census subdivisions by Statistics Canada. In some cases, a census division may retain its name even if it changes government type. For instance, Oxford County, Haldimand County, Norfolk County and Prince Edward County are no counties, Oxford is a regional municipality. Several census divisions in Ontario have significantly changed their borders or been discontinued entirely, the following is a list of census divisions of Ontario and their population counts from the 2011 census conducted by Statistics Canada. A single-tier municipality is a division which is governed by one municipal administration, with neither a county nor regional government above it. A single-tier municipality is either a regional municipality or a former county. With the exception of Greater Sudbury, single-tier municipalities are found only in Southern Ontario, a single-tier municipality which is predominantly urban in nature may also be informally referred to as a megacity. Single-tier municipalities of this type were created where a regional municipality consisted of a single dominant urban centre. Regions are typically more urbanized than counties, Regional municipalities are found only in Southern Ontario. Current regional municipalities in Ontario, with regional seats listed in brackets, although Oxford County and the District Municipality of Muskoka are not called regions, they are defined as regional municipalities under Part 1, Section 1 of the Ontario Municipal Act,2001. Between 1998 and 2001, four municipalities that were dominated by a single city were amalgamated and are now single-tier municipalities. In 1998, the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto became the amalgamated City of Toronto, at the same time, the Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk was split into Haldimand County and Norfolk County. Counties have fewer responsibilities than regions, as the municipalities within the counties typically provide the majority of municipal services to their residents. The responsibilities of county governments are limited to the following, maintenance and construction of rural arterial roads, health and social services. Counties are only found in Southern Ontario, counties may also include separated municipalities, communities that are considered part of the county for census purposes but are not administratively connected to the county. Some districts may have District Social Service Administration Boards, which are designed to certain social services
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Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
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Public service
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Public service is a service which is provided by government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly or by financing provision of services. The term is associated with a consensus that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income. Public policy when made in the publics interest and motivations can provide public services, Public service is also a course that can be studied at a college or university. Examples of public services are the fire brigade, police, air force, Public services may be associated with fundamental human rights. The Volunteer Fire Dept. and Ambulance Corps, are institutions with the mission of servicing the community. A service is helping others with a specific need or want, here, service ranges from a doctor curing an illness, to a repair person, to a food pantry. Government agencies are not profit-oriented and their employees are motivated differently, studies of their work have found contrasting results including both higher levels of effort and fewer hours of work. A survey in the UK found that private sector hiring managers do not credit government experience as much as private sector experience, Public workers tend to make less in wages when adjusting for education, although that difference is reduced when benefits and hours are included. Public workers have other benefits such as increased job security. A public service may sometimes have the characteristics of a public good, in most cases public services are services, i. e. they do not involve manufacturing of goods. They may be provided by local or national monopolies, especially in sectors which are natural monopolies and they may involve outputs that are hard to attribute to specific individual effort or hard to measure in terms of key characteristics such as quality. They often require high levels of training and education and they may attract people with a public service ethos who wish to give something to the wider public or community through their work. Historically, the provision of public services in developed countries usually began in the late nineteenth century, often with the municipal development of gas. Later, governments began to other services such as electricity. In most developed countries such services are provided by local or national government, the biggest exceptions being the U. S. and the UK. Nonetheless, such privately provided public services are often strongly regulated, in developing countries public services tend to be much less well developed. For example, water services might only be available to the middle class. For political reasons the service is subsidized, which reduces the finance available for expansion to poorer communities
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Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
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Waste management
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Waste management or Waste disposal is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and it also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling etc. Waste management is intended to reduce effects of waste on health. Waste management practices are not uniform among countries, regions, there are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies, the aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste, see, resource recovery. The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the premise is for policy to take action first. The next step or preferred action is to reduce the generation of waste i. e. by re-use, the next is recycling which would include composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy, energy can be recovered from processes i. e. landfill and combustion, at this level of the hierarchy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery and this last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered. The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product, the life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, use and then follows through the waste hierarchys stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each of the stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential. The key behind the life-cycle of a product is to optimize the use of the limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste. Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic growth, globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability, the Polluter pays principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material. Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low population density, common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact
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Public transport
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Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
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Sanitary sewer
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A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is an underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings through pipes to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers are part of a system called sewerage or sewage system. Sewage may be treated to water pollution before discharge to surface waters. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater, separate sanitary sewer systems are designed to transport sewage alone. In municipalities served by sewers, separate storm drains may be constructed to convey surface runoff directly to surface waters. Sanitary sewers are distinguished from combined sewers, which combine sewage with stormwater runoff in the same pipe, sanitary sewer systems are considered beneficial because they avoid combined sewer overflows. To overcome these disadvantages, some cities built separate sanitary sewers to collect only municipal wastewater, the decision between a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on need for sewage treatment and cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built prior to sewage treatment have not replaced those sewer systems, in the developed world, sewers are pipes from buildings to one or more levels of larger underground trunk mains, which transport the sewage to sewage treatment facilities. Vertical pipes, usually made of precast concrete, called manholes, depending upon site application and use, these vertical pipes can be cylindrical, eccentric or concentric. The manholes are used for access to the pipes for inspection and maintenance. They also facilitate vertical and horizontal angles in otherwise straight pipelines, pipes conveying sewage from an individual building to a common gravity sewer line are called laterals. Branch sewers typically run under streets receiving laterals from buildings along that street, larger cities may have sewers called interceptors receiving flow from multiple trunk sewers. Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production. Commercial and industrial flows are considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers. Pumps may be necessary where gravity sewers serve areas at lower elevations than the treatment plant. A lift station is a gravity sewer sump with a pump to lift accumulated sewage to a higher elevation, the pump may discharge to another gravity sewer at that location or may discharge through a pressurized force main to some distant location. Most of the solids are removed by the tanks, so the treatment plant can be much smaller than a typical plant. In addition, because of the vast reduction in solid waste, because the wastestream is pressurized, they can be laid just below the ground surface along the lands contour
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Bridge
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A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose, the Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old English word brycg, of the same meaning. The word can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European *bʰrēw-. The word for the game of the same name has a different origin. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support, some early Americans used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age, it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence, several intact arched stone bridges from the Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese. The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans, the Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. An example is the Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, the Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost. In India, the Arthashastra treatise by Kautilya mentions the construction of dams, a Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. A number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal administration in India and this bridge is also historically significant as it is the worlds oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar Bridge, rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 16th century. During the 18th century there were innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich Grubenmann, Johannes Grubenmann. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716, a major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of the Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn, with the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a tensile strength, much larger bridges were built. In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded bridge in the world
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Metropolitan Toronto
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The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto was a senior level of municipal government in the Toronto, Ontario, Canada area from 1954 to 1998. It was created out of old town Toronto, York Township, Scarborough Township and it was commonly referred to as Metro Toronto or Metro to avoid confusion with the original city of Toronto, which was its administrative headquarters. Passage of the 1997 City of Toronto Act caused the 1998 amalgamation of Metro Toronto, prior to the formation of Metro, the municipalities surrounding the central City of Toronto were all independent towns and villages. All were members of either York Township, Scarborough Township or Etobicoke Township, after 1912, the city no longer annexed suburbs from York Township. At times the suburbs asked to be annexed into Toronto, in 1924, Ontario cabinet minister George S. Henry, was the first to propose a metropolitan district with its own council from the city and the county to administer shared services. He wrote a bill, but the government chose not to act on it. The Great Depression saw almost all of the towns and villages of the County go insolvent, when that happened they were, financially, taken over by the province. In 1933, Henry, now the premier, appointed an inquiry into forming a metropolitan district. A proposal was made for Toronto to provide several of its services to the suburbs as well, the inquiry died with the defeat of Henry in 1934. In the 1930s, a Liberal Ontario government named the first minister of municipal affairs, David A. Croll, and introduced a bill to amalgamate the City. The draft bill faced strong opposition in Toronto and was withdrawn, the government then started its own inquiry into issues of the suburbs surrounding Toronto. Through consensus, it came to the conclusion that a municipality was the best solution. The inquiry reported in September 1939, and its conclusions put aside for the duration of World War II, two factors changed in the 1940s. A Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario government was elected in 1943, with a changed policy, also in 1943, the first Master Plan was adopted in Toronto. It recognized that future growth would place in the vacant land of adjacent suburbs. Planning would have to take account the whole metropolitan area. In 1946, the province passed the Planning Act required each urban municipality to have its own Planning Board, a Toronto and Suburban Planning Board was founded, under the chairmanship of James P. Maher, and the vice-chairmanship of Fred Gardiner. The Board promoted specific projects, and promoted a green belt, a unified system of arterial roads
