1.
Local government
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Local government is a form of public administration which, in a majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within a given state. Local governments generally act within powers delegated to them by legislation or directives of the level of government. The question of autonomy is a key question of public administration. The institutions of government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies. Local government traditionally had limited power in Egypts highly centralized state, under the central government were twenty-six governorates. These were subdivided into districts and villages or towns, at each level, there was a governing structure that combined representative councils and government-appointed executive organs headed by governors, district officers, and mayors, respectively. Governors were appointed by the president, and they, in turn, the coercive backbone of the state apparatus ran downward from the Ministry of Interior through the governors executive organs to the district police station and the village headman. The extension of officials into the countryside permitted the regime to bring development, State penetration did not retreat under Sadat and Mubarak. The earlier effort to mobilize peasants and deliver services disappeared as the party and cooperative withered. The local power of the old families and the headmen revived, the district police station balanced the notables, and the system of local government integrated them into the regime. Sadat took several measures to decentralize power to the provinces and towns, governors acquired more authority under Law Number 43 of 1979, which reduced the administrative and budgetary controls of the central government over the provinces. The elected councils acquired, at least formally, the right to approve or disapprove the local budget, in an effort to reduce local demands on the central treasury, local government was given wider powers to raise local taxes. But local representative councils became vehicles of pressure for government spending, under Mubarak decentralization and local autonomy became more of a reality, and local policies often reflected special local conditions. Thus, officials in Upper Egypt often bowed to the powerful Islamic movement there, in recent years, Mali has undertaken an ambitious decentralization program, which involves the capital district of Bamako, seven regions subdivided into 46 cercles, and 682 rural community districts. The state retains a role in administrative and fiscal matters, and it provides technical support, coordination. Opportunities for direct participation, and increased local responsibility for development have been improved. In August–September 1998, elections were held for urban council members, in May/June 1999, citizens of the communes elected their communal council members for the first time. Female voter turnout was about 70% of the total, and observers considered the process open, eventually, the cercles will be reinstituted with a legal and financial basis of their own
2.
Municipal government in Canada
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In Canada, municipal government is a type of local council authority that provides local services, facilities, safety and infrastructure for communities. Canada has three levels of government, federal, provincial and municipal, according to Section 92 of the Constitution Act,1867, In each Province the Legislature may exclusively make Laws in relation to. There are about 3,700 municipal governments in Canada, technically the municipal government is not sanctioned in the Constitution but may be established pursuant to provincial/territorial authority. Like many Canadian political institutions, municipal government has its roots in the system of government in England. Famously, the city of Winchester was given its charter in 1185, and the granting of freedoms became endorsed in Magna Carta, the first formal municipality in Canada was the city of Saint John in New Brunswick, which received royal approval in 1785. For municipal government, this began an almost 50-year hiatus of receiving approval from the government, in 1835, the British parliament passed the Municipal Corporations Act, which specified how municipalities were to function and be elected. The ideas from this law were transferred to Canada by Lord Durham, in late 1840 to early 1841 the governments of what was Canada at the time enacted various acts which established municipal government in all areas of the country. It delegated authority to the governments so they could raise taxes. It also established a hierarchy of types of governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages. Changes to the boundaries of new governments could be made by petitioning the provincial Municipal Board or by requesting a change through the legislature. By the early 20th century, Canada was deeply involved in a period of municipal reform. As such, the idea that a larger municipality should have more councillors was the same as having a board of directors for a larger company. Between the 1920s and the 1960s the municipalities received increased funding from their provincial government parents and this was partly due to the Great Depression, but further discussion about reform reared its head in the 1970s. The arguments over municipal government reform continue, seen in the recent City of Toronto Act 1997 dispute, Municipal governments are subdivisions of their province. While the municipality has autonomy on most decisions, all passed by that municipal government are subject to change by the provincial government at any time. An example of a municipal government structure can be found in New Brunswick. In some provinces, several municipalities in an area are also part of an upper tier of municipal government. Depending on the province, this second tier may be called a county, regional municipality, in Nova Scotia, three municipalities are designated as regional municipalities
3.
County
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A county is a geographical region of a country used for administrative or other purposes, in certain modern nations. The term is derived from the Old French conté or cunté denoting a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of a count or a viscount. The modern French is comté, and its equivalents in other languages are contea, contado, comtat, condado, Grafschaft, graafschap, Gau, when the Normans conquered England, they brought the term with them. The Saxons had already established the districts became the historic counties of England. The Vikings introduced the term earl to the British Isles, thus, the Anglo-Saxons earl and earldom were taken as equivalent to the continental use of count and county under the conquering Normans, and over time the two blended and became equivalent terms. Further, the term became a synonym for the native English word scir or, in Modern English. Since a shire was a division of the kingdom, the term county evolved to designate an administrative division of states or of a national government in most other modern uses. A county may be subdivided into districts, hundreds, townships or other administrative jurisdictions within the county. A county usually, but not always, contains cities, towns, townships, villages, or other municipal corporations, Provinces in Argentina are divided into departments, except in the Buenos Aires Province, where they are called partidos. The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes, in the eastern states of Australia, counties are used in the administration of land titles. They do not generally correspond to a level of government, but are used in the identification of parcels of land, canadas five oldest provinces – New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec and Prince Edward Island – are divided into counties. In addition to counties, Ontario is also subdivided into districts, district municipalities, metropolitan municipalities. British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, the word county is used to translate the Chinese term xiàn. In Mainland China, governed by the Peoples Republic of China, counties are the level of local government. There are 1,464 counties in the PRC out of a total of 2,862 county-level divisions, the number of counties has remained more or less constant since the Han dynasty. The county remains one of the oldest levels of government in China, the county government was particularly important in imperial China because this was the lowest layer at which the imperial government functioned. The head of a county during imperial times was the magistrate, in older context, prefecture and district are alternative terms to refer to xiàn before the establishment of the Republic of China. The English nomenclature county was adopted following the establishment of the ROC, contrary to the typical rural location of a county in Western countries, a city in China may enclose several counties
4.
Land-use planning
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Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the unit can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use. Often one element of a plan, a land-use plan provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities. Despite confusing nomenclature, the function of land-use planning remains the same whatever term is applied. Land-use planning often leads to regulation, which typically encompasses zoning. The ambiguous nature of the term “planning”, as it relates to use, is historically tied to the practice of zoning. Zoning in the US came about in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to protect the interests of property owners, the practice was found to be constitutionally sound by the Supreme Court decision of Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. in 1926. Soon after, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act gave authority to the states to regulate land use, even so, the practice remains controversial today. The “taking clause” of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from taking property for public use without just compensation. The case of Dolan v. City of Tigard demonstrated the criteria that determine the threshold of what is considered taking, one interpretation of the taking clause is that any restriction on the development potential of land through zoning regulation is a “taking”. A deep-rooted anti-zoning sentiment exists in America, that no one has the right to another what he can or cannot do with his land. Ironically, although people are averse to being told how to develop their own land. The urban sprawl that most US cities began to experience in the century was, in part. Zoning without planning created unnecessarily exclusive zones, thoughtless mapping of these zones over large areas was a big part of the recipe for suburban sprawl. It was from the deficiencies of this practice that land-use planning developed, to envision the changes that development would cause, as America grew and sprawl was rampant, the much-loved America of the older towns, cities, or streetcar suburbs essentially became illegal through zoning. Unparalleled growth and unregulated development changed the look and feel of landscapes and communities and they strained commercial corridors and affected housing prices, causing citizens to fear a decline in the social, economic and environmental attributes that defined their quality of life. Zoning regulations became politically contentious as developers, legislators, and citizens struggled over altering zoning maps in a way that was acceptable to all parties, Land use planning practices evolved as an attempt to overcome these challenges
5.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
6.
Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo
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The Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo sometimes is a specialized municipality located in northeastern Alberta. Formed as a result of the amalgamation of the City of Fort McMurray and Improvement District No.143 on April 1,1995, it is the second largest municipality in Alberta by area. It is home to vast oil deposits, also known as the Athabasca Oil Sands. Until the Alberta electoral boundary re-distribution of 2004, the municipality was divided between the electoral districts of Fort McMurray and Athabasca-Wabasca. The re-distribution amalgamated the municipality into an electoral district covering the entire municipality. As a result, the new Wood Buffalo electoral district became the most populous district in Alberta. The Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo is in the basin of the Athabasca River watershed. Local rivers include the Hangingstone River, Clearwater River and Christina River, the Hangingstone River drains an area of 1,070 km2, which is dominated by muskeg, and flows into the Clearwater River just upstream of the Athabasca River at Fort McMurray. The river often experiences high flows in the spring during snow melt, during heavy rainfall events, the RMWB warns citizens of the potential for sudden flash floods especially in populated areas adjacent to the Athabasca River, Clearwater River and Christina River. Water levels have been monitored by the Water Survey of Canada since 1970, the lack of significant oil sands developments means that the Clearwater River can be used as a baseline river system to provide information on the variability and characteristics of natural systems. By June 12,2013 after many days of heavy rain, Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo declared a state of emergency. From May 3,2016 on, over 80,000 people were affected by evacuations, by May 3 at 6,49 pm, making it Albertas largest evacuation for a wildfire. 2% from its 2011 population of 65,565. With a land area of 61,777.65 km2, it had a population density of 1. 2/km2 in 2016. In the 2011 Census, the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo had a population of 65,565 living in 23,077 of its 28,000 total dwellings, a change of 27. 3% from its 2006 population of 51,496. With a land area of 63,637.47 km2, the determination of the RM of Wood Buffalos population has twice been subject to controversy since 2007. Second, the RM of Wood Buffalo published a population of 103,334 as a result of its 2008 municipal census. Alberta Municipal Affairs rejected the result as the total population was generated through the use of extrapolation instead of door-to-door census enumeration. As of the 2006 census, nearly 11% of residents identified themselves as visible minorities, nearly 85% of residents identified English, and 3% identified French, as their first language
7.
Specialized municipalities of Alberta
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A specialized municipality is a type of municipal status used in the Canadian Province of Alberta. Albertas specialized municipalities are local governments formed without the creation of special legislation. They typically allow for the coexistence of urban and rural areas within the jurisdiction of a municipal government. Applications for specialized municipality status are approved via orders in council made by the Lieutenant Governor in Council under recommendation from the Minister of AMA. Alberta has five specialized municipalities that had a population of 178,598. Albertas largest and smallest specialized municipalities are the Strathcona County and the Municipality of Jasper with populations of 92,490 and 4,051 respectively,44 elected officials provide specialized municipality governance throughout the province. An order in council to any municipality must give the municipality an official name. Of Albertas five specialized municipalities, two of them have branded themselves simply as municipalities in their names, while two others have branded themselves as counties. The remaining specialized municipality has branded itself as a regional municipality, the other major contributor to this common belief is that a county was a former municipal status type in Alberta prior to the County Act being repealed in 1995. The first specialized municipality was created on April 1,1995, the Municipality of Wood Buffalo was renamed as the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo on August 14,1996. The second specialized municipality was incorporated on January 1,1996, the Municipal District of Mackenzie No.23 became the third specialized municipality on June 23,1999. Its unique communities include the hamlets of Fort Vermilion, La Crete, the order in council that formed the MD of Mackenzie No.23 as a specialized municipality included a clause to automatically change it back to a municipal district on November 1,2001. This order in council was amended on January 30,2001, the MD of Mackenzie No.23 was renamed Mackenzie County on March 8,2007. The Jasper Improvement District was established as Albertas fourth specialized municipality under the name of the Municipality of Jasper on July 20,2001 and it was established as a specialized municipality to provide for the unique needs of residents living within the municipality. The order in council that formed the specialized municipality defined the Town of Jasper as those lands within the Jasper townsite as described in Canadas National Parks Act. The Municipality of Crowsnest Pass was originally formed as a town on January 1,1979, through the amalgamation of the towns of Blairmore and Coleman, the villages of Bellevue and Frank, and ID No.5. After another amalgamation with ID No.6 on January 1,1996, unlike those of the four other specialized municipalities, no specific reason was provided in the order in council that changed the status of Crowsnest Pass. On August 1,2007, the Town of Lac La Biche, Lac La Biche County initiated an investigation in April 2015 to change its status from municipal district to specialized municipality
8.
Fort McMurray
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Fort McMurray is a population centre, technically classified as an urban service area, in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo in Alberta, Canada. It is located in northeast Alberta, in the middle of the Athabasca oil sands and it has played a significant role in the development of the national petroleum industry. A severe wildfire in May 2016 led to the evacuation of its residents, formerly a city, Fort McMurray became an urban service area when it amalgamated with Improvement District No.143 on April 1,1995, to create the Municipality of Wood Buffalo. Despite its current official designation of service area, many locals, politicians. Fort McMurray was known simply as McMurray between 1947 and 1962, before the arrival of Europeans in the late 18th Century, the Cree were the dominant First Nations people in the Fort McMurray area. The Athabasca oil sands were known to the locals and the deposits were used to waterproof their canoes. In fur trade days the location of Fort McMurray was an important junction on the fur trade route from eastern Canada to the Athabasca country. In 1778, the first European explorer, Peter Pond, came to the region in search of furs, as the European demand for this commodity at the time was strong. Pond explored the region south along the Athabasca River and the Clearwater River. However, his post closed in 1788 in favour of Fort Chipewyan, in 1790, the explorer Alexander MacKenzie made the first recorded description of the oil sands. By that time, trading between the explorers and the Cree was already occurring at the confluence of the Clearwater and Athabasca Rivers, the Hudsons Bay Company and the North West Company were in fierce competition in this region. Fort McMurray was established there as a Hudsons Bay Company post by 1870 and it continued to operate as a transportation stopover in the decades afterwards. The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway arrived in 1915 complementing existing steamboat service, the community has played a significant role in the history of the petroleum industry in Canada. Oil exploration is known to have occurred in the early 20th century, by 1921, there was serious interest in developing a refining plant to separate the oil from the sands. Alcan Oil Company was the first outfit to begin bulk tests at Fort McMurray, the nearby community of Waterways was established to provide a terminus for waterborne transportation, until 1925, when the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway reached there. Abasands Oil was the first company to extract oil from the oil sands through hot water extraction by the 1930s. Fort McMurrays processing output gradually grew to over 1,100 barrels/day by World War II, Fort McMurray and Waterways amalgamated as the village of McMurray by 1947, and became a town a year later. Fort McMurray was granted the status of new town so it could get more provincial funding, by 1966, the towns population was over 2,000
9.
Northern Rockies Regional Municipality
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Although portrayed as a regional municipality in its official name, it is actually classified as a district municipality. The NRRM’s offices are located in Fort Nelson, formerly a town that amalgamated with the NRRD on February 6,2009 to form the NRRM. With the Peace River Regional District as the part, it was the northern part of the Peace River-Liard Regional District. The NRRM lies on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains and its southern boundary is the 58th parallel of latitude and is bisected by the Alaska Highway from its southeast to its northwest. The Northern Rockies Regional Municipality is primarily made up of heavily forested areas, the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality is the first of its kind in British Columbia in which an entire former regional district is governed and headed by a single municipal government. Its council comprises a mayor and six councillors, bill Streeper has been the NRRMs mayor since it was formed. With a 2011 population of 3,902, Fort Nelson is the largest community in the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality, all of the NRRMs offices and officials are based out of Fort Nelson. Fort Nelson First Nation is a band situated directly outside of the town of Fort Nelson. The reserve is home to about 700 residents, making Fort Nelson First Nation one of the largest reservations in northern British Columbia, dene and Cree are the most prevalent Aboriginal Canadian backgrounds found on the Fort Nelson First Nation reserve. The band operates Echo-Dene and the Liard Hot Springs lodge, as well as Chalo School, liz Logan is the Chief Councilor of the Fort Nelson First Nation, reelected in August 2014. The FNFN Band Council consists of seven councilors, an increase from six, the chosen councilors then decided amongst themselves the Chief Councilor. The Prophet River First Nation is the southernmost community in the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality, Prophet River’s main industries revolve around commercial services and provisions to the local and nearby oil and gas industry. Lynette Tsakoza is currently the chief of Prophet River First Nation which is a member of the Treaty 8 Tribal Association, tetsa River is a small community based on the Alaska Highway that is known for its eco-tourism and camping. Fishing, rafting, hunting, and other related activities are commonly practiced recreational attractants to the region. Tetsa River offers a fishing derby every August, in which residents from all over the region compete. Toad River is the largest regional community north of Fort Nelson in terms of population, the community is home to a highway maintenance camp, a small school accredited by the regions school district, a community hall, two campgrounds, and two lodges. Toad River’s economy relies primarily on tourism, and is a destination for travellers on the Alaska Highway. Muncho Lake is a community that is situated on the Muncho Lake Provincial Park, the park is known for its blue-coloured lake which attracts tourists to the area every year
10.
Fort Nelson, British Columbia
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Fort Nelson is a community in northeast British Columbia, Canada within the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality. It held town status prior to February 6,2009 when it amalgamated with the former Northern Rockies Regional District to form the NRRM, the NRRM is the first regional municipality in the province. The community lies east of the northern Rocky Mountains in the Peace River region along the Alaska Highway at mile 300, Fort Nelson is home to 3,902 residents, representing 70% of the NRRMs total population of 5,578. The majority of Fort Nelsons economic activity has historically been concentrated in the energy and tourism industries, the forests surrounding Fort Nelson are part of Canadas boreal forest. Fort Nelson is on the southwest edge of the Greater Sierra oil & gas field, Fort Nelson, named in honour of the British naval hero Horatio Nelson, was established by The Northwest Trading Company in 1805 as a fur-trading post. Due to fires, floods and feuds, Fort Nelson is currently situated in its fifth location, the Fort Nelson Airport played a key role in developing Fort Nelson as a community. Yukon Southern Air Transport began chartering flights to the airport in 1935. The Fort Nelson Airport was also an asset for allied military forces in World War II, as it served as an airbase for the United States Air Force. The United States Army built perhaps the most notable historical artifact in the area, construction began in 1942 out of a firm belief that Alaska faced significant threat of Japanese invasion. Highway construction attracted over 11,000 laborers to the area, after approximately nine lengthy and strenuous months, the highway was finally completed, making Fort Nelson a bustling service-center along the famous road. After the Japanese surrender of 1945, the U. S. Army ceded the Canadian portion of the highway to the Canadian government, which it made formally accessible to the public in 1948. In the years following World War II, the construction of the Alaska Highway, in the early 1950s the first five acres were sold to locals, which marked the start of the community as a separate entity from the military. The 1960s also had Fort Nelsons education system formally offer grades 1-12 education, after the completion of BC Hydros newly constructed natural-gas power plant to provide electricity to the region, Fort Nelson experienced true growth. A railroad was built up to Fort Nelson in the 1970s which allowed efficient transportation of the industrys major products to larger markets in the south. Fort Nelson lies near the confluence of Fort Nelson River, Muskwa River, the entire region of the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality, of which Fort Nelson is the largest community, constitutes 10% of the province’s total landmass. Fort Nelson is well known to be surrounded by mountainous beauty pertaining to the portion of the Rocky Mountains. The Northern Rockies Regional Municipality is home to a variety of wildlife which attracts many tourists. Wildlife found in the area include such as moose, black bear, grizzly bear, caribou, deer, elk, bison, stone sheep, mountain goat, wolves
11.
Liard River
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The Liard River flows through Yukon, British Columbia and the Northwest Territories, Canada. The river drains approximately 277,100 square kilometres of boreal forest, the river habitats are a subsection of the Lower Mackenzie Freshwater Ecoregion. The area around the river in the Yukon Territory is called the Liard River Valley, the Liard River is a crossing area for Nahanni wood bison. The origin of the name is obscure, but is derived from the French word for Eastern Cottonwood which grow in abundance along sections of the river. Among the early fur traders, the Liard above the Fort Nelson River was referred to as the West Branch, the first European to traverse most of the river was John McLeod of the Hudsons Bay Company. Leaving Fort Simpson on June 28,1831, McLeod and eight others ascended the river, four days later, they reached the Frances River, and mistakenly ascended it, thinking it was the Liards main branch. The Grand Canyon of the Liard is a 30-kilometre stretch of the beginning just east of Liard River Hotsprings. It contains numerous class IV and higher rapids and it is located between the Toad and Trout Rivers confluences with the Liard. 59°27′00″N 125°48′00″W The Liard Canyon is a canyon from the Grand Canyon. 59°59′00″N 128°36′00″W Liard River Hotsprings is a popular tourist attraction located at kilometre 765 of the Alaska Highway, the historic Liard River Suspension Bridge, built in 1944, is located at kilometre 798 of the Alaska Highway. The Liard River originates in part of the Yukon, on the slopes of Mount Lewis, at 61. 23654°N131. 62738°W /61.23654, -131.62738. It flows south and east, between the ranges of Pelly Mountains, then south through the Yukon Plateau, where it receives the waters of Prospect Creek and it turns east after it receives the waters of the Caribou Creek from Caribou Lakes, then the Swede and Junkers Creek. It then follows the rim of the St. Cyr Range of the Pelly Mountains. It follows the edge of the Simpson Range, receiving the waters of the Old Gold Creek, Rainbow Creek, Dome Creek, Quartz Creek. It receives the waters of Cormier Creek, then flows through the Liard Canyon and it flows south-east and east along the Alaska Highway, receiving the waters of Dease River, Kloye Creek, Trepanier Creek and Black Angus Creek. It continues east through the Dease Forest, where it receives the waters of the Hyland River south of Hyland River Provincial Park, then receives the Malcolm Creek, Tatisno Creek and Nustlo Creek. It turns eastwards along the margin of the Liard Plateau. It enters the Liard River Hot Springs Provincial Park, where the Trout River empties into the Liard and it continues south-east between the Barricade Range and Mount Rothenberg of the Sentinel Range, where the Moule Creek and Sulphur Creek flow in the Liard
12.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
13.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
14.
Census divisions of Ontario
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The census divisions of Ontario are used by Statistics Canada to aggregate census data. With two exceptions, they correspond to Ontarios first-level administrative divisions, of which there are three types, single-tier municipalities, upper-tier municipalities, and districts. These differ primarily in the services that they provide to their residents and they may comprise smaller municipalities or other types of administrative divisions, which are generally treated as census subdivisions by Statistics Canada. In some cases, a census division may retain its name even if it changes government type. For instance, Oxford County, Haldimand County, Norfolk County and Prince Edward County are no counties, Oxford is a regional municipality. Several census divisions in Ontario have significantly changed their borders or been discontinued entirely, the following is a list of census divisions of Ontario and their population counts from the 2011 census conducted by Statistics Canada. A single-tier municipality is a division which is governed by one municipal administration, with neither a county nor regional government above it. A single-tier municipality is either a regional municipality or a former county. With the exception of Greater Sudbury, single-tier municipalities are found only in Southern Ontario, a single-tier municipality which is predominantly urban in nature may also be informally referred to as a megacity. Single-tier municipalities of this type were created where a regional municipality consisted of a single dominant urban centre. Regions are typically more urbanized than counties, Regional municipalities are found only in Southern Ontario. Current regional municipalities in Ontario, with regional seats listed in brackets, although Oxford County and the District Municipality of Muskoka are not called regions, they are defined as regional municipalities under Part 1, Section 1 of the Ontario Municipal Act,2001. Between 1998 and 2001, four municipalities that were dominated by a single city were amalgamated and are now single-tier municipalities. In 1998, the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto became the amalgamated City of Toronto, at the same time, the Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk was split into Haldimand County and Norfolk County. Counties have fewer responsibilities than regions, as the municipalities within the counties typically provide the majority of municipal services to their residents. The responsibilities of county governments are limited to the following, maintenance and construction of rural arterial roads, health and social services. Counties are only found in Southern Ontario, counties may also include separated municipalities, communities that are considered part of the county for census purposes but are not administratively connected to the county. Some districts may have District Social Service Administration Boards, which are designed to certain social services
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Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
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Public service
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Public service is a service which is provided by government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly or by financing provision of services. The term is associated with a consensus that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income. Public policy when made in the publics interest and motivations can provide public services, Public service is also a course that can be studied at a college or university. Examples of public services are the fire brigade, police, air force, Public services may be associated with fundamental human rights. The Volunteer Fire Dept. and Ambulance Corps, are institutions with the mission of servicing the community. A service is helping others with a specific need or want, here, service ranges from a doctor curing an illness, to a repair person, to a food pantry. Government agencies are not profit-oriented and their employees are motivated differently, studies of their work have found contrasting results including both higher levels of effort and fewer hours of work. A survey in the UK found that private sector hiring managers do not credit government experience as much as private sector experience, Public workers tend to make less in wages when adjusting for education, although that difference is reduced when benefits and hours are included. Public workers have other benefits such as increased job security. A public service may sometimes have the characteristics of a public good, in most cases public services are services, i. e. they do not involve manufacturing of goods. They may be provided by local or national monopolies, especially in sectors which are natural monopolies and they may involve outputs that are hard to attribute to specific individual effort or hard to measure in terms of key characteristics such as quality. They often require high levels of training and education and they may attract people with a public service ethos who wish to give something to the wider public or community through their work. Historically, the provision of public services in developed countries usually began in the late nineteenth century, often with the municipal development of gas. Later, governments began to other services such as electricity. In most developed countries such services are provided by local or national government, the biggest exceptions being the U. S. and the UK. Nonetheless, such privately provided public services are often strongly regulated, in developing countries public services tend to be much less well developed. For example, water services might only be available to the middle class. For political reasons the service is subsidized, which reduces the finance available for expansion to poorer communities
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Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
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Waste management
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Waste management or Waste disposal is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and it also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling etc. Waste management is intended to reduce effects of waste on health. Waste management practices are not uniform among countries, regions, there are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies, the aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste, see, resource recovery. The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the premise is for policy to take action first. The next step or preferred action is to reduce the generation of waste i. e. by re-use, the next is recycling which would include composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy, energy can be recovered from processes i. e. landfill and combustion, at this level of the hierarchy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery and this last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered. The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product, the life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, use and then follows through the waste hierarchys stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each of the stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential. The key behind the life-cycle of a product is to optimize the use of the limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste. Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic growth, globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability, the Polluter pays principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material. Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low population density, common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact
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Public transport
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Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
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Road
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Roads consist of one or two roadways, each with one or more lanes and any associated sidewalks and road verges. Roads that are available for use by the public may be referred to as parkways, avenues, freeways, interstates, highways, or primary, secondary, and tertiary local roads. In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a function as urban space easement. Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel, historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In the United Kingdom there is ambiguity between the terms highway and road. The Highway code details rules for road users and this includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks. Vehicle Excise Duty, a use tax, is payable on some vehicles used on the public road. The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway, in the United States, laws distinguish between public roads, which are open to public use, and private roads, which are privately controlled. The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, others believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of type of road origination. By about 10,000 BC, rough roads/pathways were used by human travelers, the worlds oldest known paved road was constructed in Egypt some time between 2600 and 2200 BC. Stone-paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC, corduroy roads are found dating to 4000 BC in Glastonbury, England. The Sweet Track, a timber causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating enabled very precise dating and it was claimed to be the oldest road in the world until the 2009 discovery of a 6, 000-year-old trackway in Plumstead, London. Brick-paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC, in 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia, including the Royal Road, which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road remained in use after Roman times, a hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank. From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, at its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads. In the 8th century AD, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire, the most sophisticated roads were those in Baghdad, which were paved with tar
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Sanitary sewer
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A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is an underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings through pipes to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers are part of a system called sewerage or sewage system. Sewage may be treated to water pollution before discharge to surface waters. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater, separate sanitary sewer systems are designed to transport sewage alone. In municipalities served by sewers, separate storm drains may be constructed to convey surface runoff directly to surface waters. Sanitary sewers are distinguished from combined sewers, which combine sewage with stormwater runoff in the same pipe, sanitary sewer systems are considered beneficial because they avoid combined sewer overflows. To overcome these disadvantages, some cities built separate sanitary sewers to collect only municipal wastewater, the decision between a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on need for sewage treatment and cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built prior to sewage treatment have not replaced those sewer systems, in the developed world, sewers are pipes from buildings to one or more levels of larger underground trunk mains, which transport the sewage to sewage treatment facilities. Vertical pipes, usually made of precast concrete, called manholes, depending upon site application and use, these vertical pipes can be cylindrical, eccentric or concentric. The manholes are used for access to the pipes for inspection and maintenance. They also facilitate vertical and horizontal angles in otherwise straight pipelines, pipes conveying sewage from an individual building to a common gravity sewer line are called laterals. Branch sewers typically run under streets receiving laterals from buildings along that street, larger cities may have sewers called interceptors receiving flow from multiple trunk sewers. Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production. Commercial and industrial flows are considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers. Pumps may be necessary where gravity sewers serve areas at lower elevations than the treatment plant. A lift station is a gravity sewer sump with a pump to lift accumulated sewage to a higher elevation, the pump may discharge to another gravity sewer at that location or may discharge through a pressurized force main to some distant location. Most of the solids are removed by the tanks, so the treatment plant can be much smaller than a typical plant. In addition, because of the vast reduction in solid waste, because the wastestream is pressurized, they can be laid just below the ground surface along the lands contour
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Bridge
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A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose, the Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old English word brycg, of the same meaning. The word can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European *bʰrēw-. The word for the game of the same name has a different origin. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support, some early Americans used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age, it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence, several intact arched stone bridges from the Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese. The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans, the Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. An example is the Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, the Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost. In India, the Arthashastra treatise by Kautilya mentions the construction of dams, a Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. A number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal administration in India and this bridge is also historically significant as it is the worlds oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar Bridge, rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 16th century. During the 18th century there were innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich Grubenmann, Johannes Grubenmann. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716, a major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of the Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn, with the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a tensile strength, much larger bridges were built. In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded bridge in the world
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Metropolitan Toronto
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The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto was a senior level of municipal government in the Toronto, Ontario, Canada area from 1954 to 1998. It was created out of old town Toronto, York Township, Scarborough Township and it was commonly referred to as Metro Toronto or Metro to avoid confusion with the original city of Toronto, which was its administrative headquarters. Passage of the 1997 City of Toronto Act caused the 1998 amalgamation of Metro Toronto, prior to the formation of Metro, the municipalities surrounding the central City of Toronto were all independent towns and villages. All were members of either York Township, Scarborough Township or Etobicoke Township, after 1912, the city no longer annexed suburbs from York Township. At times the suburbs asked to be annexed into Toronto, in 1924, Ontario cabinet minister George S. Henry, was the first to propose a metropolitan district with its own council from the city and the county to administer shared services. He wrote a bill, but the government chose not to act on it. The Great Depression saw almost all of the towns and villages of the County go insolvent, when that happened they were, financially, taken over by the province. In 1933, Henry, now the premier, appointed an inquiry into forming a metropolitan district. A proposal was made for Toronto to provide several of its services to the suburbs as well, the inquiry died with the defeat of Henry in 1934. In the 1930s, a Liberal Ontario government named the first minister of municipal affairs, David A. Croll, and introduced a bill to amalgamate the City. The draft bill faced strong opposition in Toronto and was withdrawn, the government then started its own inquiry into issues of the suburbs surrounding Toronto. Through consensus, it came to the conclusion that a municipality was the best solution. The inquiry reported in September 1939, and its conclusions put aside for the duration of World War II, two factors changed in the 1940s. A Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario government was elected in 1943, with a changed policy, also in 1943, the first Master Plan was adopted in Toronto. It recognized that future growth would place in the vacant land of adjacent suburbs. Planning would have to take account the whole metropolitan area. In 1946, the province passed the Planning Act required each urban municipality to have its own Planning Board, a Toronto and Suburban Planning Board was founded, under the chairmanship of James P. Maher, and the vice-chairmanship of Fred Gardiner. The Board promoted specific projects, and promoted a green belt, a unified system of arterial roads
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Bill Davis
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William Grenville Bill Davis, PC CC OOnt QC was the 18th Premier of Ontario, Canada, from 1971 to 1985. Davis was first elected as the MPP for Peel in the 1959 provincial election where he was a backbencher in Leslie Frosts government, under John Robarts, he was a cabinet minister overseeing the education portfolio. He succeeded Robarts as Premier of Ontario and held the position until resigning in 1985, in a 2012 edition, the Institute for Research on Public Policys magazine, Policy Options, named Davis the second-best Canadian premier of the last forty years, beaten only by Peter Lougheed. Davis was born in Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Ontario and his father was a successful local lawyer. He married twice, first to Helen MacPhee, with whom he had four children, Davis was politically active from a young age. He frequently campaigned for local Member of Provincial Parliament Thomas Laird Kennedy and he graduated from the University of Toronto in 1951 and attended Osgoode Hall Law School. Davis was a player during his university years, and his teammates included Roy McMurtry and Thomas Leonard Wells. He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in the 1959 provincial election and he was only 29 years old. Although Peel was an extremely safe Conservative seat for most of its history, the election took place soon after the federal Progressive Conservative government of John Diefenbaker cancelled the Avro Arrow program. Most of the 14,000 Canadians put out of work by this decision were residents of Peel, and many cast protest ballots against Diefenbaker by supporting Bill Brydon, Davis served for two years as a backbench supporter of Leslie Frosts government. When Frost announced his retirement in 1961, Davis became the organizer of Robert Macaulays campaign to succeed him as premier. Macaulay was eliminated on the next-to-last ballot, and, with Davis, Davis was appointed to Robarts cabinet as Minister of Education on October 5,1962, and was re-elected by a greatly increased margin in the 1963 provincial election. Davis was given additional responsibilities as Ontarios Minister of University Affairs on May 14,1964 and he soon developed a reputation as a strongly interventionist minister, and oversaw a dramatic increase in education expenditures throughout the 1960s. He established many new schools, often in centralized locations to accommodate larger numbers of students. Davis also undertook dramatic and, at the time, controversial revisions of Ontarios outdated and he reduced the number of boards from 3,676 in 1962 to only 192 by 1967. Davis established new public universities as minister, including Trent University and Brock University and he is also responsible for the establishment of the TVOntario educational television network in 1970. Davis handling of the education portfolio made him a high-profile minister and he was quickly dubbed as the frontrunner, though his awkward speaking style and image as an establishment candidate hindered his campaign. He defeated rival candidate Allan Lawrence by only 44 votes on the final ballot, shortly after the convention, Davis invited Lawrences campaign team to join his inner circle of advisors
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Mike Harris
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Michael Deane Mike Harris was the 22nd Premier of Ontario from June 26,1995 to April 14,2002. He is most noted for the Common Sense Revolution, his Progressive Conservative governments program of deficit reduction in combination with lower taxes, Harris was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Hope Gooding and Sidney Deane Harris. He grew up in North Bay, where his father operated the Wasi Falls Resort fishing camp, Harris attended Waterloo Lutheran University but left after a year. At the age of 21, following his fathers purchase of a ski-hill, Harris moved to Sainte-Adèle, after the end of his first marriage, he enrolled at Laurentian University and North Bay Teachers College where he received his teaching certificate. He continued in his previous occupation as a ski-instructor at Nipissing Ridge on weekends as well as working at his fathers fishing camp during the summer season and he eventually left the teaching profession as the success of the ski resort escalated. After his father sold his own operation, Harris was hired to manage North Bays Pinewood Golf Club. Harris was elected to office as a school board trustee in 1974. He entered provincial politics in the 1981 election, and defeated the incumbent Liberal Member of Provincial Parliament in Nipissing, Harris later suggested that he was motivated to enter politics by an opposition to the policies of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. He sat as a backbencher in Bill Daviss Progressive Conservative government from 1981 to 1985 and he supported Frank Millers successful bid to succeed Davis as party leader in 1985, and took the role of rival candidate Dennis Timbrell to prepare Miller for the partys all-candidate debates. Miller was sworn in as Premier of Ontario on February 8,1985, the Tories were reduced to a minority government in the 1985 provincial election, although Harris was personally re-elected without difficulty. He kept the Natural Resources portfolio after the election, and was also named Minister of Energy on May 17,1985, an agreement between the Liberals and the NDP allowed a Liberal minority government to govern for two years in exchange for the implementation of certain NDP policies. This decision consigned the Tories to opposition for the first time in 42 years, Miller resigned and was replaced by Larry Grossman, who led the party to a disastrous showing in the 1987 election and announced his resignation shortly thereafter. Harris was again re-elected in Nipissing without difficulty, the party was not ready to hold a leadership convention in 1987. Grossman, who had lost his seat, remained the official leader of the party until 1990 while Sarnia MPP Andy Brandt served as interim leader in the legislature. Harris was chosen as PC house leader, and had become the dominant voice in the legislature by 1989. Harris entered the 1990 leadership race, and defeated Dianne Cunningham in a vote to replace Grossman as the partys official leader. The 1990 provincial election was called soon after Harris became party leader, with help from past leader Larry Grossman, Harris managed to rally his partys core supporters with pledges of tax cuts and spending reductions. Due to his background, Harris was personally endorsed by several local members of the Ontario Secondary School Teachers Federation
26.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
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Ottawa
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Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
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Regional Municipality of Sudbury
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The Regional Municipality of Sudbury was a regional municipality in Ontario, Canada, which existed from 1973 to 2000. The other half of Dill Township — including the community of Wanup — remained unincorporated, the existing town of Capreol also expanded its boundaries in 1973 to annex the unincorporated communities of Selwood and Milnet. However, despite its status as part of the Regional Municipality, the towns of Nickel Centre, Onaping Falls, Rayside-Balfour, Valley East and Walden were all newly created by the amalgamation of several smaller towns and townships. Valley East, the largest and fastest-growing of the towns, was granted city status in 1997. Each town and city in the municipality had its own mayor and council. The regional municipality had a council and chairman of its own. Unlike the counties and regional municipalities of Southern Ontario, the sparsely populated north is divided into unincorporated districts which do not serve as governing bodies. The regional offices were located at Civic Square, which was also the home of Sudburys city council, Civic Square was renamed Tom Davies Square in 1997 following the retirement of longtime regional chairman Tom Davies. In the 1976 municipal election, the first municipal elections held after the creation of the regional municipality, the strongest opposition was in Onaping Falls, with the vote running against regional government by a margin of 20 to one. Despite the opposition, however, none of the towns was released from the government structure. On January 1,2001, all of the seven incorporated municipalities, the former municipal names remain in informal use to designate the different areas of the city. The name Sudbury itself may be ambiguous, however — depending on the context, it may denote either the old city in isolation, or a shorthand name for the entire amalgamated city. The townships of Cleland and Dill encompass the communities of Wanup and St. Peter Wong, a mayor of Sudbury, became the regions first elected chair. Following Wongs death, councillor Doug Craig served as chair until he was succeeded by Frank Mazzuca
29.
Hamilton, Ontario
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Hamilton is a port city in the Canadian province of Ontario. Residents of the old city are known as Hamiltonians, since 1981, the metropolitan area has been listed as the ninth largest in Canada and the third largest in Ontario. Hamilton is home to the Royal Botanical Gardens, the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, McMaster University is ranked 4th in Canada and 94th in the world by Times Higher Education Rankings 2015-16 and has a well-known medical school. Possibly because of its environment, numerous TV and film productions have been filmed in Hamilton, regulated by the Hamilton Film. A growing arts and culture community garnered media attention in 2006 when the Globe and Mail published an article called Go West, the article highlighted local art galleries, recording studios and independent film production. In pre-colonial times, the Neutral Indians used much of the land but were driven out by the Five Nations who were allied with the British against the Huron. A member of the Iroquois Confederacy provided the route and name for Mohawk Road, which originally included King Street in the lower city. In 1784, about 10,000 United Empire Loyalists settled in Upper Canada, chiefly in Niagara, around the Bay of Quinte, and along the St. Lawrence River between Lake Ontario and Montreal. They were soon followed by many more Americans, some of not so much ardent loyalists but attracted nonetheless by the availability of inexpensive. At the same time, large numbers of Iroquois loyal to Britain arrived from the United States and were settled on reserves west of Lake Ontario. The town of Hamilton was conceived by George Hamilton, when he purchased farm holdings of James Durand, nathaniel Hughson, a property owner to the north, cooperated with George Hamilton to prepare a proposal for a courthouse and jail on Hamiltons property. Hamilton offered the land to the crown for the future site, Durand was empowered by Hughson and Hamilton to sell property holdings which later became the site of the town. As he had instructed, Durand circulated the offers at York during a session of the Legislative Assembly. Initially, this town was not the most important centre of the Gore District, a permanent jail was not constructed until 1832 when a cut-stone design was completed on one of the two squares created in 1816, Princes Square. Subsequently, the first police board and the limits were defined by statute on February 13,1833. Official City status was achieved on June 9,1846, by an act of Parliament,9 Victoria Chapter 73, the city had several interurban electric street railways and two inclines, all powered by the Cataract Power Co. Though suffering through the Hamilton Street Railway strike of 1906, with industrial businesses expanding, allan Skyway in 1958, and the first Tim Hortons store in 1964. Since then, many of the industries have moved or shut down operations and the economy has shifted more toward the service sector, such as transportation, education
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Greater Sudbury
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Greater Sudbury, commonly referred to as Sudbury, is a city in Ontario, Canada. It is the largest city in Northern Ontario by population, with a population of 161,531 in the Canada 2016 Census, by land area, it is the largest city in Ontario and the seventh largest municipality by area in Canada. It is administratively a single-tier municipality, and thus not part of any district, county, Sudbury was founded following the discovery of nickel ore by Tom Flanagan, a Canadian Pacific Railway blacksmith in 1883, when the transcontinental railway was near completion. Greater Sudbury was formed in 2001 by merging the cities and towns of the former Regional Municipality of Sudbury with several previously unincorporated geographic townships, the population resides in an urban core and many smaller communities scattered around 300 lakes and among hills of rock blackened by historical smelting activity. Sudbury was once a major centre and a world leader in nickel mining. Mining and related industries dominated the economy for much of the 20th century, the two major mining companies which shaped the history of Sudbury were Inco, now Vale Limited, which employed more than 25% of the population by the 1970s, and Falconbridge, now Glencore. Sudbury has since expanded from its economy to emerge as the major retail, economic, health. Sudbury is also home to a large Franco-Ontarian population that influences its arts, Sudbury has a humid continental climate with warm and often hot summers and long, cold, snowy winters. The Sudbury region was inhabited by the Ojibwe people of the Algonquin group as early as 9,000 years ago following the retreat of the last continental ice sheet. The land was first occupied by Europeans when the Jesuits established a mission called Sainte-Anne-des-Pins just before the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1883, the Sainte-Anne-des-Pins church played a prominent role in the development of Franco-Ontarian culture in the region. During construction of the railway in 1883, blasting and excavation revealed high concentrations of ore at Murray Mine on the edge of the Sudbury Basin. This discovery brought the first waves of European settlers, who arrived not only to reap the benefits of the mines, the community was named for Sudbury, Suffolk, in England, which was the hometown of Canadian Pacific Railway commissioner James Worthingtons wife. Sudbury was incorporated as a town in 1893, and its first mayor was Stephen Fournier, the construction of the railway allowed exploitation of these mineral resources as well as large-scale lumber extraction. Mining began to lumber as the primary industry as improvements to the areas transportation network, including trams, made it possible for workers to live in one community. Sudbury’s economy was dominated by the industry for much of the 20th century. Two major mining companies were created, Inco in 1902 and Falconbridge in 1928 and they became two of the city’s major employers and two of the worlds leading producers of nickel. Through the decades that followed, Sudburys economy went through boom, demand was high during the First World War when Sudbury-mined nickel was used extensively in the manufacturing of artillery in Sheffield, England. It bottomed out when the war ended and then again in the mid-1920s as peacetime uses for nickel began to develop
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Norfolk County, Ontario
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Norfolk County /ˈnɔːrfoʊk/ is a rural single-tier municipality on the north shore of Lake Erie in Southwestern Ontario, Canada. Surrounding its many communities is some of the most fertile land in Ontario. With a mild climate and lengthy growing season, the region has long been the centre of the Ontario tobacco belt, however, many farmers have begun the process of diversifying their crop selections to include lavender, ginseng, hazelnuts, and wolfberries as tobacco consumption continues to decrease. The area also has a greenhouse industry. Despite this, farmers have asked governments to reduce the losses of moving away from profitable tobacco operations. A significant natural feature of Norfolk is Long Point, a 40 kilometre spit of land projecting into Lake Erie and it plays an important part in eastern North American bird migration, and was designated a World Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1986. Long Point Provincial Park is located on the point, more than 25% of Norfolk County is considered to be forested, especially near the major communities and hamlets that dot the county. The county seat and largest community is Simcoe, other population centres are Port Dover, Delhi and Waterford. Norfolks history has been associated with that of the neighbouring Haldimand County. Norfolk was first created as a county in 1792, in 1800, Haldimand was formed from a portion of Norfolk. This political unit existed from 1974 to 2000, the last regional chairperson in Haldimand-Norfolk was John Harrison. On January 1,2001, the municipality was dissolved. Since they no longer have townships or other municipal subdivisions below them, the Townships of Delhi and Norfolk, the Town of Simcoe, and the western half of the City of Nanticoke were amalgamated to form the Town of Norfolk. Moreover, many communities such as Port Dover and Port Rowan are now in Norfolk County. The newly formed municipalitys first by-law was to change the name to Norfolk County, in January 2005, the county unveiled a new coat of arms which included natural symbols associated with the county, hooded warblers, a tulip tree and an eastern dogwood flower. The first mayor of the county, Rita Kalmbach, was succeeded in 2007 by Dennis Travale, a transit system was introduced in Norfolk County in 2010. Prior to its amalgamation with Haldimand in 1974, Norfolk consisted of eight townships, Walsingham was originally one township, but had been split into North and South Walsingham in 1881. Although no longer political entities, the townships are still used informally
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Haldimand County
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Haldimand is a rural city-status single-tier municipality on the Niagara Peninsula in Southern Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Erie, and on the Grand River. Municipal offices are located in Cayuga, haldimands history has been closely associated with that of the neighbouring Norfolk County. Haldimand was first created as a county in 1800, from a portion of Norfolk and it was named after the governor of the Province of Quebec Sir Frederick Haldimand. In 1844 the land was surrendered by Six Nations to the Crown in an agreement that was signed by the vast majority of Chiefs in the Haldimand tract, see Norfolk County History for the period when Haldimand and Norfolk were governed as a single unit. The population centres in Haldimand are Caledonia, Dunnville, Hagersville, Jarvis, part of the Six Nations Reserve is within the geographic area of Haldimand County, but is independent of the county. Most of Haldimand is agricultural land, although heavy industry. The ghost towns of Cooks Station, Cranston, Dufferin, Erie, Indiana Lambs Corners, Lythmore, Sandusk, Upper, Haldimand County area 284,817 acres was formed from part of the land grant to the Six Nations in 1783. The County was purchased by treaty and opened for settlement in 1832. It was first settled by veterans of Butlers Rangers established there by Joseph Brant. A large number of Germans were among the first settlers, granted in 1794 by Joseph Brant to John Dochstader of Butlers Rangers. Purchased by Benjamin Canby in 1810 for 5,000, he named the village-site Canborough, Community centre, Canborough, Darling and it touches Dunnville Dunn, area 15,122 acres. Community centre, Dunnville Moulton, area 27,781 acres, landowner Henry John Boulton named the township from the Boulton family seat in England. Joseph Brant granted a 999 year lease of part of Oneida and Seneca townships to Henry Nelles, of Butlers Rangers and his sons, Robert, Abraham, William, Warner, Community centres were, Caledonia, Dufferin and Hagersville. Rainham, area 25,705 acres Community centres, Balmoral, Selkirk, Rainham Centre, Community centres, York and Caledonia Sherbrooke, area 5,098 acres, the smallest township in Ontario. Opened in 1825 and named from Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, a Governor-General of Canada, the Township was granted by the Indians to William Dickson as a professional fee. Community centres, Stromness and Port Maitland, Community centres were, Hagersville, Jarvis, Selkirk, Cheapside and Nanticoke. Note that a person can report more than one group, Fire services in the county is provided by the Haldimand County Fire Department which was created in 2001 following the separation of Haldimand and Norfolk. The department currently consists of 11 stations located throughout the county
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Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
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French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
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Population of Canada
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The historical growth of Canadas population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Being a new country, Canada has been predisposed to be a very open society with regards to immigration. Canadians comprise about 0. 5% of the total population. The 2016 Canadian census counted a population of 35,151,728. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, despite the fact that Canadas population density is low, many regions in the south such as Southern Ontario, have population densities higher than several European countries. The large size of Canadas north which is not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region. Scholars vary on the size of the aboriginal population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact. During the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canadas Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. Although not without conflict, European Canadians early interactions with First Nations, roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot, who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France. In 1871 there was an enumeration of the population within the limits of Canada at the time. According to the 2011 Canadian Census, Aboriginal peoples numbered at 1,400,685, the European population grew slowly under French rule, thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration. Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high, the women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, Canadians had a diet for their time. The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America and it was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666. According to Talons census there were 3,215 people in New France, the census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women. By the early 1700s the New France settlers were established along the Saint Lawrence River. Mainly due to increase and modest immigration from Northwest France the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754. This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730, during the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth
36.
Alberta Municipal Affairs
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Alberta Municipal Affairs is a ministry of the Executive Council of Alberta. In October 2015, Deron Bilous was replaced as the Minister for Municipal Affairs by Danielle Larivee, libraries, community and voluntary sector services, previously under the authority of Alberta Community Development, were amalgamated in the new ministry. Albertas Ministry of Municipal Affairs includes Municipal Services and Legislation, Municipal Assessment and Grants, Corporate Strategic Services, the ministry also has oversight of the Municipal Government Board, the Alberta Emergency Management Agency, and the Special Areas Board. This division is responsible for municipal inspections, viability reviews. Branches include Municipal Services and Major Legislative Projects and Strategic Planning and this division is also responsible for the Municipal Sustainability Initiative program, Federal Gas Tax program, and assessment of all linear property in Alberta. Branches include Assessment Services and Grants and Education Property Tax, Corporate Strategic Services provides support, advice and other assistance to other divisions within Municipal Affairs. Corporate Strategic Services is also responsible for the Public Library Services Branch, Public Safetys mandate includes safe buildings, equipment and facilities and emergency response, regulated by the Safety Codes Act. Public Safety comprises Safety Services, the New Home Warranty and the Office of the Fire Commissioner, the Municipal Government Board is a provincial tribunal in Alberta, Canada. It is established pursuant to the Municipal Government Act, the MGB hears appeals from subdivision applications involving a provincial interest, appeals of linear property assessments, intermunicipal disputes, municipal annexations, and other matters. Alberta Municipal Affairs - Ministry website Government of Alberta - Municipal Affairs
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Administrative division
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Administrative divisions are granted a certain degree of autonomy and are usually required to manage themselves through their own local governments. Countries are divided up into smaller units to make managing their land. For example, a country may be divided into provinces, which, in turn, are divided into counties, which, in turn, may be divided in whole or in part into municipalities, and so on. Administrative divisions are separate from dependent territories, with the former being an integral part of the state. However, the administrative division can include dependent territories as well as accepted administrative divisions. For clarity and convenience the standard reference for the largest administrative subdivision of a country is called the first-level administrative division or first administrative level. Next smaller is called second-level administrative division or second administrative level, there is no fixed rule, for all politics is local as is perhaps well demonstrated by their relative lack of systemic order. In the realm of self-government, any of these can and does occur along a stretch of road—which for the most part is passing through rural unsettled countryside. In British cultural legacy, most territorial entities begin with fairly expansive counties which encompass a large area. Within those entities are the large and small cities or towns, many sister cities share a water boundary which quite often serves as a border of both cities and counties. For example, Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts appear to the traveler as one large city, while locally they each are quite culturally different. Sovereign state, a national or supra-national division, country, a national or sub-national division. Administrative division codes of the Peoples Republic of China GADM, a database of country administrative areas. ISO 3166-2, specifically Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions — Part 2
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Insular area
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An insular area is a territory of the United States of America that is neither a part of one of the fifty U. S. states nor the U. S. federal district of Washington, D. C. The term insular possession is sometimes used. The people of American Samoa are U. S. nationals by place of birth, or they are U. S. citizens by parentage, or naturalization after residing in a State for three months. Nationals are free to move around and seek employment within the United States without immigration restrictions but cannot vote or hold office outside of American Samoa. Residents of insular areas do not pay U. S. federal income taxes but are required to pay other U. S. federal taxes such as taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes. Individuals working for the government pay federal income taxes while all residents are required to pay federal payroll taxes. While these nations participate in many otherwise domestic programs, they are distinct from the United States. U. S. insular areas can be incorporated territories or unincorporated territories, since the admission of Hawaii to the Union in 1959, there have been no incorporated territories other than the uninhabited Palmyra Atoll. Several overseas unincorporated territories are now independent countries including the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, unlike within the states, sovereignty over insular areas rests not with the local people, but in Congress. In most areas, Congress has granted considerable self-rule through an Organic Act which functions as a local constitution, the Northwest Ordinance grants territories the right to send a non-voting delegate to the U. S. Congress. The United States government is part of international disputes over the disposition of certain maritime. See International territorial disputes of the United States, several islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific are considered insular areas of the United States. S. Administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory, later the U. S. entered into new political relationships with each of the four political units. One is the Northern Mariana Islands listed above, the others being the three freely associated states below. The freely associated states are the three states with a Compact of Free Association with the United States where the U. S. provides national defense, funding. Marshall Islands Federated States of Micronesia Palau Philippines, granted to U. S. through the Treaty of Paris in 1898, panama Canal Zone, under effective joint Panama-U. S. control under provisions of the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty from 1903 to 1979. In November 2008 a district judge ruled that a sequence of prior Congressional actions had had the cumulative effect of changing Puerto Ricos status to incorporated. However, as of April 2011 the issue had not yet made its way through the courts, census Bureau, Geographic Areas Reference Manual
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Protected area
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Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the laws of each country or the regulations of the international organisations involved. There are over 161,000 protected areas in the world with more added daily, by contrast, only 1. 17% of the worlds oceans is included in the worlds ~6,800 Marine Protected Areas. Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation, often providing habitat, Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Generally, protected areas are understood to be those in human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a range of governance types. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success, subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Of all global terrestrial carbon stock,15. 2% is contained within protected areas, Protected areas in South America hold 27% of the worlds carbon stock, which is the highest percentage of any country in both absolute terms and as a proportion of the total stock. Rainforests,18. 8% of the worlds forest is covered by protected areas, of the 670 ecoregions with forest cover, 54% have 10% or more of their forest cover protected under IUCN Categories I – VI. Mountain protected area coverage has increased globally by 21% since 1990, the categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. Protecting places and resources is by no means a modern concept, over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years, moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal, for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific and in parts of Africa. However, the protected areas movement doesnt begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. While the idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery, in Africa, the concern was with game parks, in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, international programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive, with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. There is increasing pressure to take account of human needs when setting up protected areas. Such negotiations are never easy but usually stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without the infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources, one of the main concerns regarding protected areas on land and sea is their effectiveness at preventing the ongoing loss of biodiversity
40.
Special Areas Board
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The Special Areas Board is the governing body of Albertas special areas. A special area is not to be confused with a specialized municipality, the special areas are administered under the provisions of the Special Areas Act. The three special areas are located in southeast Alberta within Census Division 4. The Special Areas Act of 1938 created the six areas of Tilley East, Berry Creek, Sullivan Lake, Sounding Creek, Neutral Hills, and Bow West. In 1939, these six special areas were consolidated into the four special areas listed below, the original six special areas included 3.2 million hectares, while the current three only include 2.1 million hectares. Tilley East was still an area in 1955, but was not by 1959. This area is now part of Cypress County, formerly the Municipal District of Cypress No.1, Berry Creek-Sullivan Lake Special Area, No. 2, The eastern portion of this area was withdrawn. The northern part of Tilley East Special Area was added to this area in 1941. It was renamed Special Area No.2 in 1959, Sounding Creek-Neutral Hills Special Area, No. 3, The eastern portion of the Berry Creek-Sullivan Lake Special Area was added to this area in 1939. It was renamed Special Area No.3 in 1959, in 1969, the northern portion of Special Area No.3 became Special Area No.4. 4, This area was still an area in 1955. It is now part of Vulcan County and the Municipal District of Taber, Albertas three special areas had a combined population totalling 4,499 in 2011
