1.
Land-use
–
It also has been defined as the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type. Land use practices vary considerably across the world, as of the early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1. 5% urban areas. As Albert Guttenberg wrote many years ago, Land use is a key term in the language of city planning, commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts. Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, Management consulting firms and non-governmental organizations will frequently seek to influence these regulations before they are codified. In colonial America, few regulations existed to control the use of land, as society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, in the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation. Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth, the majority of controls on land, however, stem from the actions of private developers and individuals. In these situations, judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, two major federal laws have been passed in the last half century that limit the use of land significantly. These are the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity, for instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, a food production system, is believed to be the oldest form of land use in the world. The major effect of use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant effects of use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization. Land-use change, together with use of fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide. As a consequence the result has often been misery for large segments of the population and destruction of valuable ecosystems. Such narrow approaches should be replaced by a technique for the planning and management of resources that is integrated and holistic. This will ensure the quality of the land for human use, the prevention or resolution of social conflicts related to land use. The urban growth boundary is one form of land-use regulation, for example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres of vacant land
2.
Infrastructure
–
Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
3.
Human settlement
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In geography, statistics and archaeology, a settlement, locality or populated place is a community in which people live. A settlement can range in size from a number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with surrounding urbanized areas. Settlements may include hamlets, villages, towns and cities, a settlement may have known historical properties such as the date or era in which it was first settled, or first settled by a particular people. In the field of geospatial predictive modeling, settlements are a city, town, village ghost or other agglomeration of buildings where people live and work. The oldest remains that have found of constructed dwellings are remains of huts that were made of mud. The Natufians built houses, also in the Levant, around 10,000 BC, remains of settlements such as villages become much more common after the invention of agriculture. Landscape history studies the form of settlements – for example whether they are dispersed or nucleated, urban morphology can thus be considered a special type of cultural-historical landscape studies. Settlements can be ordered by size, centrality or other factors to define a settlement hierarchy, geoscience Australia defines a populated place as a named settlement with a population of 200 or more persons. The Committee for Geographical Names in Australasia used the term localities for rural areas, the Bulgarian Government publishes a National Register of Populated Places. The Canadian government uses the term populated place in the Atlas of Canada, Statistics Canada uses the term localities for historical named locations. The Croatian Bureau of Statistics records population in units called settlements, the Census Commission of India has a special definition of census towns. The Central Statistics Office of the Republic of Ireland has a definition of census towns. There are various types of inhabited localities in Russia, Statistics Sweden uses the term localities for various densely populated places. The common English-language translation is urban areas, the UK Department for Communities and Local Government uses the term urban settlement to denote an urban area when analysing census information. The Registrar General for Scotland defines settlements as groups of one or more contiguous localities, the Scottish settlements are used as one of several factors defining urban areas. A populated place is not incorporated and by definition has no legal boundaries. However, a place may have a corresponding civil record. Census − a statistical area delineated locally specifically for the tabulation of Census Bureau data, civil − a political division formed for administrative purposes
4.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
5.
Town
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A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a town varies considerably in different parts of the world, the word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun, the Dutch word tuin, and the Old Norse tun. The German word Zaun comes closest to the meaning of the word. An early borrowing from Celtic *dunom, in English and Dutch, the meaning of the word took on the sense of the space which these fences enclosed. In England, a town was a community that could not afford or was not allowed to build walls or other larger fortifications. In the Netherlands, this space was a garden, more specifically those of the wealthy, in Old Norse tun means a place between farmhouses, and is still used in a similar meaning in modern Norwegian. If there was any distinction between toun and burgh as claimed by some, it did not last in practice as burghs, for example, Edina Burgh or Edinburgh was built around a fort and eventually came to have a defensive wall. In some cases, town is a name for city or village. Sometimes, the town is short for township. A places population size is not a determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, in the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns. Some forms of settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural. Towns often exist as governmental units, with legally defined borders. In the United States these are referred to as incorporated towns, in other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be unincorporated. Note that the existence of a town may be legally set forth through other means. In the case of planned communities, the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. Australian geographer Thomas Griffith Taylor proposed a classification of towns based on their age, although there is no official use of the term for any settlement. In Albanian qytezë means small city or new city, while in ancient times small residential center within the walls of a castle
6.
Urban planning
–
Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
7.
English-speaking world
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Approximately 330 to 360 million people speak English as their first language. More than half of live in the United States, followed by some 55 million in England. English is the third largest language by number of speakers, after Mandarin. Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 1 billion, david Crystal calculates that non-native speakers as of 2003 outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide, there are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. They are, in descending order of English speakers, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, other substantial communities of native speakers are found in South Africa, and Nigeria. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a language, e. g. Colombias San Andrés y Providencia. This was a result of the influence of British colonization in the area, English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa. It is also the language in current dependent territories of Australia and of the United States. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been official status by 32 of the 50 state governments. It is, by treaty, the official language for aeronautical. English is one of the languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations. In 2012, excluding native speakers,38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English, in publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world and 30 percent of web content in 2011. This increasing use of the English language globally has had a impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death. English itself has more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole. Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Census 2011, Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012, language in England and Wales,2011. Language Use in the United States,2011, Population by mother tongue and age groups,2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories
8.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
9.
Regional Plan Association
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Headquartered in New York City, it has offices in Princeton, New Jersey and Stamford, Connecticut. RPA has produced three strategic regional plans for the New York metropolitan region since the 1920s, the chronology of their plans is as follows, RPAs First Plan in 1929, developed under the leadership of Thomas Adams, provided a guide for the areas road and transportation network. The Second Plan, published as a series of reports in the 1960s, aimed at restructuring mass transit, RPA began work on its Fourth Regional Plan in 2013 and is expected to be published in 2017. The RPA program represents a philosophy of planning described by historian Robert Fishman as metropolitanism and it promotes large scale, industrial centers and the concentration of population rather than decentralized development. Its critics point out that results in windfall real estate profits for downtown interests. The preservation of the Palisades and the construction of the Palisades Interstate Parkway, the redevelopment of Governors Island, through the RPA-led coalition Governors Island Alliance. The establishment of national parks like the Gateway National Recreation Area in Jamaica Bay. The revitalization of the regional centers like Downtown Brooklyn, Newark, NJ and Stamford, New York The Politics of Urban Regional Development. Berkeley, California, University of California Press, chapter 3, The Metropolitan Tradition in American Planning. The American Planning Tradition, Culture and Policy, further reading Hiss, Tony, Yaro, Robert. A region at risk, the regional plan for the New York-New Jersey-Connecticut metropolitan area. Planning the Great Metropolis, The 1929 regional plan of New York, Regional Plan Association RPA Publications Library Guide to the Regional Plan Association Records, 1919–1997
10.
Conurbation
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In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urbanised area, in which transportation has developed to link areas to create a single urban labour market or travel to work area. The term conurbation was coined in 1915 by Patrick Geddes in his book Cities In Evolution, the term as described is used in Britain, whereas the term in the United States is most closely equivalent to metropolitan area as used by the Census Bureau. It may consist of a city and its suburbs. A conurbation should also be contrasted with a megalopolis, where the areas are close but not physically contiguous. The cities and towns of Port Louis, Beau Bassin-Rose Hill, Curepipe, Quatre Bornes, Vacoas-Phoenix and other urbanized villages form a large, a large part of this conurbation is located in the district of Plaines Wilhems. This network of urban areas has a population of 530,920 as of 2011. Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni, and Tshwane are currently merging to form a region that comprises a population of 14.6 million people, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region consists of Mumbai and its satellite towns. Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of seven municipal corporations, the region has an area of 4,355 km² and with a population of 20,998,395, and is among the top ten most populated urban agglomerations in the world. It is linked together through the Mumbai Suburban Railway system and a network of roads. The population of the NCR region is 21.7 million, Dhaka has recently been linked with Narayanganj and Gazipur city such that there are no gaps between Dhaka and those two cities. The Klang Valley conurbation in the state of Selangor is composed of, Kuala Lumpur, the second largest conurbation by population in Malaysia is Greater Penang. Centred in George Town, the city of the state of Penang, the conurbation also includes the following towns in Penang. Lahore–Raiwind–Kala Shah Kaku, the second largest city in Pakistan with its towns of Kala Shah Kaku. Metro Manila, Philippines Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Region, comprising Ho Chi Minh City, Bình Dương, Đồng Nai, Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu, Tây Ninh, and Tân An. Hanoi Metropolitan Region, comprising Hanoi, Bắc Ninh, Thái Nguyên, Vĩnh Phúc, and Việt Trì. Qui Nhơn-Nha Trang-Da Lat Conurbation Belt, comprising Qui Nhơn, An Nhơn, Sông Cầu, Tuy Hòa, Vân Phong Bay, Ninh Hòa, Nha Trang, Dien Khánh, Cam Lâm, Cam Ranh, Trường Sa, Phan Rang, and Da Lat. Huế-Da Nang-Quảng Ngãi Conurbation Belt, comprising Huế, Hương Tra, Hương Thủy, Lăng Cô, Da Nang, Hòa Vang, Hoàng Sa, Hội An, Tam Kỳ, Chu Lai, Dung Quất, Sơn Tịnh and this area is colloquially known as the Area Metropolitana. The Flemish Diamond is the Flemish reference to a network of four areas in Belgium
11.
Regional assembly (England)
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The regional chambers of England were a group of indirectly elected regional bodies that were created by the provisions of the Regional Development Agencies Act 1998. There were eight regional chambers, one for each of the regions of England except Greater London, all eight regional chambers had adopted the title regional assembly or assembly as part of their name, though this was not an official status in law. The chambers were abolished over a period between 31 March 2008 and 31 March 2010 and some of their functions were assumed by newly established Local authority leaders boards. Greater London has a directly elected London Assembly, which was established by legislation and is part of the Greater London Authority. Their original defined role was to channel regional opinions to the regional development agencies. Each acted as a Regional Planning Body with a duty to formulate a Regional Spatial Strategy including Regional Transport Strategy, the eight regional chambers as defined by the Regional Development Agencies Act 1998 were not directly elected. The London Assembly is part of a wider Greater London Authority and has 25 directly elected members and its role is defined in the Greater London Authority Act 1999. Each chamber had adopted the regional assembly or assembly. It continues to exist after the abolition of the eight regional chambers, each assembly corresponded to a region of England. In May 2002, the UK government published a White Paper, Your Region, Your Choice and these assemblies were to be responsible for regional strategies dealing with sustainable development, economic development, spatial planning, transport, waste, housing, culture and biodiversity. They would be funded primarily by government grant, with powers to raise additional funds from a precept on the council tax. The Assemblies were expected to be elected by an Additional Member System similar to those used for the London Assembly, the Scottish Parliament and the National Assembly for Wales. The Regional Assemblies Act 2003 made provisions for referendums to be held to create such assemblies, three such referendums were planned, for the regions of North East and North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber. They would be able to look across local boundary constraints and ensure planning decisions are made with region-wide interests taken into account. On 8 July 2004 it was announced that the referendums would be held on 4 November and this region was chosen because the government thought it was the most likely to approve the proposal. However the voters rejected the assembly by 696,519 votes to 197,310 and this overwhelmingly negative vote was seen as an insurmountable obstacle to elected regional assemblies elsewhere in England outside London. On 8 November, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott told the House of Commons he would not move orders for the two regions within the effective time limit of June 2005 permitted by the Act. The English Regions Network is the organisation for Englands eight partnership Regional Assemblies
12.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
13.
Land use
–
It also has been defined as the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type. Land use practices vary considerably across the world, as of the early 1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests and woodland, and 1. 5% urban areas. As Albert Guttenberg wrote many years ago, Land use is a key term in the language of city planning, commonly, political jurisdictions will undertake land-use planning and regulate the use of land in an attempt to avoid land-use conflicts. Land use plans are implemented through land division and use ordinances and regulations, Management consulting firms and non-governmental organizations will frequently seek to influence these regulations before they are codified. In colonial America, few regulations existed to control the use of land, as society shifted from rural to urban, public land regulation became important, especially to city governments trying to control industry, commerce, and housing within their boundaries. The first zoning ordinance was passed in New York City in 1916, in the 1970s, concerns about the environment and historic preservation led to further regulation. Today, federal, state, and local governments regulate growth, the majority of controls on land, however, stem from the actions of private developers and individuals. In these situations, judicial decisions and enforcement of private land-use arrangements can reinforce public regulation, two major federal laws have been passed in the last half century that limit the use of land significantly. These are the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity, for instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, a food production system, is believed to be the oldest form of land use in the world. The major effect of use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant effects of use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization. Land-use change, together with use of fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide. As a consequence the result has often been misery for large segments of the population and destruction of valuable ecosystems. Such narrow approaches should be replaced by a technique for the planning and management of resources that is integrated and holistic. This will ensure the quality of the land for human use, the prevention or resolution of social conflicts related to land use. The urban growth boundary is one form of land-use regulation, for example, Portland, Oregon is required to have an urban growth boundary which contains at least 20,000 acres of vacant land
14.
Transport hub
–
A transport hub is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles or between transport modes. Public transport hubs include train stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stop, airports, freight hubs include classification yards, airports, seaports and truck terminals, or combinations of these. For private transport, the parking lot functions as a hub, delta Air Lines pioneered the hub and spoke system for aviation in 1955 from its hub in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, in an effort to compete with Eastern Air Lines. FedEx adopted the hub and spoke model for overnight package delivery during the 1970s, when the United States airline industry was deregulated in 1978, Deltas hub and spoke paradigm was annexed by several airlines. Several airlines around the world operate hub and spoke systems, sections of city streets that are devoted to functioning as transit hubs are referred to as transit malls. Modern electronic passenger information systems and journey planners require a digital representation of the stops, airports have a twofold hub function. First they concentrate passenger traffic into one place for onward transportation and this makes it important for airports to be connected to the surrounding transport infrastructure, including roads, bus services, railway and rapid transit systems. Secondly some airports function as hubs for the airlines, or airline hubs. Airlines have extended the model in various ways. One method is to create additional hubs on a regional basis and this reduces the need to travel long distances between nodes that are close together. Another method is to use focus cities to implement point-to-point service for high traffic routes, there are usually three kinds of freight hubs, sea-road, sea-rail and road-rail, though they can also be sea-road-rail. With the growth of containerization, intermodal freight transport has become more efficient, central station Infrastructure security Intermodal Journey Planner Junction Layover Spoke-hub distribution paradigm
15.
Military base
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A military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or for the military or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations. In general, a military base provides accommodations for one or more units, but it may also be used as a command center, in most cases, a military base relies on some outside help in order to operate. Bases are usually extra-legal jurisdictions not subject to civil law and they can range from small outposts to military cities containing up to 100,000 people. Some military bases may belong to a different nation or state than the territory surrounding it, the name used generally refers to the type of military activity that takes place at the base. Alternatively, the term may refer solely to an establishment which is used only by an army to the exclusion of a used by either an air force or a navy. This is consistent with the different meanings of the word military, other examples of non- or semi-permanent military bases include a Forward Operating Base, a Logistics Base and a Fire Base. A military base may contain large concentrations of military supplies in order to support military logistics. Most military bases are restricted to the public and usually only authorized personnel may enter them, Military bases usually provide housing for military personnel, a post office and dining facilities. Bases used by the United States Air Force Reserve tend to be active USAF bases, however, there are a few Air Reserve Bases, such as Dobbins ARB, Georgia, and Grissom ARB, Indiana, both of which are former active-duty USAF bases. Support facilities on Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve installations tend to not be as extensive as active bases, i. e. they usually do not have on-base billeting, clinics, or commissaries. Petersburg area including training schools, commissioning institutes, the academy. An overseas military base is a base that is geographically located outside of the territory of the country whose armed forces are the principal occupants of the base. The overseas military base has, throughout its history of usage, been an issue of debate. In the 18th and 19th Centuries the Royal Engineers were largely responsible for erecting military bases in the British Isles, in 1792 the Chief Engineer was instructed to prepare the Barrack Construction estimates for Parliament and at the same time the Department of the Barrackmaster-General was established. In 1959 the Corps Work Services was transferred to the civilian War Department Works Organization and by 1965 the were formed to plan, British naval bases are traditionally named, commissioned, and administered as though they were naval ships. For this reason they are sometimes called stone frigates, lists of military installations Military installations of NATO Official Directory of US Military bases. Royal Engineers Museum Military Works New US Military Bases, Side Effects Or Causes Of War, by Zoltan Grossman US Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Outposts of Empire - Booklet and map of the American military bases in the world. Transnational Institute, March 2007 MyMilitaryBase. com - Directory of Military Installations
16.
Wilderness
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Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. Some governments establish them by law or administrative acts, usually in land tracts that have not been modified by human action in great measure, the main feature of them is that human activity is restricted significantly. These actions seek not only to preserve what already exists, but also to promote and advance a natural expression, Wilderness areas can be found in preserves, conservation preserves, National Forests, National Parks and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped areas. These areas are considered important for the survival of species, biodiversity, ecological studies, conservation, solitude. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral, some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. They may also preserve historic genetic traits and provide habitat for flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos. The word wilderness derives from the notion of other words. The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being wilderness, many ecosystems that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered wild. This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without human interference, the WILD Foundation states that wilderness areas have two dimensions, they must be biologically intact and legally protected. The World Conservation Union classifies wilderness at two levels, Ia and Ib, activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as fire suppression and the interruption of animal migration also affect the interior of wildernesses. Especially in wealthier, industrialized nations, it has a legal meaning as well. Many nations have designated wilderness, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, looked at through the lens of the visual arts, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art occurred in the Tang Dynasty, the tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature, for most of human history, the greater part of the Earths terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated in settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire, Ashoka, the Great Mauryan King, defined the first laws in the world to protect flora and fauna in Edicts of Ashoka around 3rd Century B. C. In the Middle Ages, the Kings of England initiated one of the world’s first conscious efforts to natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to hunt wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness, nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European countries, the idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the Western world in the 19th century
17.
Land development
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In an economics context, land development is also sometimes advertised as land improvement or land amelioration. It refers to investments making land more usable by humans, for accounting purposes it refers to any variety of projects that increase the value of the property. Most are depreciable, but some improvements are not able to be depreciated because a useful life cannot be determined. Home building and containment are two of the most common and the oldest types of development and this profit enhancement means identifying and developing the best scheme for the local marketplace, whilst satisfying the local planning process. Development Analysis puts development prospects and the development process itself under the microscope, development analysis can add significantly to the value of land and development, and as such is a crucial tool for landowners and developers. It is a step in Kevin A. Lynchs 1960 book The Image of the City. The landowner can share in additional planning gain via an awareness of the development potential. This is done via a residual development appraisal or residual valuation, the residual appraisal calculates the sale value of the end product, and hypothetically deducts costs, including planning and construction costs, finance costs and developers profit. The residue, or leftover proportion, represents the land value, therefore, in maximising the GDV, land value is concurrently enhanced. Land value is highly sensitive to supply and demand, build costs, planning and affordable housing contributions, understanding the intricacies of the development system and the effect of value drivers can result in massive differences in the landowners sale value. Land improvement in the economic sense can often lead to degradation from the ecological perspective. Land development and the change in land value does not usually take into account changes in the ecology of the developed area, new creation of farmland will rely on the conversion and development of previous forests, savannas or grassland. Recreation of farmland from wasteland, deserts or previous impervious surfaces is considerably less frequent because of the degraded or missing fertile soil in the latter, starting from forests, land is made arable by assarting or slash-and-burn. Agricultural development furthermore includes, Hydrological measures Soil improvement, road construction Because the newly created farmland is more prone to erosion than soil stabilized by tree roots, such a conversion may mean irreversible crossing of an ecological threshold. The resulting deforestation is not easily compensated for by reforestation or afforestation. Examples of land restoration/land rehabilitation counted as land development in the strict sense are still rare, however, renaturation, reforestation, stream restoration may all contribute to a healthier environment and quality of life, especially in densely populated regions. The same is true for planned vegetation like parks and gardens, but restoration plays a particular role, because it reverses previous conversions to built and agricultural areas
18.
Floodplain
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In other words, a floodplain is an area near a river or a stream which floods when the water level reaches flood stage. Flood plains are made by a meander eroding sideways as it travels downstream, when a river breaks its banks and floods, it leaves behind layers of alluvium. These gradually build up to create the floor of the flood plain, floodplains generally contain unconsolidated sediments, often extending below the bed of the stream. These are accumulations of sand, gravel, loam, silt, and/or clay, and are often important aquifers, geologically ancient floodplains are often represented in the landscape by fluvial terraces. These are old floodplains that remain relatively high above the present floodplain and it is probable that any section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar character. The floodplain during its formation is marked by meandering or anastomotic streams, oxbow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is diverted for any reason. The floodplain differs, however, because it is not altogether flat and it has a gentle slope downstream, and often, for a distance, from the side towards the center. The floodplain is the place for a river to dissipate its energy. Meanders form over the floodplain to slow down the flow of water, in terms of flood management the upper part of the floodplain is crucial as this is where the flood water control starts. Artificial canalisation of the river here will have a impact on wider flooding. This is the basis of flood management. Floodplains can support particularly rich ecosystems, both in quantity and diversity, tugay forests form an ecosystem associated with floodplains, especially in Central Asia. They are a category of riparian zones or systems, a floodplain can contain 100 or even 1,000 times as many species as a river. Microscopic organisms thrive and larger species enter a rapid breeding cycle, opportunistic feeders move in to take advantage. The production of nutrients peaks and falls away quickly, however the surge of new growth endures for some time and this makes floodplains particularly valuable for agriculture. River flow rates are undergoing change following suit with climate change and this change is a threat to the riparian zones and other flood plain forests. These forests have over time synced their seedling deposits after the peaks in flow to best take advantage of the nutrient rich soil generated by peak flow
19.
Earthquake fault
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In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large faults within the Earths crust result from the action of tectonic forces. Energy release associated with movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. A fault plane is the plane that represents the surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is the intersection of a plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on maps to represent a fault. Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, the two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. By definition, the wall occurs above the fault plane. This terminology comes from mining, when working a tabular ore body, because of friction and the rigidity of rocks, they cannot glide or flow past each other easily, and occasionally all movement stops. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the rate is too great. The energy released by instantaneous strain-release causes earthquakes, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries, slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of a fault plane, and is a displacement vector. A faults sense of slip is defined as the motion of the rock on each side of the fault with respect to the other side. In practice, it is only possible to find the slip direction of faults. Based on direction of slip, faults can be categorized as, strike-slip. Dip-slip, offset is predominantly vertical and/or perpendicular to the fault trace, oblique-slip, combining significant strike and dip slip. The fault surface is usually vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are known as sinistral faults. Those with right-lateral motion are known as dextral faults
20.
Green belt
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A green belt or greenbelt is a policy and land use designation used in land use planning to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land surrounding or neighbouring urban areas. Similar concepts are greenways or green wedges which have a linear character, in essence, a green belt is an invisible line designating a border around a certain area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return and be established. The green belt has many benefits for people, Walking, camping, contiguous habitat network for wild plants, animals and wildlife. Cleaner air and water Better land use of areas within the bordering cities, the effectiveness of green belts differs depending on location and country. The Old Testament outlines a proposal for a belt around the Levite towns in the Land of Israel. Moses Maimonides expounded that the plan from the Old Testament referred to all towns in ancient Israel. In the 7th century, Muhammad established a green belt around Medina and he did this by prohibiting any further removal of trees in a 12-mile long strip around the city. In 1580 Elizabeth I of England banned new building in a 3-mile wide belt around the City of London in an attempt to stop the spread of plague, however, this was not widely enforced and it was possible to buy dispensations which reduced the effectiveness of the proclamation. Green belt policy was then pioneered in the United Kingdom, various proposals were put forward from 1890 onwards but the first to garner widespread support was put forward by the London Society in its Development Plan of Greater London 1919. Alongside the CPRE they lobbied for a belt to prevent urban sprawl. There are fourteen green belt areas, in the UK covering 16,716 km², or 13% of England, other notable examples are the Ottawa Greenbelt and Golden Horseshoe Greenbelt in Ontario, Canada. Ottawas 20,350 hectare greenbelt is managed by the National Capital Commission, the more general term in the United States is green space or greenspace, which may be a very small area such as a park. The dynamic Adelaide Park Lands, measuring approximately 7.6 km², on the fringe of the eastern suburbs, an expansive natural greenbelt in the Adelaide Hills acts as a growth boundary for Adelaide, cooling the region in the hottest months. The European Commissions COST Action C11 is undertaking Case studies in Greenstructure Planning involving 15 European countries. An act of the Swedish parliament from 1994 has declared a series of parks in Stockholm, the stated motivation and benefits of the green belt might be well-intentioned, but these benefits do not accrue as intentioned or claimed. Examples commonly cited are the Ottawa suburbs of Kanata and Orleans and this leads to other problems, as residents of these areas have a longer commute to work places in the city and worse access to public transport. It also means people have to commute through the green belt, not only is the merit of a green belt subverted, but the green belt may heighten the problem and make the city unsustainable. There are many examples whereby the actual effect of green belts is to act as a reserve for future freeways
21.
Zoning
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Zoning describes the control by authority which designates legal areas in a municipality to permit and prohibit land uses. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land and it may also indicate the size and dimensions of land area as well as the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development, areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are permitted. Thus, zoning is a technique of land-use planning as a tool of urban planning used by governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of designating mapped zones which regulate the use, form, design, legally, a zoning plan is usually enacted as a by-law with the respective procedures. Canada or Germany, zoning plans must comply with upper-tier planning, similar urban planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities from ancient times. The primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible, in practice, zoning also is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community. However, it has not always been a method for achieving this goal. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth government is not subject to state planning controls, the United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes, in the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. In Germany, zoning includes an assessment with very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar, most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances, usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to antiquity, the ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land based on use. Outside the city walls were the functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, within the wall were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived. Beyond the simple distinction between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land type and use inside their walls. This was practiced in regions of the world – for example, in China during the Zhou Dynasty, in India during the Vedic Era. One legal form for enforcing this was the caste system and this meant that residential areas also functioned as places of labour, production and commerce
22.
Metropolitan planning organization
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MPOs were introduced by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1962, which required the formation of an MPO for any urbanized area with a population greater than 50,000. Federal funding for projects and programs are channeled through this planning process. Statewide and metropolitan transportation planning processes are governed by federal law, transparency through public access to participation in the planning process and electronic publication of plans now is required by federal law. As of 2015, there are 408 MPOs in the United States, typically, an MPO governance structure includes a variety of committees as well as a professional staff. The “policy committee” is the top-level decision-making body for the planning organization, rather, a policy committee member typically is an elected or appointed official of one of the MPO’s constituent local jurisdictions. The policy committee member thus has legal authority to speak and act on behalf of that jurisdiction in the MPO setting, federal law, however, does not require members of an MPO policy committee to be representatives of the metropolitan areas populations. Systematic studies have found that MPO policy committees representations of urban municipalities, the policy committee also may play an active role in key decision points or milestones associated with MPO plans and studies, as well as conducting public hearings and meetings. An appointed advisory committee develops the recommendations for consideration by the policy committee, most MPOs also establish a technical committee to act as an advisory body to the policy committee for transportation issues that primarily are technical in nature. The technical committee interacts with the MPO’s professional staff on matters related to planning, analysis tasks. Through this work, the technical committee develops recommendations on projects, Metropolitan travel forecasting is one of the key roles that the technical committee supports. The technical committee typically comprises staff-level officials of local, state, in addition, a technical committee may include representatives of interest groups, various transportation modes, and local citizens. Usually MPOs retain a core staff in order to ensure the ability to carry out the required metropolitan planning process in an effective. The funding for the operations of an MPO comes from a combination of federal funds and required matching funds from state. Some have large staffs, while others may include only a director, sometimes the professional staff of an MPO is provided by a county or a council of governments. In many urban areas, existing organizations such as county governments or councils of government also function as MPOs, the MPO role also may be played by an independent governmental organization or a regional government. In the Portland, Oregon, metropolitan area, for example, in the Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, metropolitan area, the Metropolitan Council is the MPO. An example of a medium-sized MPO is the Lexington Area MPO in Kentucky, an example of a small MPO is the Kittery Area MPO in Maine. Another MPO planning organization has developed in the area of western central Florida, often the members of the executive committee of an MPO act interchangeably as the representative to this seven-MPO regional committee
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
Environmental social science
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Environmental social science is the broad, transdisciplinary study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. List of environmental degree-granting institutions List of environmental social science journals List of environmental studies topics Berkhout, Frans, Melissa Leach, shifting perspectives in environmental social science. Pp. 1–31 in Negotiating Environmental Change, New Perspectives from Social Science, ISBN 978-1843761532 Folmer, Henk, and Olof Johansson-Stenman. Does Environmental Economics Produce Aeroplanes Without Engines, on the Need for an Environmental Social Science, Environmental and Resource Economics 48, 337-361. Environmental Social Science, Human-Environment Interactions and Sustainability, New Ecology and the Social Sciences, What Prospects for a Fruitful Engagement. Annual Review of Anthropology 28, 479-507, vaccaro, Ismael, Eric Alden Smith, and Shankar Aswani, eds. Environmental Social Sciences, Methods and Research Design, Cambridge, UK, and New York, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12571-0 Environment and Society, Scholarly Journals
25.
Ecological anthropology
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Ecological anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology and is defined as the “study of cultural adaptations to environments”. The sub-field is also defined as, the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment. ”Ecological anthropology developed from the approach of cultural ecology, research pursued under this approach aims to study a wide range of human responses to environmental problems. In the 1960s, ecological anthropology first appeared as a response to cultural ecology, Steward focused on studying different modes of subsistence as methods of energy transfer and then analyzed how they determine other aspects of culture. Culture became the unit of analysis and it was characterised by systems theory, functionalism and negative feedback analysis. Benjamin S. Orlove has noted that the development of ecological anthropology has occurred in stages, “Each stage is a reaction to the previous one rather than merely an addition to it”. During the first stage, two different models were developed by both White and Steward, during the second stage, it was noted that the later group agreed with Steward and White, while the other disagreed. ‘Neoevolutionists’ borrowed from the work of Charles Darwin, the general approach suggested that “evolution is progressive and leads towards new and better forms in succeeding periods”. ‘Processual ecological anthropology’ is noted to be new, studies based on this approach “seek to overcome the split in the second stage of ecological anthropology between excessively short and long time scales”. The approach more specifically, examines “shifts and changes in individual and group activities, one of the leading practitioners within this sub-field of anthropology was Roy Rappaport. He conducted the majority, if not all, of his fieldwork amongst a group known as the Maring, patricia K. Townsends work highlights the difference between ecological anthropology and environmental anthropology. In her view, some anthropologists use both terms in an interchangeable fashion and she states that, “Ecological anthropology will refer to one particular type of research in environmental anthropology – field studies that describe a single ecosystem including a human population”. Studies conducted under this sub-field “frequently deal with a population of only a few hundred people such as a village or neighbourhood”. Studies under the discipline are concerned with the ethnoecologies of indigenous populations, “In the face of national and international incentives to exploit and degrade, ethnological systems that once preserved local and regional environments increasingly are ineffective or irrelevant”. Threats also exist of “commercial logging, industrial pollution, and the imposition of external management systems” on their local ecosystems and these threats to indigenous ways of life are a familiar occurrence in the field of anthropology. Conrad Phillip Kottak states that, “Today’s ecological anthropology, aka environmental anthropology, attempts not only to understand, one of the current criticisms is that, in its original form, ecological anthropology relies upon cultural relativism as the norm. However, in world, there are few cultures that are isolated enough to live in a true culturally relative state. Instead, cultures are being influenced and changed by media, governments, NGOs, businesses, in response, the discipline has seen a shift towards applied ecological anthropology, political ecology and environmental anthropology. ISBN 0-470-85000-0 McGrath, Stacy Ecological Anthropology, M. D Murphy Anthropological Theories
26.
Ecological economics
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Ecological economics was founded in the 1980s as a modern discipline in the works of and interactions between various European and American academics. The related field of economics is, in general, a more politically applied form of the subject. According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, issues of intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation. Positional analysis, which attempts to time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative. Ecological economics shares many of its perspectives with feminist economics, including the focus on sustainability, nature, justice, the first principles, deriving from the radiochemist FA Soddy, were laid out in his 1926 book Wealth, Money and Debt in 1926. Early modern interest in ecology and economics dates back to the 1940s in the work of K. William Kapp and Karl Polanyi, however, the first organized meetings of modern ecological economists occurred in the 1980s. These began in 1982, at the instigation of Lois Banner, most were ecosystem ecologists or mainstream environmental economists, with the exception of Daly. In 1987, Daly and Costanza edited an issue of Ecological Modeling to test the waters, a book entitled Ecological Economics, by Juan Martinez-Alier, was published later that year. 1989 saw the foundation of the International Society for Ecological Economics and publication of its journal, Ecological Economics, Robert Costanza was the first president of the society and first editor of the journal, currently edited by Richard Howarth. European conceptual founders include Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, K. William Kapp, some key concepts of what is now ecological economics are evident in the writings of E. F. Other figures include ecologists C. S. Holling, H. T, odum and Robert Costanza, biologist Gretchen Daily and physicist Robert Ayres. CUNY geography professor David Harvey explicitly added ecological concerns to political economic literature and this parallel development in political economy has been continued by analysts such as sociologist John Bellamy Foster. The antecedents can be traced back to the Romantics of the 19th century as well as some Enlightenment political economists of that era, concerns over population were expressed by Thomas Malthus, while John Stuart Mill predicted the desirability of the stationary state of an economy. Mill thereby anticipated later insights of modern ecological economists, but without having had their experience of the social and ecological costs of the Post–World War II economic expansion. As Martinez-Alier explores in his book the debate on energy in systems can also be traced into the 19th century e. g. Nobel prize-winning chemist. His magnum opus, The Entropy Law and the Economic Process, has been highly influential, in addition, the journal Ecological Economics has itself been criticized for swamping the field with mainstream economics. Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution, the sink function describes an environments ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution, when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Some persistent pollutants, such as organic pollutants and nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all
27.
Environmental economics
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Environmental economics is a sub-field of economics that is concerned with environmental issues. Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative policies to deal with air pollution, water quality, toxic substances, solid waste. Environmental economics is distinguished from ecological economics in that ecological economics emphasizes the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem with its focus upon preserving natural capital, central to environmental economics is the concept of market failure. Market failure means that markets fail to allocate resources efficiently, as stated by Hanley, Shogren, and White in their textbook Environmental Economics, A market failure occurs when the market does not allocate scarce resources to generate the greatest social welfare. A wedge exists between what a person does given market prices and what society might want him or her to do to protect the environment. Such a wedge implies wastefulness or economic inefficiency, resources can be reallocated to make at least one person better off without making anyone worse off. Common forms of failure include externalities, non-excludability and non-rivalry. An externality exists when a person makes a choice that affects people in a way that is not accounted for in the market price. An externality can be positive or negative, but is associated with negative externalities in environmental economics. For instance, water seepage in residential buildings happen in upper floor affect the lower floor, or a firm emitting pollution will typically not take into account the costs that its pollution imposes on others. As a result, pollution may occur in excess of the efficient level. When it is too costly to some people from access to an environmental resource. In either case of non-exclusion, market allocation is likely to be inefficient and these challenges have long been recognized. Hardins concept of the tragedy of the commons popularized the challenges involved in non-exclusion and common property, the basic problem is that if people ignore the scarcity value of the commons, they can end up expending too much effort, over harvesting a resource. Hardin theorizes that in the absence of restrictions, users of a resource will use it more than if they had to pay for it and had exclusive rights. See, however, Ostroms work on how people using real common property resources have worked to establish self-governing rules to reduce the risk of the tragedy of the commons. The mitigation of climate change effects is an example of a public good and this is a public good since the risks of climate change are both non-rival and non-excludable. Such efforts are non-rival since climate mitigation provided to one does not reduce the level of mitigation that anyone else enjoys and they are non-excludable actions as they will have global consequences from which no one can be excluded
28.
Environmental communication
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This includes a wide range of possible interactions, from interpersonal communication to virtual communities, participatory decision making, and environmental media coverage. And it also includes verbal communication, Flor considers it as a significant element in the environmental sciences, which he believes to be a transdicipline. He begins his textbook on environmental communication with a declarative statement, the environmental movement was ignited by a spark from a writer’s pen, or more specifically and accurately, Rachel Carson’s typewriter. In an earlier book, Flor and Gomez explore the development of an environmental communication curriculum from the perspectives of practitioners from the government, the private sector, Climate change communications has historically focused on news coverage and disseminating information. Academic fields such as psychology, environmental sociology, and risk communication have argued that public nonresponse to climate change is due to a lack of information. In her book Living in Denial, Climate Change, Emotions, in fact, too much information can do the exact opposite because people tend to neglect global warming once they realize there is no easy solution. When people understand the complexity of the issue, they can feel overwhelmed, Environmental skepticism is an increasing challenge for environmental rhetoric. Environmental communication is also a type of action that serves two functions. Those functions are pragmatic and constitutive, Environmental communication is pragmatic because it helps individuals and organizations to accomplish goals and literally do things through communication. Examples of this include educating, alerting, persuading and collaborating, Environmental communication is constitutive because it helps to shape peoples understandings of environmental issues, themselves, and Nature, it shapes the meanings we hold of these things. Examples of this include values, attitudes, and ideologies vis-à-vis Nature and environmental issues, Communication Theory has one universal law, written by S. F. Scudder in the early 1900s, and later published in 1980. The Universal Communication Law states that, All living entities, beings, Communication is a means of survival, existence and being and does not need another to acknowledge its presence. Examples - the cry of a child, the browning of a leaf, in his book, Flor extends this argument by forwarding that, All living systems, from the simplest to the most complex, are equipped to perform these critical functions. They are called critical because they are necessary for the survival of the living system, Communication is nothing more than the exchange of information. Hence, at its broadest sense, environmental communication is necessary for the survival of every living system, be it an organism, according to J. Communicating Nature, How We Create and Understand Environmental Messages. Environmental Communication and the Public Sphere, thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications Flor, Alexander G. Environmental Communication, Principles, Approaches and Strategies of Communication Applied to Environmental Management
29.
Environmental history
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Environmental history is the study of human interaction with the natural world over time. In contrast to other disciplines, it emphasizes the active role nature plays in influencing human affairs. Environmental historians study how humans both shape their environment and are shaped by it, Environmental history emerged in the United States out of the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, and much of its impetus still stems from present-day global environmental concerns. The field was founded on conservation issues but has broadened in scope to more general social and scientific history and may deal with cities. As all history occurs in the world, environmental history tends to focus on particular time-scales, geographic regions. It is also a strongly multidisciplinary subject that draws widely on both the humanities and natural science, the subject matter of environmental history can be divided into three main components. The first, nature itself and its change over time, includes the impact of humans on the Earths land, water. The second category, how humans use nature, includes the consequences of increasing population, more effective technology. Finally, environmental historians study how people think about nature - the way attitudes, beliefs and values influence interaction with nature, especially in the form of myths, religion and science. In 1967 Roderick Nash published Wilderness and the American Mind, a work that has become a classic text of early environmental history. In an address to the Organization of American Historians in 1969 Nash used the expression environmental history, the 1959 book by Samuel P. Hays is Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Pittsburgh. Brief overviews of the field of history have been given by John McNeill in 2003, Richard White in 1985. In 2014 Oxford University Press published a volume of 25 essays entitled The Oxford Handbook of Environmental History and this collection was edited by Andrew C. There is no accepted definition of environmental history. Donald Worsters widely quoted 1988 definition states, Environmental history is the interaction between cultures and the environment in the past. In 2001 J. ” and, in 2006, as, History that seeks understanding of human beings as they have lived, worked and thought in relationship to the rest of nature through the changes brought by time. As a method, environmental history is the use of analysis as a means of understanding human history. An account of changes in societies as they relate to changes in the natural environment. ”Environmental historians are also “interested in what people think about nature
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Environmental politics
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Further, he distinguishes between modern and earlier forms of environmental politics, in particular conservationism and preservationism. Contemporary environmental politics was driven by the idea of an ecological crisis that threatened the very existence of humanity. And modern environmentalism was a political and activist mass movement which demanded a radical transformation in the values and structures of society, Environmental concerns were rooted in the vast social changes that took place in the United States after World War II. Although environmentalism can be identified in earlier years, only after the war did it become widely shared social priority, after World War II, environmental politics became a major public concern. The development of environmentalism in the United Kingdom emerged in this period following the great London smog of 1952 and this is reflected by the emergence of Green politics in the Western world beginning in the 1970s. Climate change is relative to political cycles of leadership in electoral democracies. Other scholars have noted that Asian Americans are strongly pro-environmental. Effectively responding to global warming necessitates some form of environmental governance to achieve shared targets related to energy consumption. Climate change complicates political ideology and practice, affecting conceptions of responsibility for future societies as well as economic systems, material inequality between nations make technological solutions insufficient for climate change mitigation. Rather, political solutions can navigate the particularities of various facets of environmental crisis, climate change mitigation strategies can be at odds with democratic priorities of prosperity, progress, and state sovereignty, and instead underscore a collective relationship with the environment. The international political community is based on liberal principles that prioritize individual freedoms and capitalist systems that make quick. Interest-group liberalism is guided by individual human priorities, groups unable to voice their self-interest, such as minorities without suffrage, or non-humans, are not included in the political compromise. The human benefits from environmental exploitation and protection compete, considering the implications of ecological degradation for future human generations can give environmental concerns a basis in anthropocentric liberal democratic politics. Others counter this by pointing to the past successes of environmental movements to improve water. In practice, environmentalism can improve democracy rather than necessitate its end, by expanding democratic participation, the question arises as to whether the foundation of politics is morality or practicality. A scheme that conceives of and values the environment beyond its human utility, in political theory, deliberative democracy has been discussed as a political model more compatible with environmental goals. This definition of democracy emphasizes informed discussion among citizens in the making process. Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson claimed that reason prevails over self-interest in deliberative democracy, the broad perspective that this discursive model encourages could lead to a stronger engagement with environmental concerns
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Environmental psychology
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Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the interplay between individuals and their surroundings. The field defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments, the field develops such a model of human nature while retaining a broad and inherently multidisciplinary focus. Lately, alongside the focus on climate change in society. This multidisciplinary paradigm has not only characterized the dynamic for which environmental psychology is expected to develop and it has also been the catalyst in attracting other schools of knowledge in its pursuit, aside from research psychologists. Geographers, economists, landscape architects, policy-makers, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, closely related fields include architectural psychology, socio-architecture, behavioral geography, environmental sociology, social ecology, and environmental design research. The origins of this field of study are unknown, however, One of his books, Geopsyche, discusses topics such as how the sun and the moon affect human activity, the impact of extreme environments, and the effects of color and form. Among the other scholars at the roots of environmental psychology were Jakob von Uexküll, Kurt Lewin, Egon Brunswik. The end of World War II brought about a demand for developments in the field of social psychology particularly in the areas of attitude change, small group processes. This demand caused psychologists to begin applying social psychology theories to a number of issues such as prejudice, war. It was thought that if problems were addressed, underlying notions. Although this period was crucial to the development of the field, at the time, studies were being conducted in a laboratory setting, which caused some doubt as to their validity in the real world. Consequently, environmental psychologists began to conduct studies outside of the laboratory, today environmental psychology is being applied to many different areas such as architecture and design, television programs and advertisements. Environmental psychology is a study of the relationship between an environment and how that environment affects its inhabitants. Specific aspects of field work by identifying a problem and through the identification of said problem. Therefore, it is necessary for environmental psychology to be problem oriented, One important aspect of a problem-oriented field is that by identifying problems, solutions arise from the research acquired. The solutions can aid in making society function better as a whole, Environmental psychologist Harold Proshansky discusses how the field is also “value oriented” because of the field’s commitment to bettering society through problem identification. Proshansky discusses the importance of not only understanding the problem but also the necessity of a solution, Proshansky also points out some of the problems of a problem-oriented approach for environmental psychology. First the problems being identified must be studied under certain specifications, it must be ongoing and occurring in real life, second, the notions about the problems must derive directly from the source - meaning they must come directly from the specific environment where the problem is occurring
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Environmental sociology
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In addition, considerable attention is paid to the social processes by which certain environmental conditions become socially defined as problems. Correspondingly, environmental problems must all be understood via social processes and this interactiveness is now broadly accepted, but many aspects of the debate continue in contemporary research in the field. Ancient Greeks idealized life in using the idea of the pastoral. Much later, Romantic writers such as Wordsworth took their inspiration from nature, modern thought surrounding human-environment relations can be traced back to Charles Darwin. Darwin’s concept of natural selection suggested that certain social characteristics played a key role in the survivability of groups in the natural environment, although typically taken at the micro-level, evolutionary principles, particularly adaptability, serve as a microcosm of human ecology. Work by Craig Humphrey and Frederick Buttel traces the linkages between Darwins work on natural selection, human ecological sociology, and environmental sociology. In its foundational years, classical sociology thus saw social and cultural factors as the dominant, if not exclusive and this lens down-played interactive factors in the relationship between humans and their biophysical environments. Environmental sociology emerged as a coherent subfield of inquiry after the movement of the 1960s. The works of William R. Catton, Jr. and Riley Dunlap, among others, in the late 1970s, they called for a new holistic, or systems perspective. Since the 1970s, general sociology has noticeably transformed to include environmental forces in social explanations, Environmental sociology has now solidified as a respected, interdisciplinary field of study in academia. The duality of the human condition rests with cultural uniqueness and evolutionary traits, from one perspective, humans are embedded in the ecosphere and co-evolved alongside other species. Humans share the basic ecological dependencies as other inhabitants of nature. From the other perspectives, humans are distinguished from other species because of their capacities, distinct cultures. Human creations have the power to manipulate, destroy. According to Buttel, there are five basic epistemologies in environmental sociology, in practice, this means five different theories of what to blame for environmental degradation, i. e. what to research or consider as important. In order of their invention, these ideas of what to build on each other. Hardin offered privatization of resources or government regulation as solutions to environmental degradation caused by tragedy of the commons conditions, many other sociologists shared this view of solutions well into the 1970s. There have been critiques of this view particularly political scientist Elinor Ostrom, or economists Amartya Sen
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Human ecology
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Human Ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The roots of ecology as a discipline can be traced to the Greeks. Ecology also has developed in other cultures. The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 and defined by reference to the economy of nature. Like other contemporary researchers of his time, Haeckel adopted his terminology from Carl Linnaeus where human ecological connections were more evident, in his 1749 publication, Specimen academicum de oeconomia naturae, Linnaeus developed a science that included the economy and polis of nature. Polis stems from its Greek roots for a community, sharing its roots with the word police in reference to the promotion of growth. Linnaeus was also the first to write about the affinity between humans and primates. Ecology is not just biological, but a science as well. An early and influential social scientist in the history of ecology was Herbert Spencer. Spencer was influenced by and reciprocated his influence onto the works of Charles Darwin, the history of human ecology has strong roots in geography and sociology departments of the late 19th century. Marsh was interested in the agency of human-nature interactions in frequent reference to the economy of nature. Their publication explicitly included the relation of the world to the material environment. The first English-language use of the ecology is credited to American chemist and founder of the field of home economics. Richards first introduced the term as oekology in 1892, and subsequently developed the human ecology. Richards use of the term recognized humans as part of rather than separate from nature, the term made its first formal appearance in the field of sociology in the 1921 book Introduction to the Science of Sociology, published by Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess. Their student, Roderick D. McKenzie helped solidify human ecology as a sub-discipline within the Chicago school and these authors emphasized the difference between human ecology and ecology in general by highlighting cultural evolution in human societies. Human ecology has an academic history with developments spread throughout a range of disciplines, including, home economics, geography, anthropology, sociology, zoology. Some authors have argued that geography is human ecology, much historical debate has hinged on the placement of humanity as part or as separate from nature
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Human geography
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Human geography attends to human patterns of social interaction, as well as spacial level interdependencies, and how they influence or affect the earths environment. Geography was not recognized as an academic discipline until the 18th century, although many scholars had undertaken geographical scholarship for much longer. The Royal Geographical Society was founded in England in 1830, although the United Kingdom did not get its first full Chair of geography until 1917, the first real geographical intellect to emerge in United Kingdoms geographical minds was Halford John Mackinder, appointed reader at Oxford University in 1887. The society has long supported geographic research and education on geographical topics, though a physician and a pioneer of epidemiology, the map is probably one of the earliest examples of health geography. The now fairly distinct differences between the subfields of physical and human geography have developed at a later date, environmental determinism is the theory, that peoples physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural environment. However, by the century, environmental determinism was under attack for lacking methodological rigor associated with modern science. A similar concern with human and physical aspects is apparent during the later 19th and first half of the 20th centuries focused on regional geography. With links to possibilism and cultural ecology, some of the notions of causal effect of the environment on society. By the 1960s, however, the revolution led to strong criticism of regional geography. Well-known geographers from this period are Fred K. Schaefer, Waldo Tobler, William Garrison, Peter Haggett, Richard J. Chorley, William Bunge, from the 1970s, a number of critiques of the positivism now associated with geography emerged. Known under the term critical geography, these critiques signaled another turning point in the discipline, behavioral geography emerged for some time as a means to understand how people made perceived spaces and places, and made locational decisions. The more influential radical geography emerged in the 1970s and 1980s and it draws heavily on Marxists theory and techniques, and is associated with geographers such as David Harvey and Richard Peet. Radical geography and the links to Marxism and related theories remain an important part of human geography. Critical geography also saw the introduction of geography, associated with the work of Yi-Fu Tuan. Subfields include, Social geography, Animal geographies, Language geography, Sexuality and Space, Childrens geographies, the subject matter investigated is strongly influenced by the researchers methodological approach. Economic geography examines relationships between economic systems, states, and other factors, and the biophysical environment. Health geography deals with the relations and patterns between people and the environment. This is a sub-discipline of human geography, researching how and why diseases are spread, historical geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and real geographies of the past
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Political ecology
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Political ecology is the study of the relationships between political, economic and social factors with environmental issues and changes. Political ecology differs from apolitical ecological studies by politicizing environmental issues, the term political ecology was first coined by Frank Thone in an article published in 1935. It has been used since then in the context of human geography and human ecology. Anthropologist Eric R. Cole at the University of Massachusetts, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, the origins of the field in the 1970s and 1980s were a result of the development of development geography and cultural ecology. Particularly the work of Piers Blaikie on the origins of soil erosion. Political ecology’s broad scope and interdisciplinary nature lends itself to multiple definitions, however, common assumptions across the field give the term relevance. Raymond L. Bryant and Sinéad Bailey developed three fundamental assumptions in practicing political ecology, First, costs and benefits associated with environmental change are distributed unequally. Changes in the environment do not affect society in a way, political, social. In addition, political attempts to provide critiques and alternatives in the interplay of the environment and political, economic. Paul Robbins asserts that the discipline has an understanding that there are very likely better, less coercive, less exploitative. Political ecology’s movement as a field since its inception in the 1970s has complicated its scope, through the discipline’s history, certain influences have grown more and less influential in determining the focus of study. Peter A. Walker traces the importance of the sciences in political ecology. This turn has raised questions as to the differentiation with environmental politics as well as the use of the term of ecology. Political ecologists often use political economy frameworks to analyze environmental issues and it tended toward overly structuralist explanations, focusing on the role of individual economic relationships in the maintenance of social order. But environmental effects on political and economic processes were under-emphasised, Geographers and anthropologists worked with the strengths of both to form the basis of political ecology. PE focuses on issues of power, recognizing the importance of explaining environmental impacts on cultural processes without separating out political, the actual term political ecology was first used in 1988 in a geographical publication by Tom Bassett. The application of ecology in the work of anthropologists and geographers differs. While any approach will take both the political/economic and the ecological into account, the emphasis can be unequal, some, such as geographer Michael Watts, focus on how the assertion of power impacts on access to environmental resources
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Regional science
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Regional science is a field of the social sciences concerned with analytical approaches to problems that are specifically urban, rural, or regional. In the broadest sense, any social science analysis that has a dimension is embraced by regional scientists. Regional science was founded in the late 1940s when some began to become dissatisfied with the low level of regional economic analysis. But even in this era, the founders of regional science expected to catch the interest of people from a wide variety of disciplines. Isard targeted key universities and campaigned tirelessly, now called the Regional Science Association International, it maintains subnational and international associations, journals, and a conference circuit. Membership in the RSAI continues to grow, hoovers two books--Location Theory and the Shoe and Leather Industry and The Location of Economic Activity. As is typically the case, the works were built on the shoulders of giants. Much of this work is documented well in Walter Isards Location. Particularly important was the contribution by 19th century German economists to location theory, the early German hegemony more or less starts with Johann Heinrich von Thünen and runs through both Wilhelm Launhardt and Alfred Weber to Walter Christaller and August Lösch. In 1958, the Journal of Regional Science followed, most recently the journal Spatial Economic Analysis has been published by the RSAI British and Irish Section with the Regional Studies Association. The latter is a separate and growing organisation involving economists, planners, geographers, political scientists, management academics, policymakers, Walter Isards efforts culminated in the creation of a few academic departments and several university-wide programs in regional science. At Walter Isards suggestion, the University of Pennsylvania started the Regional Science Department in 1956 and it featured as its first graduate William Alonso and was looked upon by many to be the international academic leader for the field. Another important graduate and faculty member of the department is Masahisa Fujita, the core curriculum of this department was microeconomics, input-output analysis, location theory, and statistics. But the departments unusual multidisciplinary orientation undoubtedly encouraged its demise, and it is even difficult for authors to write regional science textbooks, since what is elementary knowledge for one discipline might be entirely novel for another. Part of the movement was, and continues to be, associated with the political, on any occasion where public policy is directed at the sub-national level, such as a city or group of counties, the methods of regional science can prove useful. This is also evident in Europe and other places where local economic areas do not coincide with political boundaries, in the more current era of devolution knowledge about local solutions to local problems has driven much of the interest in regional science. Thus, there has been much political impetus to the growth of the discipline, Regional science has enjoyed mixed fortunes since the 1980s. While it has gained a following among economists and public policy practitioners
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Agroecology
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Agroecology is the study of ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. The prefix agro- refers to agriculture, bringing ecological principles to bear in agroecosystems can suggest novel management approaches that would not otherwise be considered. The term is often used imprecisely and may refer to a science, a movement, although it has much more common thinking and principles with some of the before mentioned farming systems. Agroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or inputs in agriculture but instead assess how, when, thus, agroecology is not defined by certain management practices, such as the use of natural enemies in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of monoculture. Instead, agroecologists may study questions related to the four system properties of agroecosystems, as opposed to disciplines that are concerned with only one or some of these properties, agroecologists see all four properties as interconnected and integral to the success of an agroecosystem. Agroecologists do not always agree about what agroecology is or should be in the long-term, different definitions of the term agroecology can be distinguished largely by the specificity with which one defines the term ecology, as well as the terms potential political connotations. Definitions of agroecology, therefore, may be first grouped according to the contexts within which they situate agriculture. Agroecology is defined by the OECD as the study of the relation of agricultural crops and this definition refers to the -ecology part of agroecology narrowly as the natural environment. Consequently, agroecology is inherently multidisciplinary, including factors from agronomy, ecology, sociology, economics, in this case, the -ecology portion of agroecology is defined broadly to include social, cultural, and economic contexts as well. Francis et al. also expand the definition in the same way, agroecology is also defined differently according to geographic location. In the global south, the term often carries political connotations. North American and European uses of the term sometimes avoid the inclusion of such overtly political goals, in these cases, agroecology is seen more strictly as a scientific discipline with less specific social goals. This approach is derived from the science of ecology primarily based on population ecology, in fact, the first agro-ecologists were indigenous peoples that advocated development policies and programmes to support their systems, rather than replacing them. Rather than viewing agroecology as a subset of agriculture, Wojtkowski takes a more encompassing perspective, in this, natural ecology and agroecology are the major headings under ecology. Natural ecology is the study of organisms as they interact with, correspondingly, agroecology is the basis for the land-use sciences. Here humans are the governing force for organisms within planned and managed, mostly terrestrial. As key headings, natural ecology and agroecology provide the base for their respective sciences. These theoretical bases overlap but differ in a major way, economics has no role in the functioning of natural ecosystems whereas economics sets direction and purpose in agroecology
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Anthrozoology
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Anthrozoology is the subset of ethnobiology that deals with interactions between humans and other animals. It is a field that overlaps with other disciplines including anthropology, ethnology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine. A major focus of research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party. It includes scholars from fields such as anthropology, sociology, biology, history, the interaction and enhancement within captive animal interactions. In the UK, the University of Exeter runs an MA in Anthrozoology which explores human-animal interactions from anthropological perspectives, there are now three primary lists for HAS scholars and students—H-Animal, the Human-Animal Studies listserv, and NILAS, as well as the Critical Animal Studies list. There are now over a dozen journals covering HAS issues, many of them founded in the last decade, and hundreds of HAS books, most of them published in the last decade. Brill, Berg, Johns Hopkins, Purdue, Columbia, Reaktion, Palgrave-McMillan, University of Minnesota, University of Illinois, beginning in 2011, ASI has partnered with Wesleyan Animal Studies, who will be hosting the fellowship in conjunction with ASI. There are also a handful of HAS conferences per year, including organized by ISAZ and NILAS. Finally, there are more HAS courses being taught now than ever before, the ASI website lists over 300 courses in twenty-nine disciplines at over 200 colleges and universities, not including over 100 law school courses. Animals and Society Institute Anthrozoology Research Group H-Animal Human-Animal Studies listserve Humanimalia, a journal of human-animal interface studies NILAS
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Behavioral geography
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Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that examines human behavior using a disaggregate approach. Behavioral geographers focus on the processes underlying spatial reasoning, decision making. Behavioral geography is that branch of science, which deals with the study of cognitive processes with its response to its environment. Because of the name it is assumed to have its roots in behaviorism. While some behavioral geographers clearly have roots in behaviorism due to the emphasis on cognition, indeed, it seems that behaviorism interest is more recent and growing. This is particularly true in the area of human landscaping, behavioral geography draws from early behaviorist works such as Tolmans concepts of cognitive maps. More cognitively oriented, behavioral geographers focus on the processes underlying spatial reasoning, decision making. More behaviorally oriented geographers are materialists and look at the role of learning processes
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Demography
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Demography is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyse any kind of dynamic living population, Demography encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, ageing, and death. Based on the research of the earth, earths population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers. Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population, demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria such as education, nationality, religion, and ethnicity. Educational institutions usually treat demography as a field of sociology, though there are a number of independent demography departments, demographic thoughts can be traced back to antiquity, and were present in many civilizations and cultures, like Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, India and China. In ancient Greece, this can be found in the writings of Herodotus, Thucidides, Hippocrates, Epicurus, Protagoras, Polus, Plato and Aristotle. In Rome, writers and philosophers like Cicero, Seneca, Pliny the elder, Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus, Cato, in the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography. Important contributors to the field were William of Conches, Bartholomew of Lucca, William of Auvergne, William of Pagula, and Ibn Khaldun. One of the earliest demographic studies in the period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt. Among the studys findings were that one third of the children in London died before their sixteenth birthday, mathematicians, such as Edmond Halley, developed the life table as the basis for life insurance mathematics. Richard Price was credited with the first textbook on life contingencies published in 1771, followed later by Augustus de Morgan, at the end of the 18th century, Thomas Robert Malthus concluded that, if unchecked, populations would be subject to exponential growth. He feared that population growth would tend to outstrip growth in production, leading to ever-increasing famine. He is seen as the father of ideas of overpopulation. Later, more sophisticated and realistic models were presented by Benjamin Gompertz, the period 1860-1910 can be characterized as a period of transition wherein demography emerged from statistics as a separate field of interest. There are two types of data collection—direct and indirect—with several different methods of each type, direct data comes from vital statistics registries that track all births and deaths as well as certain changes in legal status such as marriage, divorce, and migration. In developed countries with good registration systems, registry statistics are the best method for estimating the number of births and deaths, a census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data. A census is conducted by a national government and attempts to enumerate every person in a country. Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place and these compare the sex ratios from the census data to those estimated from natural values and mortality data
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Environmental design
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Environmental design is the process of addressing surrounding environmental parameters when devising plans, programs, policies, buildings, or products. Classical prudent design may have always considered environmental factors, however, Environmental design can also refer to the applied arts and sciences dealing with creating the human-designed environment. These fields include architecture, geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, Environmental design can also encompass interdisciplinary areas such as historical preservation and lighting design. Currently, the term has expanded to apply to ecological and sustainability issues, the first traceable concepts of environmental designs focused primarily on solar heating, which began in Ancient Greece around 500 BCE. At the time, most of Greece had exhausted its supply of wood for fuel, the Greeks understood that the position of the sun varies throughout the year. For a latitude of 40 degrees in summer the sun is high in the south, at an angle of 70 degrees at the zenith, while in winter, the sun travels a lower trajectory, with a zenith of 26 degrees. Greek houses were built with south-facing façades which received little to no sun in the summer but would receive full sun in the winter, additionally, the southern orientation also protected the house from the colder northern winds. This clever arrangement of buildings influenced the use of the pattern of ancient cities. With the North-South orientation of the houses, the streets of Greek cities mainly ran East-West, the practice of solar architecture continued with the Romans, who similarly had deforested much of their native Italian Peninsula by the first century BCE. The Roman heliocaminus, literally solar furnace, functioned with the aspects of the earlier Greek houses. The numerous public baths were oriented to the south, Roman architects added glass to windows to allow for the passage of light and to conserve interior heat as it could not escape. The Romans also used greenhouses to grow all year long. Pliny the Elder wrote of greenhouses that supplied the kitchen of the Emperor Tiberius during the year, along with the solar orientation of buildings and the use of glass as a solar heat collector, the ancients knew other ways of harnessing solar energy. The Greeks, Romans and Chinese developed curved mirrors that could concentrate the rays on an object with enough intensity to make it burn in seconds. The solar reflectors were made of polished silver, copper or brass. He and others, such as John Ruskin felt that the revolution would lead to harm done to nature. From the middle of the century, thinkers like Buckminster Fuller have acted as catalysts for a broadening and deepening of the concerns of environmental designers. It is also possible to construct energy-plus buildings which generate more energy than they consume, in the United States, the LEED Green Building Rating System rates structures on their environmental sustainability
