1.
Electrophysiology
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Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage change or electric current on a variety of scales from single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the heart. In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the activity of neurons. Recordings of large-scale electric signals from the system, such as electroencephalography. They are useful for electrodiagnosis and monitoring, classical electrophysiology techniques involve placing electrodes into various preparations of biological tissue. The principal preparations include, living organisms, excised tissue, dissociated cells from excised tissue, artificially grown cells or tissues, if an electrode is small enough in diameter, then the electrophysiologist may choose to insert the tip into a single cell. Such a configuration allows direct observation and recording of the electrical activity of a single cell. However, at the time such invasive setup reduces the life of the cell. Intracellular activity may also be observed using a specially formed glass pipette containing an electrolyte, in this technique, the microscopic pipette tip is pressed against the cell membrane, to which it tightly adheres by an interaction between glass and lipids of the cell membrane. Alternatively, ionic continuity may be established by perforating the patch by allowing exogenous pore-forming agent within the electrolyte to insert themselves into the membrane patch, finally, the patch may be left intact. The electrophysiologist may choose not to insert the tip into a single cell, instead, the electrode tip may be left in continuity with the extracellular space. If the tip is enough, such a configuration may allow indirect observation and recording of action potentials from a single cell. Depending on the preparation and precise placement, a configuration may pick up the activity of several nearby cells simultaneously. As electrode size increases, the power decreases. Larger electrodes are sensitive only to the net activity of many cells, other classical electrophysiological techniques include single channel recording and amperometry. Electrophysiological recording in general is sometimes called electrography, with the thus produced being an electrogram. However, the word electrography has other senses, and the types of electrophysiological recording are usually called by specific names. Relatedly, the word electrogram often carries the meaning of intracardiac electrogram
2.
Ultrasound
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Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound is no different from normal sound in its physical properties and this limit varies from person to person and is approximately 20 kilohertz in healthy, young adults. Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz, Ultrasound is used in many different fields. Ultrasonic devices are used to detect objects and measure distances, Ultrasound imaging or sonography is often used in medicine. In the nondestructive testing of products and structures, ultrasound is used to detect invisible flaws, industrially, ultrasound is used for cleaning, mixing, and to accelerate chemical processes. Animals such as bats and porpoises use ultrasound for locating prey, scientist are also studying ultrasound using graphene diaphragms as a method of communication. Acoustics, the science of sound, starts as far back as Pythagoras in the 6th century BC, echolocation in bats was discovered by Lazzaro Spallanzani in 1794, when he demonstrated that bats hunted and navigated by inaudible sound and not vision. The first technological application of ultrasound was an attempt to detect submarines by Paul Langevin in 1917, the piezoelectric effect, discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880, was useful in transducers to generate and detect ultrasonic waves in air and water. Ultrasound is defined by the American National Standards Institute as sound at frequencies greater than 20 kHz, in air at atmospheric pressure ultrasonic waves have wavelengths of 1.9 cm or less. The upper frequency limit in humans is due to limitations of the middle ear, auditory sensation can occur if high‐intensity ultrasound is fed directly into the human skull and reaches the cochlea through bone conduction, without passing through the middle ear. Children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, the Mosquito is an electronic device that uses a high pitched frequency to deter loitering by young people. Bats use a variety of ultrasonic ranging techniques to detect their prey and they can detect frequencies beyond 100 kHz, possibly up to 200 kHz. Many insects have good hearing and most of these are nocturnal insects listening for echolocating bats. This includes many groups of moths, beetles, praying mantids, upon hearing a bat, some insects will make evasive manoeuvres to escape being caught. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger an action in the noctuid moth that cause it to drop slightly in its flight to evade attack. Tiger moths also emit clicks which may disturb bats echolocation, dogs and cats hearing range extends into the ultrasound, the top end of a dogs hearing range is about 45 kHz, while a cats is 64 kHz. The wild ancestors of cats and dogs evolved this higher hearing range to hear sounds made by their preferred prey. A dog whistle is a whistle that emits ultrasound, used for training and calling dogs, porpoises have the highest known upper hearing limit, at around 160 kHz
3.
Bernardino Ramazzini
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Bernardino Ramazzini was an Italian physician. Ramazzini, along with Francesco Torti, was a proponent of the use of cinchona bark in the treatment of Malaria. His most important contribution to medicine was his book on occupational diseases, Ramazzini was born in Carpi on 4 October 1633 according to his birth certificate. He studied medicine at the University of Parma, where his interest in occupational diseases began and he was appointed to the chair of theory of medicine at University of Modena in 1682 then served as professor of medicine at the University of Padua from 1700 until his death. He is often called the father of occupational medicine The first edition of De Morbis was published in 1700 in Modena and this was one of the founding and seminal works of occupational medicine and played a substantial role in its development. He proposed that physicians should extend the list of questions that Hippocrates recommended they ask their patients by adding and it is also worth mentioning that Ramazzini foresaw that prevention is better than cure. In regards to malaria, Ramazzini was one of the first to support the use of the quinine-rich bark cinchona, many falsely claimed that quinine was toxic and ineffective, but Ramazzini recognized its importance. He is quoted, It did for medicine what gun powder did for war, Ramazzini died in Padua on 5 November 1714. In a lifestyle article Sitting can lead to an early death, essai sur les Maladies de Disseus. Original translation from Latin in De Mortis Artificum by M. De Foureau Altschuler, Marin, V Terribile Wiel, Bellinati C, Panetto M, Zanchin G. Bernardino Ramazzini lies in Padua. Franco, G. Ramazzini and workers health, bernardini Ramazzini physician of the tradesmen. Bisetti, A A. Bernardino Ramazzini and occupational lung medicine, Zanchin, Giorgio, Capitanio Mariatonia, Panetto Monica, Visentin Guido, Marin Vito Terrbile Wiel. Hook, G E. Ramazzini, father of environmental health, pope, Malcolm H. Bernardino Ramazzini, the father of occupational medicine. Franco G, Franco F. Bernardino Ramazzini, The Father of Occupational Medicine, am J Publ Health 2001,91, 1380-1382 Franco G, Fusetti L. A. Bernardino Ramazzinis early observations of the link between musculoskeletal disorders and ergonomic factors. Franco G. Ramazzini and workers’ voice disorders, otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2008,139,329 Franco G. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Health disorders and ergonomic concerns from the use of microscope, A voice from the past, am J Clin Pathol 2011,135, 170-171 Franco G. Bernardino Ramazzini and women workers’ health in the second half of the seventeenth century. J Public Health 2012,34, 305-308 Franco G, a tribute to Bernardino Ramazzini on the tercentenary of his death Occ Med 2014,64, 2-4 Carnevale F, Iavicoli S. Bernardino Ramazzini, a visionary physician, scientist and communicator. La lezione di Bernardino Ramazzini, medico sociale e scienziato visionario, some places and memories related to Ramazzini
4.
James Paget
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His famous works included Lectures on Tumours and Lectures on Surgical Pathology. While most people recall Pagets disease refers to bone, two diseases were also named after him, Pagets disease of the nipple, and extramammary Pagets disease. Also named for him is Pagets abscess, Paget was born in Great Yarmouth, England, on 11 January 1814, the son of a brewer and shipowner. C. B. At the end of his apprenticeship, he published one of his brothers a very careful Sketch of the Natural History of Yarmouth. In October 1834, he entered as a student at St Bartholomews Hospital, here he is noted to have described the first journal club. Medical students in those days were very much to themselves, there was no close supervision of their work. In May 1836, he passed his examination at the Royal College of Surgeons, and became qualified to practice. The next seven years were spent in London lodgings, and were a time of poverty, for he made only 15 pounds a year by practice, and his father, having failed in business, could not give him any help. He managed to keep himself by writing for the medical journals, in 1841, he was made surgeon to the Finsbury Dispensary, but this appointment did not give him any experience in the graver operations of surgery. He was appointed lecturer on anatomy and physiology at the hospital in 1843. For the next eight years, he lived within the walls of the hospital, in charge of about 30 students resident in the little college. Besides his lectures and his superintendence of the resident students, he had to all new students, to advise them how to work, and to manage the finances. Thus, he was occupied with the business of the school. In 1844, he married Lydia, youngest daughter of the Rev. Henry North, in 1847, he was appointed an assistant-surgeon to the hospital, and Arris and Gale professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. He held this professorship for six years and each year gave six lectures in surgical pathology, the first edition of these lectures, which were the chief scientific work of his life, was published in 1853 as Lectures on Surgical Pathology. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1851, in October 1851, he resigned the wardenship of the hospital. Paget was friends with Charles Darwin and Thomas Henry Huxley and he was a committed Christian and maintained there was no conflict between religion and science. No famous surgeon, not even John Hunter, was likely to have founded his practice deeper in science than Paget did, or waited longer for his work to come back to him
5.
Swiss people
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The Swiss are citizens of Switzerland. The demonym derives from the toponym of Schwyz and has been in use to refer to the Old Swiss Confederacy since the 16th century. The number of Swiss nationals has grown from 1.7 million in 1815 to 6.76 million in 2009 with 90% of them living in Switzerland, about 60% of those living abroad reside in the European Union. The largest groups of Swiss descendants and nationals outside of Europe are found in the United States, closely related German-speaking peoples are the Alsatians, the Swabians and the Vorarlbergians. The French-speaking Swiss, traditionally speaking Franco-Provençal dialects, today largely assimilated to the standard French language, amalgamated from the Gallo-Roman population and they are closely related to the French. The Italian-speaking Swiss, traditionally speakers of Lombard language today partly assimilated to the standard Italian language, amalgamated from Raetians and they are closely related to the Italians. The Romansh, speakers of the Romansh language, settling in parts of the Grisons, with worldwide human migration, there are an increasing number of Swiss not descended or only partially descended from the core ethnic groups listed above. Most naturalized Swiss citizens will be linguistically oriented according to their canton of residence, the Swiss populace historically derives from an amalgamation of Gaulish or Gallo-Roman, Alamannic and Rhaetic stock. Their cultural history is dominated by the Alps, and the environment is often cited as an important factor in the formation of the Swiss national character. Political allegiance and patriotism was directed towards the cantons, not the federal level, from the 19th century there were conscious attempts to foster a federal Pan-Swiss national identity that would replace or alleviate the cantonal patriotisms. An additional symbol of national identity at the federal level was introduced with the Swiss national holiday in 1889. The bonfires associated with the holiday have become so customary since then that they have displaced the Funken traditions of greater antiquity. These specifically include Grisons, Valais, Ticino, Vaud and Geneva, according to Hartley-Moore, Localized equivalents of nationalist symbols were also essential to the creation of Swiss civil society. In the Swiss model, pride in local identity is to some degree synonymous with loyalty to the larger state, as Gottfried Keller argued in the nineteenth century, Without cantons and without their differences and competition, no Swiss federation could exist. Facilitated naturalization for foreign spouses and children of Swiss citizens requires a total minimum residence of five years, with more than 20% of the population resident aliens, Switzerland has one of the highest ratios of non-naturalized inhabitants in Europe. In 2003,35,424 residents were naturalized, a number exceeding net population growth. Over the 25-year period of 1983 to 2007,479,264 resident foreigners were naturalized, compare the figure of 0. 2% in the United Kingdom. The genetic composition of the Swiss population is similar to that of Central Europe in general, Switzerland is on one hand at the crossroads of several prehistoric migrations, while on the other hand the Alps acted as a refuge in some cases
6.
Emacs
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Emacs /ˈiːmæks/ and its derivatives are a family of text editors that are characterized by their extensibility. The manual for the most widely used variant, GNU Emacs, describes it as the extensible, customizable, self-documenting, development of the first Emacs began in the mid-1970s and continues actively as of 2017. Emacs has over 2,000 built-in commands and allows the user to combine these commands into macros to automate work, Emacs Lisp provides a deep extension capability allowing users and developers to write new commands using a dialect of the Lisp programming language. Extensions have been written to manage email, files, outlines, the original EMACS was written in 1976 by David A. Moon and Guy L. Steele, Jr. as a set of Editor MACroS for the TECO editor. It was inspired by the ideas of the TECO-macro editors TECMAC, the most popular, and most ported, version of Emacs is GNU Emacs, which was created by Richard Stallman for the GNU Project. XEmacs is a variant that branched from GNU Emacs in 1991, both GNU Emacs and XEmacs use Emacs Lisp and are for the most part compatible with each other. Emacs is, along with vi, one of the two contenders in the traditional editor wars of Unix culture. Both are among the oldest application programs still in use, unlike most modern text editors, TECO used separate modes in which the user would either add text, edit existing text, or display the document. This behavior is similar to that of the program ed. Richard Stallman visited the Stanford AI Lab in 1972 or 1974 and saw the labs E editor and he was impressed by the editors intuitive WYSIWYG behavior, which has since become the default behavior of most modern text editors. Stallman reimplemented this mode to run efficiently and then added a feature to the TECO display-editing mode that allowed the user to redefine any keystroke to run a TECO program. E had another feature that TECO lacked, random-access editing, TECO was a page-sequential editor that was designed for editing paper tape on the PDP-1 and typically allowed editing on only one page at a time, in the order of the pages in the file. Almost all modern editors use this approach, the new version of TECO quickly became popular at the AI Lab and soon accumulated a large collection of custom macros whose names often ended in MAC or MACS, which stood for macro. Two years later, Guy Steele took on the project of unifying the overly diverse macros into a single set, Steele and Stallmans finished implementation included facilities for extending and documenting the new macro set. The resulting system was called EMACS, which stood for Editing MACroS or, alternatively, Stallman picked the name Emacs because <E> was not in use as an abbreviation on ITS at the time. An apocryphal hacker koan alleges that the program was named after Emack & Bolios, the first operational EMACS system existed in late 1976. Stallman saw a problem in too much customization and de facto forking and he later wrote, EMACS was distributed on a basis of communal sharing, which means all improvements must be given back to me to be incorporated and distributed. The original Emacs, like TECO, ran only on the PDP-10 running ITS and its behavior was sufficiently different from that of TECO that it could be considered a text editor in its own right, and it quickly became the standard editing program on ITS. Mike McMahon ported Emacs from ITS to the TENEX and TOPS-20 operating systems, other contributors to early versions of Emacs include Kent Pitman, Earl Killian, and Eugene Ciccarelli
7.
Human musculoskeletal system
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The human musculoskeletal system is an organ system that gives humans the ability to move using their muscular and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body and it is made up of the bones of the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal systems primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, the skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic system. This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissue such as tendons, the bones provide stability to the body. Muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in the movement of bones, to allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends from rubbing directly onto each other, muscles contract to move the bone attached at the joint. There are, however, diseases and disorders that may affect the function. These diseases can be difficult to due to the close relation of the musculoskeletal system to other internal systems. The musculoskeletal system refers to the system having its muscles attached to a skeletal system and is necessary for humans to move to a more favorable position. Complex issues and injuries involving the musculoskeletal system are handled by a physiatrist or an orthopaedic surgeon. The skeletal system serves many important functions, it provides the shape and form for the body, support and protection, allows bodily movement, produces blood for the body, the number of bones in the human skeletal system is a controversial topic. Humans are born with over 300 bones, however, many bones fuse together between birth and maturity, as a result, an average adult skeleton consists of 206 bones. The number of bones varies according to the used to derive the count. While some consider certain structures to be a bone with multiple parts. There are five classifications of bones. These are long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, the human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It is a structure with two distinct divisions, the axial skeleton, which includes the vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton. The skeletal system serves as a framework for tissues and organs to attach themselves to and this system acts as a protective structure for vital organs
8.
Sports medicine
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Sports medicine, also known as sport and exercise medicine, is a branch of medicine that deals with physical fitness and the treatment and prevention of injuries related to sports and exercise. Although most sports teams have employed team physicians for many years, specialization in sports medicine may be a doctors first specialty. It may also be a sub-specialty or second specialisation following a specialisation such as physiatry or orthopedic surgery, the various approaches reflect the medical culture in different countries. Specializing in the treatment of athletes and other physically active individuals, sports, SEM doctors treat injuries such as muscle, ligament, tendon and bone problems, but may also treat chronic illnesses that can affect physical performance, such as asthma and diabetes. SEM doctors also advise on managing and preventing injuries, specialists in SEM diagnose and treat any medical conditions which regular exercisers or sports persons encounter. The Foresight Report issued by the UKs Government Office for Science,17 October 2007, highlighted the unsustainable health and it forecasts that the incremental costs of this inactivity will be $10 billion per year by 2050 and the wider costs to society and businesses $49. 9billion. Physical inactivity inevitably leads to ill-health and it forecasts the cost of paying for this impact will be unsustainable in the future, no existing group of medical specialists is equipped with the skills and training to deal with this challenge. SEM physicians are frequently involved in promoting the benefits of physical activity, exercise and sport for the individuals. SEM Physicians in the UK spend a period of their training in public health, an example of published work includes the Royal College of Physicians publications. Muscle cramps are also recognized as an involuntary and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax ACL sprains – The anterior cruciate ligament is a ligament involved in knee stabilization, an ACL rupture can occur when the foot is planted and the knee twists to change direction. ACL tears – The anterior cruciate ligament, one of four major knee ligament necessary for comfortable knee movement, tears, causing major pain, the knee ACL can tear for a number of reasons. Ankle sprain – The ligaments that hold the bones in place can easily be overstretched. Shin splints – The tissue that attaches the muscles of the leg to the shin bone may be pulling away from the bone. To reflect this paradigm shift BASM has renamed itself BASEM and the speciality itself has rebranded from Sports Medicine to Sport & Exercise Medicine, since 2007 several deaneries across the UK have established training programmes in SEM, and recurrent funding for 50 National Training Numbers is available. American College of Sports Medicine Founded in 1954, the American College of Sports Medicine is the largest and most prominent sports medicine, ACSM has more than 45,000 International, National and Regional Chapter members. American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine The American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine is a leader in sports medicine education, research, communication. Founded in 1972, AOSSM is an organization of orthopaedic surgeons. Essentially every professional and collegiate team has a physician who is a member of the AOSSM
