1.
Reservist
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A reservist is a person who is a member of a military reserve force. They are otherwise civilians, and in peacetime have careers outside the military, Reservists usually go for training on an annual basis to refresh their skills. This person is usually a former active-duty member of the armed forces, in some countries such as Israel, Norway, Singapore, and Switzerland, reservists are conscripted soldiers who are called up for training and service when necessary. The notion of a reservist has been around, in many forms, in ancient times, reservist forces such as the Anglo-Saxon Fyrd and the Viking Leidangr formed the main fighting strength of most armies. It was only at the end of the 17th century that professional standing armies became the norm, historically reservists played a significant role in Europe after the Prussian defeat in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. On 9 July 1807 in the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon forced Prussia to drastically reduce its military strength, the Prussian army could no longer be stronger than 42,000 men. With this the reduction of the armys strength did not have the desired effect, every conscript which has served at least a day in the Bundeswehr is a reservist, unless he is declared ineligible for military service or has made a claim of conscientious objection. Soldiers of enlisted ranks with a contract or professional soldiers. This is also the case for women, but on the basis of the Soldatengesetz, every soldier follows his rank with the initials d. R. So it does not affect whether the soldier is called up, placed in an inactive formation, only professional soldiers use the appellation a. D. d. R after the end of their service. All others strictly use d. R. until the end of their lives, Reservists are an integral part of the Bundeswehr. They are essential for the capability of the forces in time of war. Reservists can be active in the Bundeswehr in addition to their mandatory service and this mostly happens through military exercises or official events. Apart from that the Bundeswehr organises reservist unions as particularly representative supporting organisations of voluntarily reservist work, eligibility for compulsory military service for soldiers and other servicemen of low rank ends at the end of the 45th year of age. Thereafter the conscript is no part of the reserve. Despite that the appellations a. D. and/or d. R. may still be used, conscription for under-officers and officers lasts until the 60th year of age. Until the 32nd year of age every conscript is subject to military inspection, all conscripts who have not done their service belong to the Ersatzreserve. They must serve a mandatory two-year active period as Full-Time National Servicemen, deployed to the Singapore Armed Forces, Singapore Police Force, or the Singapore Civil Defence Force
2.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
3.
Army National Guard
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The Army National Guard, in conjunction with the Air National Guard, is a militia force and a federal military reserve force of the United States. They are simultaneously part of two different organizations, the National Guard of the states, territories and the District of Columbia. The Army National Guard is divided into units stationed in each of the 50 states. Members or units of the Army National Guard may be ordered, temporarily or indefinitely, if mobilized for federal service, the member or unit becomes part of the Army National Guard of the United States, which is a reserve component of the United States Army. Individuals volunteering for active service may do so subject to the consent of their governors. Governors generally cannot veto involuntary activations of individuals or units for federal service, the President may also call up members and units of the Army National Guard, in its status as the militia of the several states, to repel invasion, suppress rebellion, or enforce federal laws. The Army National Guard of the United States is one of two organizations administered by the National Guard Bureau, the other being the Air National Guard of the United States. The Director of the Army National Guard is the head of the organization, Militia members were required to equip themselves, take part in regular training, and report to their units when called. This war resulted in hundreds of deaths, hundreds of Native Americans sold into slavery or scattered throughout North America, the militias of the Southern New England colonies fought Native Americans again in King Philips War from 1675 to 1676. This conflict led to the defeat of the Narragansets, further straining relationships between Native Americans and white Europeans, but enabling continued white settlement of New England. In addition, the colonists had little interest in paying the taxes to maintain permanent garrisons of British troops, the militias were also an early experiment in democracy, with company grade officers often elected by their men, and the higher officers appointed by colonial governors or legislatures. The colonies did not exert centralized control over the militias or coordinate their efforts, Training typically took place during musters each summer, with militia members reporting for inspection and undergoing several days of training in drill and ceremony. Militia members served throughout the Revolution, often near their homes, Militia units served in combat, as well as carrying out guard duty for prisoners, garrisoning of forts, and local patrols. On some occasions, militia members performed ineffectively, as at the Battle of Camden in North Carolina, on other occasions they performed capably, including the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Bennington, Battles of Saratoga, and Battle of Cowpens. Perhaps the most important role played by the militia was off the battlefield, during the period of the Articles of Confederation, the weak federal government reduced the Continental Army to a handful of officers and soldiers. The Articles of Confederation required each state to maintain a militia, such consent was not forthcoming in an era when the population still harbored a distrust of a standing army, so Congress largely left the defense of the new nation to the state militias. During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Federalist delegates argued for a federal government. Federalists anticipated using the military to defend the country if it were attacked, anti-Federalists advocated limited federal government, and wanted continued state control over the militias
4.
United States Navy Reserve
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The United States Navy Reserve, known as the United States Naval Reserve from 1915 to 2005, is the Reserve Component of the United States Navy. Members of the Navy Reserve, called Reservists, are enrolled in the Selected Reserve, the Individual Ready Reserve, the size of these centers varies greatly, depending on the number of assigned. They are intended mostly to administrative functions and classroom style training. However, some NOSCs have more training facilities, including damage control trainers. Because of this, NOSCs outside the concentration areas are also heavily tasked to provide personnel. This service provided to the community is one of the NOSCs top two priority missions. FTS, previously known as TAR, serve in all year round and provide administrative support to SELRES. Army Reserve and the Army National Guard, the IRR do not typically drill or train regularly, but can be recalled to service in a full mobilization. These personnel will drill for points but no pay and are not eligible for Annual Training with pay, however, they remain eligible for other forms of active duty with pay and mobilization. Reservists are called to duty, or mobilized, as needed and are required to sign paperwork acknowledging this possibility upon enrollment in the reserve program. After the September 11 attacks of 2001, Reservists were mobilized to combat operations. The War on Terrorism has even seen the activation of a Reserve squadron, the VFA-201 Hunters, flying F/A-18 Hornet aircraft, which deployed on board the USS Theodore Roosevelt. Additionally, more than 52,000 Navy Reservists have been mobilized and deployed to serve in Iraq and Afghanistan, the Reserve consists of 108,718 officers and enlisted personnel who serve in every state and territory as well as overseas as of September 2012. S. Following the American Revolution, the expense of maintaining a navy was deemed too great. However, attacks by Barbary pirates against American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea prompted a change in course in 1794, a navy that helped give birth to the nation was now deemed essential to preserving its security, which faced its most serious threat during the War of 1812. Though overwhelmed by a superior in numbers, these men, most recruited from Baltimore, continued to wage war on land, joining in the defense of Washington. Having fought against a power, naval reservists faced a much different struggle with the outbreak of the Civil War, which divided a navy. By wars end the Navy had grown from a force numbering 9,942 in 1860 to one manned by 58,296 sailors, the latter action resulted in the awarding of the Medal of Honor to six reserve enlisted men
5.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
6.
Civil Air Patrol
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The Civil Air Patrol is a congressionally chartered, federally supported non-profit corporation that serves as the official civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force. CAP is a organization with an aviation-minded membership that includes people from all backgrounds, lifestyles. In addition, CAP has recently been tasked with homeland security, CAP also performs non-auxiliary missions for various governmental and private agencies, such as local law enforcement and the American Red Cross. The program is established as an organization by Title 10 of the United States Code, membership in the organization consists of cadets ranging from 12 to just under 21 years of age, and senior members 18 years of age and up. All members wear uniforms while performing their duties, because of these extensive flying opportunities, many CAP members become licensed pilots. The hierarchical and military organization is headed by the National Headquarters followed by eight regional commands and 52 wings. Each wing supervises the individual groups and squadrons that comprise the basic unit of the organization. The Civil Air Patrol was conceived in the late 1930s by aviation advocate Gill Robb Wilson, the Civil Air Patrol had 90 days to prove themselves to Congress. Curry was appointed as the first national commander, texas oilman David Harold Byrd was a co-founder of CAP. During World War II, CAP was seen as a way to use Americas civilian aviation resources to aid the war instead of grounding them. The organization assumed many missions including anti-submarine patrol and warfare, border patrols, and courier services. During World War II CAPs coastal patrol flew 24 million miles, found 173 enemy U-boats, attacked 57, hit 10, by the end of the war,64 CAP members had lost their lives in the line of duty. The supervisory USAF organization overseeing CAP has changed several times and this has included the former Continental Air Command in 1959, the former Headquarters Command, USAF in 1968, to the Air University in 1976. Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development at the 1-star level, Air Force as a stand-alone unit lead at the Colonel level. Since its incorporation charter, CAP has maintained its relationship with the USAF, the medal would be presented in recognition of their military service and exemplary record during World War II. Civil Air Patrol has five congressionally mandated missions outlined in 36 U. S. C, to provide aviation education and training especially to its senior and cadet members. To encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities, to provide an organization of private citizens with adequate facilities to assist in meeting local and national emergencies. To assist the Department of the Air Force in fulfilling its non-combat programs, the organization condenses these mandates into three core missions, which Civil Air Patrol was chartered with by Congress in 1946, aerospace education, cadet programs and emergency services
7.
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary
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The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary is the uniformed auxiliary component of the United States Coast Guard. Congress established the USCG Aux on June 23,1939, as the United States Coast Guard Reserve, on February 19,1941, it was re-designated the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary. The Auxiliary exists to support all USCG missions except roles that require law enforcement or military engagement. As of 2015, there were approximately 32,000 members of the U. S. Coast Guard Auxiliary, collectively the Auxiliary contributes over 4.5 million hours of service each year and completed nearly 500,000 missions in service to support the Coast Guard. In total the Coast Guard Auxiliary saves taxpayers hundreds of millions of dollars each year, the development of the single-operator motorboat, and later the outboard engine, during the early 20th century increased the number of recreational boaters operating on federal waters. By 1939 there were more than 300,000 personal watercraft in operation, the previous year the Coast Guard had received 14,000 calls for assistance and had responded to 8,600 in-peril cases. On June 23,1939, the U. S, boat Owners organized into flotillas within Coast Guard districts around the United States. These volunteers conducted safety and security patrols and helped enforce the 1940 Federal Boating, in February 1941, congress created the United States Coast Guard Reserve and renamed the volunteer reserve as the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary. As newly constructed warships took over the load, the Coast Guard abandoned the concept, none of the two thousand civilian craft, armed with depth charges stowed awkwardly on their decks, ever sank a submarine, though they did rescue several hundred survivors of torpedoed merchant ships. Early in 1973, budget cuts forced the closing of seven Coast Guard stations on the Great Lakes, at the request of the affected communities, Congress ordered the stations to be re-opened and operated by the Auxiliary. The local division captains took responsibility for manning them and ensuring that Auxiliarists boats were available to assist distressed vessels. The Auxiliary later took over seven more stations on the Mississippi, in 1976 the Coast Guard commissioned a study of the Auxiliary by a private research firm, University Sciences Forum of Washington. In summary, they wrote, we consider the Auxiliary the greatest economical resource readily available to the COGARD and it performs in an outstanding manner and its personnel are among the most professional group of volunteers in the nation. Under legislation passed in 1996, the Auxiliarys role was expanded to members to assist in any Coast Guard mission, except direct law enforcement. As of 2004, the Coast Guard Auxiliary had 35,000 members who collectively provided 2 million man hours of service annually, on the 75th anniversary of the USCG Auxiliary, June 23,2014, the Commandant awarded another Coast Guard Unit Commendation ribbon to all Auxiliarists. A complete timeline of events for the Coast Guard Auxiliary can be found at this link The Auxiliary University Programs is a Coast Guard Auxiliary-managed initiative established in 2007. Today AUP now has nearly 200 students in 20 units representing over 30 colleges and universities across the United States, AUP prepares undergraduate and graduate students for future public service inside and outside of the Coast Guard Auxiliary. AUP provides opportunities for students to gain boating education, to learn about homeland security, Operational Auxiliary Program, is an advanced training program available to Auxiliarists
8.
United States Merchant Marine
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The United States Merchant Marine refers to either United States civilian mariners, or to U. S. civilian and federally owned merchant vessels. Merchant Marine officers may also be commissioned as officers by the Department of Defense. This is commonly achieved by commissioning unlimited tonnage Merchant Marine officers as Strategic Sealift Officers in the Naval Reserves. As of 31 December 2016, the United States merchant fleet had 175 privately owned, oceangoing, self-propelled vessels of 1,000 gross register tons, nearly 800 American-owned ships are flagged in other nations. In 2004, the government employed approximately 5% of all American water transportation workers. In the 19th and 20th centuries, various laws fundamentally changed the course of American merchant shipping and these laws put an end to common practices such as flogging and shanghaiing, and increased shipboard safety and living standards. The United States Merchant Marine is also governed by more than 25 international conventions to promote safety, the Court held that the Secretary of the Air Force abused its discretion in denying active military service recognition to American merchant seamen who participated in World War II. Captains, mates, and pilots supervise ship operations on domestic waterways, a captain is in overall command of a vessel, and supervises the work of other officers and crew. A captain has the ability to take the conn from a mate or pilot at any time he feels the need, on smaller vessels the captain may be a regular watch-stander, similar to a mate, directly controlling the vessels position. Captains directly communicate with the company or command, and are responsible for cargo, various logs, ships documents, credentials, efforts at controlling pollution. Mates direct a ships routine operation for the captain during work shifts, mates stand watch for specified periods, usually in three duty sections, with 4 hours on watch and 8 hours off. When on a watch, mates direct a bridge team by conning, directing courses through the helmsman. When more than one mate is necessary aboard a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first mate, second mate, in addition to watch standers, mates directly supervise the ships crew, and are assigned other tasks. The chief mate is usually in charge of cargo, stability and the crew, the second mate in charge of navigation plans and updates. Harbor pilots guide ships in and out of confined waterways, such as harbors, harbor pilots are generally independent contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port, and may pilot many ships in a single day. Ships engineers operate, maintain, and repair engines, boilers, generators, pumps, Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers, a chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. On many ships, Assistant Engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the operation of engines. However, most modern ships sailing today utilize Unmanned Machinery Space automation technology, at night and during meals and breaks, the engine room is unmanned and machinery alarms are answered by the Duty Engineer
9.
Military Auxiliary Radio System
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The United States Navy-Marine program has been closed. MARS has a history of providing worldwide auxiliary emergency communications during times of need. The combined two-service MARS programs, volunteer force of over 3,000 dedicated and skilled amateur radio operators provide the backbone of the MARS program, the main benefit of MARS membership is enjoying the amateur radio hobby through an ever-expanding horizon of MARS service to the nation. MARS members work by the slogan Proudly serving those who serve, the organization that led to the Military Auxiliary Radio System was called the Auxiliary Amateur Radio System. AARS was created in November 1925 by a few dedicated pioneers in the United States Army Signal Corps led by Captain Thomas C and this support would be particularly useful during the mobilization of forces by providing a pool of trained radio operators. Their efforts were successful, and the present-day MARS program is the descendant of the work of those early pioneers. The programs name was changed to the Military Affiliate Radio System on 2 September 1952, eventually, the Navy-Marine Corps MARS program was established officially on 17 August 1962, and began operations on 1 January 1963. This followed the Cuban Missile Crisis and President Kennedys concern for viable, the programs name was changed again to the current Military Auxiliary Radio System on 23 December 2009. MARS continues to be active today and its primary mission is to provide contingency communications to the Department of Defense and Military Services. MARS is also available to provide communications for Defense Support to Civil Authorities such as FEMA, under DSCA, MARS may also available to assist state and local emergency response agencies. Military Auxiliary Radio System provides Department of Defense sponsored emergency communications on a local, national, MARS also provides auxiliary communications for military entities only. MARS establishes programs to create civilian interest, recruit qualified volunteers, and furnish training in communications, techniques. Every year, MARS conducts a military and amateur radio cross-band exercise as an integral part of the annual Armed Forces Day. They provide a reserve of personnel trained in radio communications, techniques. MARS members test state-of-the-art technology through experimentation and testing, MARS celebrates Armed Forces Day annually with a traditional military to amateur crossband communications test and a message-receiving test. A QSL card is provided to those making contact with one of the military stations, special commemorative certificates are awarded to anyone who receives and accurately copies the digital Armed Forces Day message from the Secretary of Defense. Participating military stations transmit on selected military MARS frequencies and listen for radio stations in the amateur bands. The military station operator will announce the specific amateur-band frequency being monitored, usually, the military MARS stations are at places such as The Pentagon, Fort Huachuca, Andrews Air Force Base, Nellis Air Force Base, and various Navy and Coast Guard locations
10.
Naval militia
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A naval militia in the United States is a reserve military organization administered under the authority of a state government. It is often composed of Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard reservists, retirees and they are distinguishable from the U. S. Coast Guard Auxiliary which is a federally chartered civilian volunteer component of the U. S. Under Title 10 of the United States Code, naval militias are treated differently from maritime state defense force units not primarily composed of reservists from the sea services, Naval militias are considered parts of the organized militia under federal law and thus members have a slightly different status. However, when sailors and marines are federalized, they are relieved from their state obligations. In the 1880s, a United States Navy proposal to organize a national Naval Reserve Force was submitted to the United States Congress, however, the movement to create a naval reserve force became popular at the state and local level. Following the passage of enabling legislation in states, several of these states began establishing naval reserve forces. The first naval militia which was first organized and drilling was the Massachusetts Battalion, over the next few years, several other states, mainly in the eastern United States and in the Great Lakes region, created their own naval militias. The United States Navy began loaning older veteran ships from the American Civil War, such as the USS Minnesota, the naval militias were called into service during the Spanish–American War. New York Naval Militiamen manned two auxiliary cruisers that fought in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, and conducted patrols of New York Harbor, members of the North Carolina Naval Militia crewed the USS Nantucket and guarded the city of Port Royal, South Carolina. South Carolina Naval Militia sailors also assisted in the defense of Port Royal, and served aboard ships, including the USS Celtic, the USS Chickasaw, the USS Cheyenne. Members of the Connecticut Naval Militia served aboard the USS Minnesota, sailors from both the Rhode Island Naval Militia and the Florida Naval Militia were also assimilated into the ranks of the Navy. In 1914, Congress passed a bill recognizing the naval militia as a component of the United States Armed Forces. During World War I, naval militiamen were drafted into federal service, many naval reservists, including a significant number of sailors from the Michigan Naval Militia, served in Naval Railway Battery crews on the Western Front. The primary federal responsibility of members of the militias was cemented by the Naval Reserve Act of 1938. In 1940, the militias were once again federalized to fight in World War II. Following the war, many either did not rebuild their naval militias. However, several naval militias were activated or reactivated in the late 20th century, in 1977, the Ohio Naval Militia was reactivated. In 1984, the Alaska Naval Militia was activated, in 1999, the New Jersey Naval Militia was reactivated after over thirty years of existing only on paper
11.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
12.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
