1.
RDF Schema
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These resources can be saved in a triplestore to reach them with the query language SPARQL. The first version was published by the World-Wide Web Consortium in April 1998, many RDFS components are included in the more expressive Web Ontology Language. RDFS constructs are the RDFS classes, associated properties and utility properties built on the vocabulary of RDF. rdfs. All things described by RDF are resources, rdfs, Class declares a resource as a class for other resources. A typical example of an rdfs, Class is foaf, Person in the Friend of a Friend vocabulary. Ex, John rdf, type foaf, Person The definition of rdfs, Class is recursive, rdfs, Class is the class of classes, and so it is an instance of itself. Rdfs, Class rdf, type rdfs, Class The other classes described by the RDF and RDFS specifications are, rdfs, Literal – literal values such as strings, Property values such as textual strings are examples of RDF literals. Literals may be plain or typed, rdfs, Datatype – the class of datatypes. Rdfs, Datatype is both an instance of and a subclass of rdfs, Class, each instance of rdfs, Datatype is a subclass of rdfs, Literal. Rdf, XMLLiteral – the class of XML literal values, rdf, XMLLiteral is an instance of rdfs, Datatype. Rdf, Property – the class of properties, properties are instances of the class rdf, Property and describe a relation between subject resources and object resources. When used as such a property is a predicate, rdfs, domain of an rdf, Property declares the class of the subject in a triple whose predicate is that property. Rdfs, range of an rdf, Property declares the class or datatype of the object in a triple whose predicate is that property, a commonly accepted qname for this property is a. rdfs, subClassOf allows to declare hierarchies of classes. Rdfs, subPropertyOf is an instance of rdf, Property that is used to state that all related by one property are also related by another. Rdfs, label is an instance of rdf, Property that may be used to provide a version of a resources name. Rdfs, comment is an instance of rdf, Property that may be used to provide a description of a resource. Rdfs, seeAlso is an instance of rdf, Property that is used to indicate a resource that might provide information about the subject resource. Rdfs, isDefinedBy is an instance of rdf, Property that is used to indicate a resource defining the subject resource and this property may be used to indicate an RDF vocabulary in which a resource is described
2.
RDFa
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RDFa is a W3C Recommendation that adds a set of attribute-level extensions to HTML, XHTML and various XML-based document types for embedding rich metadata within Web documents. The RDF data-model mapping enables its use for embedding RDF subject-predicate-object expressions within XHTML documents and it also enables the extraction of RDF model triples by compliant user agents. The RDFa community runs a website to host tools, examples. RDFa was first proposed by Mark Birbeck in the form of a W3C note entitled XHTML and RDF, later that year the work became part of the sixth public Working Draft of XHTML2.0. Although it is assumed that RDFa was originally intended only for XHTML2. Indeed, one of the earliest documents bearing the RDF/A Syntax name has the sub-title A collection of attributes for layering RDF on XML languages, the document was written by Mark Birbeck and Steven Pemberton, and was made available for discussion on October 11,2004. In April 2007 the XHTML2 Working Group produced a module to support RDF annotation within the XHTML1 family, as an example, it included an extended version of XHTML1.1 dubbed XHTML+RDFa 1.0. Although described as not representing a direction in terms of a formal markup language from the W3C. October 2007 saw the first public Working Draft of a document entitled RDFa in XHTML, Syntax and this superseded and expanded upon the April draft, it contained rules for creating an RDFa parser, as well as guidelines for organizations wishing to make practical use of the technology. In October 2008 RDFa 1.0 reached recommendation status, RDFa 1.1 reached recommendation status in June 2012. It differs from RDFa 1.0 in that it no longer relies on the XML-specific namespace mechanism, therefore, it is possible to use RDFa 1.1 with non-XML document types such as HTML4 or HTML5. Details can be found in an appendix to HTML5, an additional RDFa 1.1 Primer document was last updated 17 March 2015. There are some main well-defined variants of the concepts, that are used as reference. RDFa was defined in 2008 with the RDFa in XHTML, Syntax and its first application was to be a module of XHTML. The HTML applications remained, a collection of attributes and processing rules for extending XHTML to support RDF expanded to HTML5, are now expressed in a specialized standard, the HTML+RDFa. The HTML+RDFa syntax of 2008 was also termed RDFa 1.0, so, in general this 2008s RDFa 1.0 is used with the old XHTML standards. Is the first generic RDFa standard, now the RDFa Core 1.1 is in the Third Edition, while it is not a complete solution for advanced data markup tasks, it does work for most day-to-day needs and can be learned by most Web authors in a day. In 2009 the W3C was positioned to retain RDFa Lite as unique, the position was confirmed with the publication of the HTML5 Recommendation in 2014
3.
Semantic Web
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The Semantic Web is an extension of the Web through standards by the World Wide Web Consortium. The standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the Web, according to the W3C, The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries. The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data that can be processed by machines, while its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven the validity of the original concept. The 2001 Scientific American article by Berners-Lee, Hendler, and Lassila described an expected evolution of the existing Web to a Semantic Web, in 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that, This simple idea…remains largely unrealized. In 2013, more than four million Web domains contained Semantic Web markup, in the following example, the text Paul Schuster was born in Dresden on a Website will be annotated, connecting a person with their place of birth. The following HTML-fragment shows how a small graph is being described, in RDFa-syntax using a schema. org vocabulary, the triples result in the graph shown in the given figure. One of the advantages of using Uniform Resource Identifier is that they can be dereferenced using the HTTP protocol, according to the so-called Linked Open Data principles, such a dereferenced URI should result in a document that offers further data about the given URI. This enables automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. He defines the Semantic Web as a web of data that can be processed directly and indirectly by machines, many of the technologies proposed by the W3C already existed before they were positioned under the W3C umbrella. In addition, other technologies with similar goals have emerged, such as microformats. A Semantic Web, which makes possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does. The intelligent agents people have touted for ages will finally materialize, the Semantic Web is regarded as an integrator across different content, information applications and systems. It has applications in publishing, blogging, and many other areas, many files on a typical computer can also be loosely divided into human readable documents and machine readable data. Documents like mail messages, reports, and brochures are read by humans, Data, such as calendars, addressbooks, playlists, and spreadsheets are presented using an application program that lets them be viewed, searched and combined. Metadata tags provide a method by which computers can categorise the content of web pages, for example, With HTML, rather, HTML can only say that the span of text X586172 is something that should be positioned near Acme Gizmo and €199, etc. There is no way to say this is a catalog or even to establish that Acme Gizmo is a kind of title or that €199 is a price. There is also no way to express that these pieces of information are together in describing a discrete item. Semantic HTML refers to the traditional HTML practice of markup following intention, for example, the use of <em> denoting emphasis rather than <i>, which specifies italics
4.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
5.
Data model
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A data model is an abstract model that organizes elements of data and standardizes how they relate to one another and to properties of the real world entities. For instance, a model may specify that the data element representing a car be composed of a number of other elements which, in turn, represent the color and size of the car. The term data model is used in two distinct but closely related senses, at other times it refers to a set of concepts used in defining such formalizations, for example concepts such as entities, attributes, relations, or tables. So the data model of an application may be defined using the entity-relationship data model. This article uses the term in both senses, a data model explicitly determines the structure of data. Data models are specified in a modeling notation, which is often graphical in form. A data model can sometimes be referred to as a data structure, Data models are often complemented by function models, especially in the context of enterprise models. Managing large quantities of structured and unstructured data is a function of information systems. Data models describe the structure, manipulation and integrity aspects of the data stored in data management systems such as relational databases and they typically do not describe unstructured data, such as word processing documents, email messages, pictures, digital audio, and video. The main aim of data models is to support the development of systems by providing the definition. According to West and Fowler if this is done consistently across systems then compatibility of data can be achieved, if the same data structures are used to store and access data then different applications can share data. The results of this are indicated above, however, systems and interfaces often cost more than they should, to build, operate, and maintain. They may also constrain the business rather than support it, a major cause is that the quality of the data models implemented in systems and interfaces is poor. Business rules, specific to how things are done in a place, are often fixed in the structure of a data model. This means that changes in the way business is conducted lead to large changes in computer systems. Entity types are not identified, or incorrectly identified. This can lead to replication of data, data structure, and functionality, together with the attendant costs of that duplication in development, Data models for different systems are arbitrarily different. The result of this is that complex interfaces are required between systems that share data and these interfaces can account for between 25-70% of the cost of current systems
6.
Knowledge management
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Knowledge management is the process of creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization. It refers to an approach to achieving organisational objectives by making the best use of knowledge. An established discipline since 1991, KM includes courses taught in the fields of administration, information systems, management, library. Other fields may contribute to KM research, including information and media, computer science, public health, several universities offer dedicated masters degrees in knowledge management. Several consulting companies provide advice regarding KM to these organizations, KM is an enabler of organisational learning. Knowledge management efforts have a history, including on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training. In 1999, the personal knowledge management was introduced, it refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level. In the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognized the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, process, in short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and organizations if they are purposeful, concrete and action-orientated. KM emerged as a discipline in the early 1990s. It was initially supported by individual practitioners, when Skandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the worlds first Chief Knowledge Officer, hubert Saint-Onge, started investigating KM long before that. The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximize the intangible assets of their organisations, gradually, CKOs became interested in practical and theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed. The KM idea has taken up by academics, such as Ikujiro Nonaka, Hirotaka Takeuchi, Thomas H. Davenport. The KM discipline has been moving towards academic maturity. First, is a trend toward higher cooperation among academics, single-author publications are less common, second, the role of practitioners has changed. Their contribution to academic research declined from 30% of overall contributions up to 2002, multiple KM disciplines exist, approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline matured, academic debates increased regarding theory and practice, including, Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance knowledge sharing, organisational with a focus on how an organisation can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes best. Ecological with a focus on the interaction of people, identity, knowledge, regardless of the school of thought, core components of KM roughly include people/culture, processes/structure and technology. The details depend on the perspective, different frameworks for distinguishing between different types of knowledge exist
7.
Class diagram
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The class diagram is the main building block of object-oriented modelling. It is used both for general conceptual modelling of the systematics of the application, and for detailed modelling translating the models into programming code, Class diagrams can also be used for data modeling. The classes in a class diagram represent both the elements, interactions in the application, and the classes to be programmed. In the diagram, classes are represented with boxes that contain three compartments, The top compartment contains the name of the class and it is printed in bold and centered, and the first letter is capitalized. The middle compartment contains the attributes of the class and they are left-aligned and the first letter is lowercase. The bottom compartment contains the operations the class can execute and they are also left-aligned and the first letter is lowercase. In the design of a system, a number of classes are identified and grouped together in a diagram that helps to determine the static relations between them. With detailed modelling, the classes of the design are often split into a number of subclasses. In order to describe the behaviour of systems, these class diagrams can be complemented by a state diagram or UML state machine. UML provides mechanisms to represent class members, such as attributes and methods, classifier members are commonly recognized as “static” in many programming languages. The scope is the class itself, attribute values are equal for all instances Method invocation does not affect the instance’s state Instance members are scoped to a specific instance. Attribute values may vary between instances Method invocation may affect the instance’s state To indicate a classifier scope for a member, otherwise, instance scope is assumed by default. A relationship is a term covering the specific types of logical connections found on class. UML defines the relationships, A dependency is a semantic connection between dependent and independent model elements. It exists between two elements if changes to the definition of one element may cause changes to the other, an association represents a family of links. A binary association is represented as a line. An association can link any number of classes, an association with three links is called a ternary association. An association can be named, and the ends of an association can be adorned with names, ownership indicators, multiplicity, visibility
8.
Subject (grammar)
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The subject in a simple English sentence such as John runs, John is a teacher, or John was hit by a car is the person or thing about whom the statement is made, in this case John. Traditionally the subject is the word or phrase which controls the verb in the clause, if there is no verb, as in John - what an idiot. or if the verb has a different subject, as in John - I cant stand him. Then John is not considered to be the subject. For example, in the sentence It is difficult to learn French, the subject seems to be the word it. Sentences beginning with a phrase, such as There is a problem. In which the tag question isnt there, seems to imply that the subject is the adverb there, also create difficulties for the definition of subject. But there are languages such as Basque or Greenlandic, in which the form of a noun or pronoun when the verb is intransitive is different from when the verb is transitive. In these languages, which are known as ergative languages, the concept of subject may not apply at all, according to a tradition associated with predicate logic and dependency grammars, the subject is the most prominent overt argument of the predicate. By this position all languages with arguments have subjects, though there is no way to define this consistently for all languages, from a functional perspective, a subject is a phrase that conflates nominative case with the topic. Many languages do not do this, and by definition would not have subjects. All of these see the subject in English determining person and number agreement on the finite verb. The stereotypical subject immediately precedes the verb in declarative sentences in English. The subject is often a multi-word constituent and should be distinguished from parts of speech, subject-verb agreement, The subject agrees with the finite verb in person and number, e. g. Position occupied, The subject typically immediately precedes the verb in declarative clauses in English. Of these three criteria, the first one is the most reliable, the subject in English and many other languages agrees with the finite verb in person and number. The second and third criterion are merely strong tendencies that can be flouted in certain constructions, - The three criteria agree identifying Tom as the subject. - The 1st and the 3rd criteria identify Tom as the subject, - The 1st and the 2nd criteria identify Chemistry as the subject. In the first sentence, all three combine to identify Tom as the subject
9.
Predicate (grammar)
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There are two competing notions of the predicate in theories of grammar. The competition between two concepts has generated confusion concerning the use of the term predicate in theories of grammar. This article considers both of these notions, the second notion was derived from work in predicate calculus and is prominent in modern theories of syntax and grammar. In this approach, the predicate of a sentence mostly corresponds to the verb and any auxiliaries that accompany the main verb. The predicate in traditional grammar is inspired by propositional logic of antiquity, a predicate is seen as a property that a subject has or is characterized by. A predicate is therefore an expression that can be true of something, thus, the expression is moving is true of anything that is moving. It is also the understanding of predicates in English-language dictionaries, the predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence. The predicate must contain a verb, and the verb requires or permits other elements to complete the predicate and these elements are objects, predicatives, and adjuncts, She dances. – verb-only predicate Ben reads the book, – verb-plus-direct-object predicate Bens mother, Felicity, gave me a present. – verb-plus-indirect-object-plus-direct-object predicate She listened to the radio, – verb-plus-prepositional-object predicate They elected him president. – verb-plus-object-plus-predicative-noun predicate She met him in the park, – verb-plus-object-plus-adjunct predicate She is in the park. – verb-plus-predicative-prepositional-phrase predicate The predicate provides information about the subject, such as what the subject is, what the subject is doing, the relation between a subject and its predicate is sometimes called a nexus. A predicative nominal is a phrase, such as in George III is the king of England. The subject and predicative nominal must be connected by a linking verb, a predicative adjective is an adjective, such as in Ivano is attractive, attractive being the predicative adjective. The subject and predicative adjective must also be connected by a copula and this traditional understanding of predicates has a concrete reflex in all phrase structure theories of syntax. These theories divide the generic declarative sentence into a phrase and verb phrase. The subject NP is shown in green, and the predicate VP in blue, most modern theories of syntax and grammar take their inspiration for the theory of predicates from predicate calculus as associated with Gottlob Frege. This understanding sees predicates as relations or functions over arguments, the predicate serves either to assign a property to a single argument or to relate two or more arguments to each other
10.
Object (grammar)
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Traditional grammar defines the object in a sentence as the entity that is acted upon by the subject. Traditional theories of sentence structure divide the simple sentence into a subject, the main verb in a clause determines whether and what objects are present. Transitive verbs require the presence of an object, whereas intransitive verbs block the appearance of an object, the term complement overlaps in meaning with object, all objects are complements, but not vice versa. The objects that verbs do and do not take is explored in detail in valency theory, various object types are commonly acknowledged, direct, indirect, and prepositional. These object types are illustrated in the table, The descriptions entity acted upon. Beyond basic examples such as provided in the table, these orientation points are not much help when the goal is to determine whether a given object should be viewed as direct or indirect. One rule of thumb for English, however, is that an object is not present unless a direct object is also present. A prepositional object is one that is introduced by a preposition, despite the difficulties with the traditional nomenclature, the terms direct object and indirect object are widespread. The term oblique object is also employed at times, although what exactly is meant varies from author to author, some understand it to be an umbrella term denoting all objects, whereas others use the term to denote just a prepositional object. Some Chinese verbs can have two objects, one being more closely bound to the verb than the other, these may be called inner and outer objects. g. Subject of passive sentence, Most objects in active sentences can become the subject in the corresponding passive sentences, position occupied, In languages with strict word order, the subject and the object tend to occupy set positions in unmarked declarative clauses. Morphological case, In languages that have case systems, objects are marked by certain cases, languages vary significantly with respect to these criteria. The first criterion identifies objects reliably most of the time in English, - Passive sentence identifies a book as an object in the starting sentence. - Passive sentence identifies me as an object in the starting sentence, the third criterion is less applicable to English, though, since English lacks morphological case, exceptions being the personal pronouns. For languages that have case and thus freer word order, morphological case is the most readily available criterion for identifying objects, in Latin and related languages, direct objects are usually marked with the accusative case, and indirect objects with the dative case. Note as well that some objects are marked in telling ways in particular languages, in Spanish, for example, human objects have to be marked by the preposition a, the phenomenon is called differential object marking. Verbs can be classified according to the number and/or type of objects that they do or do not take, the object of a transitive ergative verb is the subject of the corresponding intransitive ergative verb. With object-deletion verbs, in contrast, the subject is consistent regardless of whether an object is or is not present, objects are distinguished from subjects in the syntactic trees that represent sentence structure
11.
Component-based software engineering
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It is a reuse-based approach to defining, implementing and composing loosely coupled independent components into systems. This practice aims to bring about an equally wide-ranging degree of benefits in both the short-term and the long-term for the software itself and for organizations that sponsor such software, Software engineering practitioners regard components as part of the starting platform for service-orientation. Components can produce or consume events and can be used for event-driven architectures, an individual software component is a software package, a web service, a web resource, or a module that encapsulates a set of related functions. All system processes are placed into separate components so all of the data. Because of this principle, it is said that components are modular. With regard to system-wide co-ordination, components communicate with each other via interfaces, when a component offers services to the rest of the system, it adopts a provided interface that specifies the services that other components can utilize, and how they can do so. This interface can be seen as a signature of the component - the client does not need to know about the workings of the component in order to make use of it. This principle results in components referred to as encapsulated, the UML illustrations within this article represent provided interfaces by a lollipop-symbol attached to the outer edge of the component. However, when a component needs to use another component in order to function, in the UML illustrations in this article, used interfaces are represented by an open socket symbol attached to the outer edge of the component. Another important attribute of components is that they are substitutable, so that a component can replace another, consequently, components can be replaced with either an updated version or an alternative without breaking the system in which the component operates. In other words, a component acts without changing its source code, although, the behavior of the components source code may change based on the applications extensibility, provided by its writer. Reusability is an important characteristic of a high-quality software component, programmers should design and implement software components in such a way that many different programs can reuse them. Furthermore, component-based usability testing should be considered when software components directly interact with users and it takes significant effort and awareness to write a software component that is effectively reusable. Though these subroutine libraries reused well-defined algorithms in an effective manner, as of 2010, modern reusable components encapsulate both data structures and the algorithms that are applied to the data structures. It claims that software components, like the idea of hardware components, used for example in telecommunications, on the other hand, it is argued that it is a mistake to focus on independent components rather than the framework. The conference set out to counter the so-called software crisis, mcIlroys subsequent inclusion of pipes and filters into the Unix operating system was the first implementation of an infrastructure for this idea. Brad Cox of Stepstone largely defined the concept of a software component. He called them Software ICs and set out to create an infrastructure, the above belongs to former kind, while the below belongs to later kind
12.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
13.
Glossary of graph theory
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This is a glossary of graph theory terms. Graph theory is the study of graphs, systems of nodes or vertices connected in pairs by edges, for instance, α is the independence number of a graph, α′ is the matching number of the graph, which equals the independence number of its line graph. Similarly, χ is the number of a graph, χ ′ is the chromatic index of the graph. Achromatic The achromatic number of a graph is the number of colors in a complete coloring. A graph is acyclic if it has no cycles, an acyclic undirected graph is the same thing as a forest. Acyclic directed graphs are often called directed acyclic graphs. An acyclic coloring of a graph is a proper coloring in which every two color classes induce a forest. Adjacent The relation between two vertices that are both endpoints of the same edge, α For a graph G, α is its independence number, and α′ is its matching number. Alternating In a graph with a matching, a path is a path whose edges alternate between matched and unmatched edges. An alternating cycle is, similarly, a cycle whose edges alternate between matched and unmatched edges, an augmenting path is an alternating path that starts and ends at unsaturated vertices. A larger matching can be found as the difference of the matching and the augmenting path. Anti-edge Synonym for non-edge, a pair of non-adjacent vertices, anti-triangle A three-vertex independent set, the complement of a triangle. An apex graph is a graph in which one vertex can be removed, the removed vertex is called the apex. A k-apex graph is a graph that can be made planar by the removal of k vertices, Synonym for universal vertex, a vertex adjacent to all other vertices. Arborescence Synonym for a rooted and directed tree, see tree, arrow An ordered pair of vertices, such as an edge in a directed graph. An arrow has a x, a head y. The arrow is the arrow of the arrow. Articulation point A vertex in a graph whose removal would disconnect the graph
14.
Relational model
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A database organized in terms of the relational model is a relational database. Most relational databases use the SQL data definition and query language, a table in an SQL database schema corresponds to a predicate variable, the contents of a table to a relation, key constraints, other constraints, and SQL queries correspond to predicates. However, SQL databases deviate from the model in many details. The content of the database at any time is a finite model of the database, i. e. a set of relations, one per predicate variable. A request for information from the database is also a predicate, other models are the hierarchical model and network model. Also of note are newer object-oriented databases, as of October 2015 Rel is one of the more recent attempts to do this. The relational model was the first database model to be described in mathematical terms. Hierarchical and network databases existed before relational databases, but their specifications were relatively informal, the relational model was invented by Edgar Codd as a general model of data, and subsequently maintained and developed by Chris Date and Hugh Darwen among others. In The Third Manifesto Date and Darwen show how the model can accommodate certain desired object-oriented features. But these have never implemented, presumably because of attending complexity. SQLs NULL construct was intended to be part of a three-valued logic system, the fundamental assumption of the relational model is that all data is represented as mathematical n-ary relations, an n-ary relation being a subset of the Cartesian product of n domains. In the mathematical model, reasoning about such data is done in two-valued predicate logic, data are operated upon by means of a relational calculus or relational algebra, these being equivalent in expressive power. The relational model of data permits the designer to create a consistent. Consistency is achieved by including declared constraints in the database design, the theory includes a process of database normalization whereby a design with certain desirable properties can be selected from a set of logically equivalent alternatives. The access plans and other implementation and operation details are handled by the DBMS engine and this contrasts with common practice for SQL DBMSs in which performance tuning often requires changes to the logical model. The basic relational building block is the domain or data type, a tuple is an ordered set of attribute values. An attribute is a pair of attribute name and type name. An attribute value is a valid value for the type of the attribute
15.
Relational database management system
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A relational database management system is a database management system that is based on the relational model as invented by E. F. Codd, of IBMs San Jose Research Laboratory. In 2017, many of the databases in widespread use are based on the database model. Relational databases have often replaced legacy hierarchical databases and network databases because they are easier to understand, however, relational databases have received unsuccessful challenge attempts by object database management systems in the 1980s and 1990s and also by XML database management systems in the 1990s. Despite such attempts, RDBMSs keep most of the market share, according to DB-Engines, in 2016, the most widely used systems are Oracle, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, PostgreSQL, IBM DB2, Microsoft Access, and SQLite. According to research company Gartner, in 2011, the five leading commercial relational database vendors by revenue were Oracle, IBM, Microsoft, SAP including Sybase, however, the first commercially available RDBMS was Oracle, released in 1979 by Relational Software, now Oracle Corporation. Other examples of an RDBMS include DB2, SAP Sybase ASE, in 1984, the first RDBMS for Macintosh began being developed, code-named Silver Surfer, it was later released in 1987 as 4th Dimension and known today as 4D. The term relational database was invented by E. F. Codd at IBM in 1970, Codd introduced the term in his seminal paper A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. In this paper and later papers, he defined what he meant by relational, one well-known definition of what constitutes a relational database system is composed of Codds 12 rules. The first system sold as an RDBMS was Multics Relational Data Store, others have been Ingres and IBM BS12. The most common definition of an RDBMS is a product that presents a view of data as a collection of rows and columns, by this definition, RDBMS products typically implement some but not all of Codds 12 rules. A second school of thought argues that if a database does not implement all of Codds rules and this view, shared by many theorists and other strict adherents to Codds principles, would disqualify most DBMSs as not relational. For clarification, they refer to some RDBMSs as truly-relational database management systems. As of 2009, most commercial relational DBMSes employ SQL as their query language, alternative query languages have been proposed and implemented, notably the pre-1996 implementation of Ingres QUEL. SQL Object database Wikibook SQL Online analytical processing and ROLAP Data warehouse Star schema Snowflake schema
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Named graph
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Named graphs are a simple extension of the RDF data model through which graphs can be created but the model lacks an effective means of distinguishing between them once published on the Web at large. One conceptualization of the Web is as a graph of document nodes identified with URIs, by doing a HTTP GET on a URI, a somehow-related document may be retrieved. This Web of data has been described by Tim Berners-Lee as the Giant Global Graph, Named graphs are a formalization of the intuitive idea that the contents of an RDF document on the Web can be considered to be named by the URI of the document. This considerably simplifies techniques for managing chains of provenance for pieces of data, additionally trust can be managed through the publisher applying a digital signature to the data in the named graph. While named graphs may appear on the Web as simple linked documents, in particular, the scope of a SPARQL query may be limited to a specific set of named graphs. Assume the following RDF document has been placed in a SPARQL-capable store with the name http and this way of representing quads resp. quad-statements was incorporated in the specification of N-Quads. A paper from the WWW2005 conference by Carroll et al. includes a definition of named graphs. TriX - Named Graphs in XML TriG - Named Graphs in Turtle N-Quads - Named Graphs in N-Triples Jeni Tennison
17.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
18.
Tim Bray
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Timothy William Bray is a Canadian software developer and entrepreneur and one of the co-authors of the original XML specification. He has worked for Amazon Web Services since December 2014 and previously for Google, Sun Microsystems, Bray was born on June 21,1955 in Alberta, Canada. He grew up in Beirut, Lebanon and returned to Canada to attend school at the University of Guelph in Guelph and he graduated in 1981 with a Bachelor of Science, double majoring in Mathematics and Computer Science. Tim described his switch of focus from Math to Computer Science this way, In math I’d worked like a dog for my Cs, fresh out of university, Bray joined Digital Equipment Corporation in Toronto as a software specialist. In 1983, Bray left DEC for Microtel Pacific Research and he joined the New Oxford English Dictionary project at the University of Waterloo in 1987 as its manager. It was during this time Bray worked with SGML, a technology that would become central to both Open Text Corporation and his XML and Atom standardization work. Bray was director of Web Technologies at Sun Microsystems from early 2004 to early 2010 and he joined Google as a developer advocate in 2010, focusing on Android and then on Identity. He left Google in March 2014, unwilling to relocate to Silicon Valley from Vancouver and he started working for Amazon Web Services in December 2014. Bray has been involved in entrepreneurial activities including, Tim Bray served as the part-time CEO of Waterloo Maple during 1989–1990. Waterloo Maple is the developer of the popular Maple mathematical software, Bray left the new OED project in 1989 to co-found Open Text Corporation with two colleagues. Open Text commercialised the search engine employed in the new OED project, Bray recalled that “in 1994 I heard a conference speaker say that search engines would be big on the Internet, and in five seconds all the pieces just fell into place in my head. I realized that we could build such a thing with our technology. ”Thus in 1995, Open Text released the Open Text Index, Open Text Corporation is now publicly traded on the Nasdaq under the symbol OTEX. From 1991 until 1996, Bray held the position of Senior Vice President—Technology, Bray, along with his wife Dr. Lauren Wood, ran Textuality, a successful consulting practice in the field of web and publishing technology. He was contracted by Netscape in 1999, along with Ramanathan V. Guha, in part to create a new version of Meta Content Framework called Resource Description Framework, in 1999 he founded Antarctica Systems, a Vancouver, Canada-based company that specializes in visualization-based business analytics. Bray has contributed to several important standards in technology, particularly Web standards at the World Wide Web Consortium, as an Invited Expert at the World Wide Web Consortium between 1996 and 1999, Bray co-edited the XML and XML namespace specifications. Halfway through the project Bray accepted an engagement with Netscape. This led to dispute in the Working Group, eventually solved by the appointment of Microsofts Jean Paoli as third co-editor. In 2001, Bray wrote an article called Taxi to the Future for Xml, between 2001 and 2004 he served as a Tim Berners-Lee appointee to the W3C Technical Architecture Group
19.
Netscape
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When it was an independent company, its headquarters were in Mountain View, California. Netscapes web browser was dominant in terms of usage share. The usage share of Netscape had fallen from over ninety percent in the mid-1990s to less than one percent by the end of 2006, Netscape stock traded from 1995 until 1999 when it was acquired by AOL in a pooling-of-interests transaction ultimately worth US $10 billion. Shortly before its acquisition by AOL, Netscape released the code for its browser. The Mozilla Organization rewrote the entire source code based on the Gecko rendering engine. The Gecko engine would later be used to power the Mozilla Foundations Firefox browser, under AOL, Netscapes browser development continued until December 2007 when AOL announced that the company would stop supporting the Netscape browser as of early 2008. As of 2011, AOL has continued to use the Netscape brand to market a discount Internet service provider, Netscape was the first company to attempt to capitalize on the nascent World Wide Web. The first meeting between Clark and Andreessen was never truly about a software or service like Netscape, but more about a product that was similar to Nintendo, Clark recruited other early team members from SGI and NCSA Mosaic. Jim Barksdale came on board as CEO in January 1995, jim Clark and Marc Andreessen originally created a 20-page concept pitch for an online gaming network to Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 console, but a deal was never reached. Marc Andreessen explains, If they had shipped a year earlier, the companys first product was the web browser, called Mosaic Netscape 0.9, released on October 13,1994. Within four months of its release, it had already taken three-quarters of the browser market and it became the main browser for Internet users in such a short time due to its superiority over other competition, like Mosaic. The Mosaic Netscape web browser did not use any NCSA Mosaic code, the internal codename for the companys browser was Mozilla, which stood for Mosaic killer, as the companys goal was to displace NCSA Mosaic as the worlds number one web browser. A cartoon Godzilla-like lizard mascot was drawn by artist-employee Dave Titus, the Mozilla mascot featured prominently on Netscapes web site in the companys early years. However, the need to project a professional image led to this being removed. On August 9,1995, Netscape made an extremely successful IPO, the stock was set to be offered at US$14 per share, but a last-minute decision doubled the initial offering to US$28 per share. The stocks value soared to US$75 during the first day of trading, the stock closed at US$58.25, which gave Netscape a market value of US$2.9 billion. While it was unusual for a company to go public prior to becoming profitable, Netscapes revenues had, in fact, the success of this IPO subsequently inspired the use of the term Netscape moment to describe a high-visibility IPO that signals the dawn of a new industry. During this period, Netscape also pursued a publicity strategy packaging Andreessen as the rock star
20.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
21.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
22.
Nokia
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Nokia Corporation, stylised as NOKIA, is a Finnish multinational communications and information technology company, founded in 1865. Nokia is headquartered in Espoo, Uusimaa, in the greater Helsinki metropolitan area, in 2014, Nokia employed 61,656 people across 120 countries, did business in more than 150 countries and reported annual revenues of around €12.73 billion. Nokia is a limited company listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. It is the worlds 274th-largest company measured by 2013 revenues according to the Fortune Global 500 and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the company has had various industries in its 151-year history. It was founded as a mill, and now focuses on large-scale telecommunications infrastructures. Nokias dominance also extended into the industry through its Symbian platform. Nokia eventually entered into a pact with Microsoft in 2011 to exclusively use Microsofts Windows Phone platform on future smartphones and its mobile phone business was eventually bought by Microsoft in an overall deal totaling $7.17 billion. Stephen Elop, Nokias former CEO, and several other joined the new Microsoft Mobile subsidiary of Microsoft as part of the deal. Nokia has a history, dating back to 1865 when Fredrik Idestam. A second pulp mill was created in 1868 near the town of Nokia, in 1871, Idestam together with friend Leo Mechelin formed a shared company and called it Nokia, after the town of the second pulp mill. For the next 90 years, Nokia on its own would be a forest and power industry company, in 1922, Nokia was jointly-owned with a trio partnership with Finnish Cable Works and Finnish Rubber Works. Nokia Corporation now boasted many industries including rubber, forestry, cable, electricity, in the 1970s, the newly formed conglomerate started entering the networking and radio industry. Nokia also started making military equipment for Finlands defence forces, such as the Sanomalaite M/90 communicator in 1983, in 1979, Nokia went into a joint venture with television maker Salora, to create Mobira, which would lay out the foundation of Nokias future mobile phone division. In 1981, Mobira launched the Nordic Mobile Telephone service, the worlds first international cellular network, then in 1982, Mobira launched the Mobira Senator car phone, which can be considered as Nokias first mobile phone. At that time, though, Nokia had no interest at all in mobile phones and it is only due to the Salo, Finland-based Salora-Mobira that the idea was pushed through. In 1987, Finnish Cable Works discontinued production of cables at its Helsinki factory, nokian Tyres, a tyre producer that was originally formed as a division of Finnish Rubber Works in 1932, split away from Nokia Corporation in 1988. Two years later in 1990, Finnish Rubber Works followed suit and this allowed Nokia Corporation to solely focus on communications. Jorma Ollila became CEO in 1992, Nokias first fully portable mobile phone was the Mobira Cityman 900 in 1987
23.
Reuters
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Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
24.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
25.
XML
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In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
