Rhombitrihexagonal tiling
In geometry, the rhombitrihexagonal tiling is a semiregular tiling of the Euclidean plane. There are one triangle, two squares, one hexagon on each vertex, it has Schläfli symbol of rr. John Conway calls it a rhombihexadeltille, it can be considered a cantellated by Norman Johnson's terminology or an expanded hexagonal tiling by Alicia Boole Stott's operational language. There are 3 regular and 8 semiregular tilings in the plane. There is only one uniform coloring in a rhombitrihexagonal tiling. With edge-colorings there is a half symmetry form orbifold notation; the hexagons can be considered as t with two types of edges. It has Coxeter diagram, Schläfli symbol s2; the bicolored square can be distorted into isosceles trapezoids. In the limit, where the rectangles degenerate into edges, a triangular tiling results, constructed as a snub triangular tiling. There is one related 2-uniform tiling; the rhombitrihexagonal tiling is related to the truncated trihexagonal tiling by replacing some of the hexagons and surrounding squares and triangles with dodecagons: The tiling can be replaced by circular edges, centered on the hexagons as a overlapping circles grid.
In quilting it is call Jacks chain. The rhombitrihexagonal tiling can be used as a circle packing, placing equal diameter circles at the center of every point; every circle is in contact with 4 other circles in the packing. The translational lattice domain contains 6 distinct circles. There are eight uniform tilings. Drawing the tiles colored as red on the original faces, yellow at the original vertices, blue along the original edges, there are 8 forms, 7 which are topologically distinct; this tiling is topologically related as a part of sequence of cantellated polyhedra with vertex figure, continues as tilings of the hyperbolic plane. These vertex-transitive figures have reflectional symmetry; the deltoidal trihexagonal tiling is a dual of the semiregular tiling known as the rhombitrihexagonal tiling. Conway calls it a tetrille; the edges of this tiling can be formed by the intersection overlay of the regular triangular tiling and a hexagonal tiling. Each kite face of this tiling has angles 120°, 90°, 60° and 90°.
It is one of only eight tilings of the plane in which every edge lies on a line of symmetry of the tiling. The deltoidal trihexagonal tiling is a dual of the semiregular tiling rhombitrihexagonal tiling, its faces are kites. It is one including the regular duals; this tiling has face transitive variations, that can distort the kites into bilateral trapezoids or more general quadrillaterals. Ignoring the face colors below, the symmetry is p6m, the lower symmetry is p31m with 3 mirrors meeting at a point, 3-fold rotation points; this tiling is related to the trihexagonal tiling by dividing the triangles and hexagons into central triangles and merging neighboring triangles into kites. The deltoidal trihexagonal tiling is a part of a set of uniform dual tilings, corresponding to the dual of the rhombitrihexagonal tiling; this tiling is topologically related as a part of sequence of tilings with face configurations V3.4.n.4, continues as tilings of the hyperbolic plane. These face-transitive figures have reflectional symmetry.
Other deltoidal tilings are possible. Point symmetry allows the plane to be filled by growing kites, with the topology as a square tiling, V4.4.4.4, can be created by crossing string of a dream catcher. Below is an example with dihedral hexagonal symmetry. Another face transitive tiling with kite faces a topological variation of a square tiling and with face configuration V4.4.4.4. It is vertex transitive, with every vertex containing all orientations of the kite face. Tilings of regular polygons List of uniform tilings Branko. C.. Tilings and Patterns. New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1193-1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list Williams, Robert; the Geometrical Foundation of Natural Structure: A Source Book of Design. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-23729-X. P40 John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strass, The Symmetries of Things 2008, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 (Chapter 21, Naming Archimedean and Catalan polyhedra and tilings. Weisstein, Eric W. "Uniform tessellation". MathWorld. Weisstein, Eric W. "Semiregular tessellation".
MathWorld. Klitzing, Richard. "2D Euclidean tilings x3o6x - rothat - O8". Keith Critchlow, Order in Space: A design source book, 1970, p. 69-61, Pattern N, Dual p. 77-76, pattern 2 Dale Seymour and Jill Britton, Introduction to Tessellations, 1989, ISBN 978-0866514613, pp. 50–56, dual p. 116
Cantellation (geometry)
In geometry, a cantellation is an operation in any dimension that bevels a regular polytope at its edges and vertices, creating a new facet in place of each edge and vertex. The operation applies to regular tilings and honeycombs; this is rectifying its rectification. This operation is called expansion by Alicia Boole Stott, as imagined by taking the faces of the regular form moving them away from the center and filling in new faces in the gaps for each opened vertex and edge, it is represented by r or rr. For polyhedra, a cantellation operation offers a direct sequence from a regular polyhedron and its dual. Example cantellation sequence between a cube and octahedron For higher-dimensional polytopes, a cantellation offers a direct sequence from a regular polytope and its birectified form. A cuboctahedron would be a cantellated tetrahedron, as another example. Uniform polyhedron Uniform 4-polytope Coxeter, H. S. M. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N.
W. Johnson: The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1966 Weisstein, Eric W. "Expansion". MathWorld
Hyperbolic geometry
In mathematics, hyperbolic geometry is a non-Euclidean geometry. The parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry is replaced with: For any given line R and point P not on R, in the plane containing both line R and point P there are at least two distinct lines through P that do not intersect R. Hyperbolic plane geometry is the geometry of saddle surfaces and pseudospherical surfaces, surfaces with a constant negative Gaussian curvature. A modern use of hyperbolic geometry is in the theory of special relativity Minkowski spacetime and gyrovector space; when geometers first realised they were working with something other than the standard Euclidean geometry they described their geometry under many different names. In the former Soviet Union, it is called Lobachevskian geometry, named after one of its discoverers, the Russian geometer Nikolai Lobachevsky; this page is about the 2-dimensional hyperbolic geometry and the differences and similarities between Euclidean and hyperbolic geometry. Hyperbolic geometry can be extended to three and more dimensions.
Hyperbolic geometry is more related to Euclidean geometry than it seems: the only axiomatic difference is the parallel postulate. When the parallel postulate is removed from Euclidean geometry the resulting geometry is absolute geometry. There are two kinds of absolute geometry and hyperbolic. All theorems of absolute geometry, including the first 28 propositions of book one of Euclid's Elements, are valid in Euclidean and hyperbolic geometry. Propositions 27 and 28 of Book One of Euclid's Elements prove the existence of parallel/non-intersecting lines; this difference has many consequences: concepts that are equivalent in Euclidean geometry are not equivalent in hyperbolic geometry. Further, because of the angle of parallelism, hyperbolic geometry has an absolute scale, a relation between distance and angle measurements. Single lines in hyperbolic geometry have the same properties as single straight lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, two points uniquely define a line, lines can be infinitely extended.
Two intersecting lines have the same properties as two intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, two lines can intersect in no more than one point, intersecting lines have equal opposite angles, adjacent angles of intersecting lines are supplementary; when we add a third line there are properties of intersecting lines that differ from intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry. For example, given 2 intersecting lines there are infinitely many lines that do not intersect either of the given lines; these properties all are independent of the model used if the lines may look radically different. Non-intersecting lines in hyperbolic geometry have properties that differ from non-intersecting lines in Euclidean geometry: For any line R and any point P which does not lie on R, in the plane containing line R and point P there are at least two distinct lines through P that do not intersect R; this implies that there are through P an infinite number of coplanar lines that do not intersect R.
These non-intersecting lines are divided into two classes: Two of the lines are limiting parallels: there is one in the direction of each of the ideal points at the "ends" of R, asymptotically approaching R, always getting closer to R, but never meeting it. All other non-intersecting lines have a point of minimum distance and diverge from both sides of that point, are called ultraparallel, diverging parallel or sometimes non-intersecting; some geometers use parallel lines instead of limiting parallel lines, with ultraparallel lines being just non-intersecting. These limiting parallels make an angle θ with PB. For ultraparallel lines, the ultraparallel theorem states that there is a unique line in the hyperbolic plane, perpendicular to each pair of ultraparallel lines. In hyperbolic geometry, the circumference of a circle of radius r is greater than 2 π r. Let R = 1 − K, where K is the Gaussian curvature of the plane. In hyperbolic geometry, K is negative, so the square root is of a positive number.
The circumference of a circle of radius r is equal to: 2 π R sinh r R. And the area of the enclosed disk is: 4 π R 2 sinh 2 r 2 R = 2 π R 2. Therefore, in hyperbolic geometry the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius is always greater than 2 π, though
Wythoff symbol
In geometry, the Wythoff symbol represents a Wythoff construction of a uniform polyhedron or plane tiling, from a Schwarz triangle. It was first used by Coxeter, Longuet-Higgins and Miller in their enumeration of the uniform polyhedra. A Wythoff symbol consists of a vertical bar, it represents one uniform polyhedron or tiling, although the same tiling/polyhedron can have different Wythoff symbols from different symmetry generators. For example, the regular cube can be represented by 3 | 4 2 with Oh symmetry, 2 4 | 2 as a square prism with 2 colors and D4h symmetry, as well as 2 2 2 | with 3 colors and D 2 h symmetry. With a slight extension, Wythoff's symbol can be applied to all uniform polyhedra. However, the construction methods do not lead to all uniform tilings in Euclidean or hyperbolic space. In three dimensions, Wythoff's construction begins by choosing a generator point on the triangle. If the distance of this point from each of the sides is non-zero, the point must be chosen to be an equal distance from each edge.
A perpendicular line is dropped between the generator point and every face that it does not lie on. The three numbers in Wythoff's symbol, p, q and r, represent the corners of the Schwarz triangle used in the construction, which are π / p, π / q and π / r radians respectively; the triangle is represented with the same numbers, written. The vertical bar in the symbol specifies a categorical position of the generator point within the fundamental triangle according to the following: p | q r indicates that the generator lies on the corner p, p q | r indicates that the generator lies on the edge between p and q, p q r | indicates that the generator lies in the interior of the triangle. In this notation the mirrors are labeled by the reflection-order of the opposite vertex; the p, q, r values are listed before the bar. The one impossible symbol | p q r implies the generator point is on all mirrors, only possible if the triangle is degenerate, reduced to a point; this unused symbol is therefore arbitrarily reassigned to represent the case where all mirrors are active, but odd-numbered reflected images are ignored.
The resulting figure has rotational symmetry only. The generator point can either be off each mirror, activated or not; this distinction creates 8 possible forms, neglecting one where the generator point is on all the mirrors. The Wythoff symbol is functionally similar to the more general Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, in which each node represents a mirror and the arcs between them – marked with numbers – the angles between the mirrors. A node is circled. There are seven generator points with each set of p, q, r: There are three special cases: p q | – This is a mixture of p q r | and p q s |, containing only the faces shared by both. | p q r – Snub forms are given by this otherwise unused symbol. | p q r s – A unique snub form for U75 that isn't Wythoff-constructible. There are 4 symmetry classes of reflection on the sphere, three in the Euclidean plane. A few of the infinitely many such patterns in the hyperbolic plane are listed. Point groups: dihedral symmetry, p = 2, 3, 4 … tetrahedral symmetry octahedral symmetry icosahedral symmetry Euclidean groups: *442 symmetry: 45°-45°-90° triangle *632 symmetry: 30°-60°-90° triangle *333 symmetry: 60°-60°-60° triangleHyperbolic groups: *732 symmetry *832 symmetry *433 symmetry *443 symmetry *444 symmetry *542 symmetry *642 symmetry...
The above symmetry groups only include the integer solutions on the sphere. The list of Schwarz triangles includes rational numbers, determine the full set of solutions of nonconvex uniform polyhedra. In the tilings above, each triangle is a fundamental domain, colored by and odd reflections. Selected tilings created by the Wythoff con
Geometry
Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, relative position of figures, the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of formal mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into an axiomatic form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclid's Elements, set a standard for many centuries to follow. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC. Islamic scientists expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid analytic footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat. Since and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, describing spaces that lie beyond the normal range of human experience.
While geometry has evolved throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, planes, surfaces and curves, as well as the more advanced notions of manifolds and topology or metric. Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. Contemporary geometry has many subfields: Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense; the mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, planes, triangles, similarity, solid figures and analytic geometry. Euclidean geometry has applications in computer science and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of linear algebra to study problems in geometry, it has applications in physics, including in general relativity. Topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness.
Convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis and functional analysis and important applications in number theory. Algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques, it has applications including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned with questions of relative position of simple geometric objects, such as points and circles, it shares many principles with combinatorics. Computational geometry deals with algorithms and their implementations for manipulating geometrical objects. Although being a young area of geometry, it has many applications in computer vision, image processing, computer-aided design, medical imaging, etc; the earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt in the 2nd millennium BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction and various crafts.
The earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, or frustum. Clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiter's position and motion within time-velocity space; these geometric procedures anticipated the Oxford Calculators, including the mean speed theorem, by 14 centuries. South of Egypt the ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions of sun clocks. In the 7th century BC, the Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore, he is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history.
Eudoxus developed the method of exhaustion, which allowed the calculation of areas and volumes of curvilinear figures, as well as a theory of ratios that avoided the problem of incommensurable magnitudes, which enabled subsequent geometers to make significant advances. Around 300 BC, geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, whose Elements considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time, introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom and proof. Although most of the contents of the Elements were known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework; the Elements was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century and its contents are still taught in geometry classes today. Archimedes of Syracuse used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, gave remarkably accurate approximations of Pi.
He studied the sp
Dual polyhedron
In geometry, any polyhedron is associated with a second dual figure, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other. Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all are geometric polyhedra. Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron. Duality preserves the symmetries of a polyhedron. Therefore, for many classes of polyhedra defined by their symmetries, the duals belong to a symmetric class. Thus, the regular polyhedra – the Platonic solids and Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra – form dual pairs, where the regular tetrahedron is self-dual; the dual of an isogonal polyhedron, having equivalent vertices, is one, isohedral, having equivalent faces. The dual of an isotoxal polyhedron is isotoxal. Duality is related to reciprocity or polarity, a geometric transformation that, when applied to a convex polyhedron, realizes the dual polyhedron as another convex polyhedron.
There are many kinds of duality. The kinds most relevant to elementary polyhedra are polar reciprocity and topological or abstract duality; the duality of polyhedra is defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a concentric sphere. Here, each vertex is associated with a face plane so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. In coordinates, for reciprocation about the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2, the vertex is associated with the plane x 0 x + y 0 y + z 0 z = r 2; the vertices of the dual are the poles reciprocal to the face planes of the original, the faces of the dual lie in the polars reciprocal to the vertices of the original. Any two adjacent vertices define an edge, these will reciprocate to two adjacent faces which intersect to define an edge of the dual; this dual pair of edges are always orthogonal to each other. If r 0 is the radius of the sphere, r 1 and r 2 the distances from its centre to the pole and its polar, then: r 1.
R 2 = r 0 2 For the more symmetrical polyhedra having an obvious centroid, it is common to make the polyhedron and sphere concentric, as in the Dorman Luke construction described below. However, it is possible to reciprocate a polyhedron about any sphere, the resulting form of the dual will depend on the size and position of the sphere; the choice of center for the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If multiple symmetry axes are present, they will intersect at a single point, this is taken to be the centroid. Failing that, a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere is used. If a polyhedron in Euclidean space has an element passing through the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will go to infinity. Since Euclidean space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, may be formed by adding the required'plane at infinity'; some theorists prefer to say that there is no dual. Meanwhile, Wenninger found a way to represent these infinite duals, in a manner suitable for making models.
The concept of duality here is related to the duality in projective geometry, where lines and edges are interchanged. Projective polarity works well enough for convex polyhedra, but for non-convex figures such as star polyhedra, when we seek to rigorously define this form of polyhedral duality in terms of projective polarity, various problems appear. Because of the definitional issues for geometric duality of non-convex polyhedra, Grünbaum argues that any proper definition of a non-convex polyhedron should include a notion of a dual polyhedron. Any convex polyhedron can be distorted into a canonical form, in which a unit midsphere exists tangent to every edge, such that the average position of the points of tangency is the center of the sphere; this form is unique up to congruences. If we reciprocate such a canonical polyhedron about its midsphere, the dual polyhedron will share the same edge-tangency points and so must be canonical, it is the canonical dual, the two together form a canonical dual pair.
When a pair of polyhedra cannot be obtained by reciprocation from each other, they may be called duals of each other as long as the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, the edges of one correspond to the edges of the other, in an incidence-preserving way. Such pairs of polyhedra are abstractly dual; the vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron form a graph, embedded on a topological sphere, the surface of the polyhedron. The same graph can be projected to form
Truncated triapeirogonal tiling
In geometry, the truncated triapeirogonal tiling is a uniform tiling of the hyperbolic plane with a Schläfli symbol of tr. The dual of this tiling represents the fundamental domains of, *∞32 symmetry. There are 3 small index subgroup constructed from by mirror alternation. In these images fundamental domains are alternately colored black and white, mirrors exist on the boundaries between colors. A special index 4 reflective subgroup, is, its direct subgroup +, semidirect subgroup. Given with generating mirrors its index 4 subgroup has generators. An index 6 subgroup constructed as, becomes; this tiling can be considered a member of a sequence of uniform patterns with vertex figure and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. For p < 6, the members of the sequence are omnitruncated polyhedra, shown below as spherical tilings. For p > 6, they are tilings of the hyperbolic plane, starting with the truncated triheptagonal tiling. List of uniform planar tilings Tilings of regular polygons Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane
