1.
Radiography
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To create the image, a heterogeneous beam of X-rays is produced by an X-ray generator and is projected toward the object. A certain amount of X-ray is absorbed by the object, which is dependent on the particular density, the X-rays that pass through the object are captured behind the object by a detector. The detector can then provide a superimposed 2D representation of all the internal structures. Contrast radiography uses a radiocontrast agent, a type of contrast medium, to make the structures of interest stand out visually from their background, each type is best suited to certain indications. In tomography, the X-ray source and detector move to blur out structures not in the focal plane, conventional tomography is rarely used now having been replaced by CT. Computed tomography, unlike flat film tomography, generates 3D representations used for computer-assisted reconstruction, the role of the Radiographer has changed dramatically as a result of more advanced equipment. Röntgen referred to the radiation as X, to indicate that it was a type of radiation. He received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery and he noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 metre away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow, Röntgen discovered X-rays medical use when he made a picture of his wifes hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wifes hand was the first ever photograph of a body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said, I have seen my death, the first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards also became the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation, the United States saw its first medical X-ray obtained using a discharge tube of Ivan Pulyuis design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgens discovery, Frank Austin of Dartmouth College tested all of the tubes in the physics laboratory. This was a result of Pulyuis inclusion of a target of mica, used for holding samples of fluorescent material. Indeed, Marie Curie pushed for radiography to be used to treat wounded soldiers in World War I, initially, many kinds of staff conducted radiography in hospitals, including Physicists, Photographers, Physicians, Nurses, and Engineers. The medical speciality of radiology grew up over many years around the new technology, when new diagnostic tests were developed, it was natural for the Radiographers to be trained in and to adopt this new technology. Radiographers now perform fluoroscopy, computed tomography, mammography, ultrasound, nuclear medicine, although a nonspecialist dictionary might define radiography quite narrowly as taking X-ray images, this has long been only part of the work of X-ray Departments, Radiographers, and Radiologists. Initially, radiographs were known as roentgenograms, while Skiagrapher was used until about 1918 to mean Radiographer, a number of sources of X-ray photons have been used, these include X-ray generators, betatrons, and linear accelerators
2.
Pediatrics
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Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents, and the age limit usually ranges from birth up to 18-21 years of age. A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician, the word pediatrics and its cognates mean healer of children, they derive from two Greek words, παῖς and ἰατρός. Pediatricians work both in hospitals, particularly working in its specialized subfields such as neonatology, and as primary care physicians. Pediatrics is known as a new modern medicine in the society today, hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Soranus, and Galen, understood the differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment, Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent. Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Ancient India where childrens doctors were called kumara bhrtya, sushruta Samhita an ayurvedic text, composed during the sixth century BC contains the text about pediatrics. Another ayurvedic text from this period is Kashyapa Samhita, a second century AD manuscript by the Greek physician and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics. Byzantine physicians Oribasius, Aëtius of Amida, Alexander Trallianus, islamic writers served as a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, especially Haly Abbas, Serapion, Avicenna, and Averroes. The Persian scholar and doctor al-Razi published a treatise on diseases among children. The first book about pediatrics was Libellus de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 and he was born in Germany, where he received his medical training, but later practiced in New York City. The first generally accepted pediatric hospital is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades, in 1852 Britains first pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Streets. The first Childrens hospital in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh, in the US, the first similar institutions were the Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, which opened in 1855, and then Boston Childrens Hospital. The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes, the smaller body of an infant or neonate is substantially different physiologically from that of an adult. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of concern to pediatricians than they often are to adult physicians. A common adage is that children are not simply little adults, the clinician must take into account the immature physiology of the infant or child when considering symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses. A major difference between the practice of pediatric and adult medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, the issues of guardianship, privacy, legal responsibility and informed consent must always be considered in every pediatric procedure. Pediatricians often have to treat the parents and sometimes, the family, adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health care decisions in certain circumstances. The training of pediatricians varies considerably across the world, depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree course may be either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former commonly takes five or six years, and has been usual in the Commonwealth, entrants to graduate-entry courses, usually lasting four or five years, have previously completed a three- or four-year university degree, commonly but by no means always in sciences
3.
Calcium
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Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
4.
Breastfeeding
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Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk from a womans breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a life and continue as often. During the first few weeks of life babies may nurse roughly every two to three hours, the duration of a feeding is usually ten to fifteen minutes on each breast. Mothers may pump milk so that it can be used later when breastfeeding is not possible, Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby, which infant formula lacks. Deaths of an estimated 820,000 children under the age of five could be prevented every year with increased breastfeeding. Breastfeeding decreases the risk of respiratory infections and diarrhea, both in developing and developed countries. Other benefits include lower risks of asthma, food allergies, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, Breastfeeding may also improve cognitive development and decrease the risk of obesity in adulthood. Mothers may feel pressure to breastfeed, however in the developed world children generally grow up normally when bottle fed, benefits for the mother include less blood loss following delivery, better uterus shrinkage, weight loss, and less postpartum depression. Breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation and fertility, a known as lactational amenorrhea. Long term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, Breastfeeding is less expensive than infant formula. Health organizations, including the World Health Organization, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months and this means that no other foods or drinks other than possibly vitamin D are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until at least one to two years of age, globally about 38% of infants are only breastfed during their first six months of life. In the United States, about 75% of women begin breastfeeding, Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare. Mothers who take certain drugs and medications should not breastfeed. Smoking, limited intake of alcohol, and coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding, the endocrine system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy, a body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the breasts milk duct system. After birth, the hormone oxytocin contracts the muscle layer of cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is also necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur, let-down occurs in response to the babys suckling, though it also may be a conditioned response, e. g. to the cry of the baby
5.
Medical diagnosis
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Medical diagnosis is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a persons symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history, often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as diagnostic tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes Posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis, Diagnosis is often challenging, because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific. For example, redness of the skin, by itself, is a sign of many disorders, thus differential diagnosis, in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted, must be performed. This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns, occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom that is pathognomonic. Diagnosis is a component of the procedure of a doctors visit. From the point of view of statistics, the procedure involves classification tests. The first recorded examples of medical diagnosis are found in the writings of Imhotep in ancient Egypt, a Babylonian medical textbook, the Diagnostic Handbook written by Esagil-kin-apli, introduced the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in the diagnosis of an illness or disease. Traditional Chinese Medicine, as described in the Yellow Emperors Inner Canon or Huangdi Neijing, specified four diagnostic methods, inspection, auscultation-olfaction, interrogation, hippocrates was known to make diagnoses by tasting his patients urine and smelling their sweat. This article uses diagnostician as any of these person categories, a diagnostic procedure does not necessarily involve elucidation of the etiology of the diseases or conditions of interest, that is, what caused the disease or condition. Such elucidation can be useful to optimize treatment, further specify the prognosis or prevent recurrence of the disease or condition in the future, the initial task is to detect a medical indication to perform a diagnostic procedure. Indications include, Detection of any deviation from what is known to be normal, such as can be described in terms of, for example, anatomy, physiology, pathology, psychology, a complaint expressed by a patient. The fact that a patient has sought a diagnostician can itself be an indication to perform a diagnostic procedure, even during an already ongoing diagnostic procedure, there can be an indication to perform another, separate, diagnostic procedure for another, potentially concomitant, disease or condition. A diagnostic test is any kind of medical test performed to aid in the diagnosis or detection of disease, Diagnostic tests can also be used to provide prognostic information on people with established disease. Processing of the answers, findings or other results, consultations with other providers and specialists in the field may be sought. There are a number of methods or techniques that can be used in a diagnostic procedure, in reality, a diagnostic procedure may involve components of multiple methods. The final result may also remain a list of possible conditions, the resultant diagnostic opinion by this method can be regarded more or less as a diagnosis of exclusion
6.
Scurvy
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Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C. Early symptoms include weakness, feeling tired, curly hair, and sore arms, without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, and bleeding from the skin may occur. As scurvy worsens there can be wound healing, personality changes. Scurvy is caused by not enough vitamin C in the diet and it typically takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C before symptoms occur. In modern times, it occurs most commonly in people with mental disorders, unusual eating habits, alcoholism, other risk factors include intestinal malabsorption and dialysis. Humans and certain other animals require vitamin C in their diets to make the blocks for collagen. Diagnosis is typically based on signs, X-rays, and improvement after treatment. Treatment is with vitamin C supplements taken by mouth, improvement often begins in a few days with complete recovery in a few weeks. Sources of vitamin C in the diet include fruit and a number of vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes. Cooking often decreases vitamin C in foods and it occurs more often in the developing world in association with malnutrition. Rates among refugees are reported at 5% to 45%, Scurvy was described as early as the time of ancient Egypt. It was a factor in long distance sea travel, often killing large numbers of people. A Scottish surgeon in the Royal Navy, James Lind, was the first to prove it could be treated with citrus fruit in a 1753 publication and his experiments represented the first controlled trial. It took another 40 years before the British Navy began giving out lemon juice routinely, early symptoms are malaise and lethargy. Even earlier might be a pain in a section of the gums which interferes with digestion, after 1–3 months, patients develop shortness of breath and bone pain. Myalgias may occur because of reduced carnitine production, other symptoms include skin changes with roughness, easy bruising and petechiae, gum disease, loosening of teeth, poor wound healing, and emotional changes. Dry mouth and dry eyes similar to Sjögrens syndrome may occur, in the late stages, jaundice, generalized edema, oliguria, neuropathy, fever, convulsions, and eventual death are frequently seen. Scurvy or subclinical scurvy is caused by the lack of vitamin C, in modern Western societies, scurvy is rarely present in adults, although infants and elderly people are affected
7.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
8.
Phosphorus
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Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
9.
Calcification
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Calcification is the accumulation of calcium salts in a body tissue. It normally occurs in the formation of bone, but calcium can be deposited abnormally in soft tissue, calcifications may be classified on whether there is mineral balance or not, and the location of the calcification. Calcification may also refer to the processes of mineral deposition in biological systems. Calcification of soft tissue can be caused by vitamin K2 deficiency or by calcium absorption due to a high calcium/vitamin D ratio. This can occur with or without a mineral imbalance, such metastatic soft tissue calcification is mainly in tissues containing calcium catchers such as elastic fibres or sour mucopolysaccharides. These tissues especially include the lungs and the aorta, dystrophic calcification, without a systemic mineral imbalance. Metastatic calcification, an elevation of calcium levels in the blood. Calcification can manifest itself in ways in the body. Laminated appearance suggests granulomatous disease while popcorn calcification indicates hamartoma, malignant lesions may have stippled or eccentric calcification. In a number of breast pathologies, calcium is deposited at sites of cell death or in association secretions or hyalinized stroma. For example, small, irregular, linear calcifications may be seen, via mammography, treatment of high calcium/vitamin D ratio may most easily be accomplished by intake of more vitamin D if vitamin K is normal. Intake of too much vitamin D would be evident by anorexia, loss of appetite, or soft tissue calcification
10.
Growth plate
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The epiphyseal plate is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. The plate is found in children and adolescents, in adults, who have stopped growing and this replacement is known as epiphyseal closure. Endochondral ossification is responsible for the bone development from cartilage in utero and infants. The plates chondrocytes are under constant division by mitosis and these daughter cells stack facing the epiphysis while the older cells are pushed towards the diaphysis. As the older chondrocytes degenerate, osteoblasts ossify the remains to form new bone, in puberty increasing levels of estrogen, in both females and males, leads to increased apoptosis of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate. The growth plate has a very specific morphology in having a zonal arrangement, the growth plate is clinically relevant in that it is often the primary site for infection, metastasis, fractures and the effects of endocrine bone disorders. Defects in the development and continued division of epiphyseal plates can lead to growth disorders, the most common defect is achondroplasia, where there is a defect in cartilage formation. Achondroplasia is the most common cause of dwarfism, salter–Harris fractures are fractures involving epiphyseal plates and hence tend to interfere with growth and height. Osgood-Schlatter Disease results from stress on the plate in the tibia, leading to excess bone growth. He observed bones grew at the ends and thus demonstrated the existence of the epiphyseal plates, hunter is considered the father of the growth plate
11.
Alkaline phosphatase
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Alkaline phosphatase is a hydrolase enzyme responsible for removing phosphate groups from many types of molecules, including nucleotides, proteins, and alkaloids. The process of removing the phosphate group is called dephosphorylation, as the name suggests, alkaline phosphatases are most effective in an alkaline environment, it is sometimes used synonymously as basic phosphatase. Alkaline phosphatase is elevated in undifferentiated pluripotent stem cells, and the germ cells which produce spermatozoa. In Gram-negative bacteria, alkaline phosphatase is located in the periplasmic space, Alkaline phosphatase is a zinc-containing dimeric enzyme with the MW,86,000 Da. It is heat stable and its function is to remove phosphate groups from phosphorylated compounds facilitating transport across membranes, Alkaline phosphatase in E. coli is located in the periplasmic space and can thus be released using techniques that weaken the cell wall and release the protein. Due to the location of the enzyme, and the layout of the enzyme the enzyme is in solution with a small amount of proteins than there are in another portion of the cell. Some complexities of bacterial regulation and metabolism suggest that other, more subtle, in the laboratory, however, mutant Escherichia coli lacking alkaline phosphatase survive quite well, as do mutants unable to shut off alkaline phosphatase production. The optimal pH for the activity of the E. coli enzyme is 8.0 while the bovine enzyme optimum pH is slightly higher at 8.5. Typical uses in the lab for alkaline phosphatases include removing phosphate monoesters to prevent self-ligation, common alkaline phosphatases used in research include, Shrimp alkaline phosphatase, from a species of Arctic shrimp. This phosphatase is easily inactivated by heat, a feature in some applications. Calf-intestinal alkaline phosphatase Placental alkaline phosphatase and its C terminally truncated version that lacks the last 24 amino acids - the secreted alkaline phosphatase and it presents certain characteristics like heat stability, substrate specificity, and resistance to chemical inactivation. The human body has multiple types of alkaline phosphatase present, which are determined by a minimum of three gene loci, each one of these three loci controls a different kind of alkaline phosphatase isozyme. However, the development of enzyme can be strictly regulated by other factors such as thermostability, electrophoresis, inhibition. Human-intestinal ALPase shows around 80% homology with bovine intestinal ALPase, which holds true their shared evolutionary origins and that same bovine enzyme has more than 70% homology with human placental enzyme. However, the intestinal enzyme and the placental enzyme only share 20% homology despite their structural similarities. Alkaline phosphatase has become a tool in molecular biology laboratories. For these purposes, the alkaline phosphatase from shrimp is the most useful, another important use of alkaline phosphatase is as a label for enzyme immunoassays. Alkaline phosphatase affect on the responses in patients with Chronic kidney disease and is directly associated with Erythropoiesis stimulating agent resistant anemia
12.
1st century
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The 1st century was the century that lasted from AD1 to AD100 according to the Julian calendar. It is often written as the 1st century AD or 1st century CE to distinguish it from the 1st century BC which preceded it, the 1st century is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. During this period Europe, North Africa and the Near East fell under increasing domination by the Roman Empire, the reforms introduced by Augustus during his long reign stabilized the empire after the turmoil of the previous centurys civil wars. Later in the century the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which had been founded by Augustus, the Roman Empire generally experienced a period of prosperity and dominance in this period and the First Century is remembered as part of the Empires golden age. The 1st Century saw the appearance of Christianity, China continued to be dominated by the Han Dynasty, despite a fourteen-year interruption by the Xin dynasty under Wang Mang. Han rule was restored in AD23, Wang Mangs rule represents the watershed between the Western/Former Han and the Eastern/Later Han, the capital was also moved from Changan to Luoyang. Western Asia, Roman and Parthian Empires, Sabaean and Arabian Kingdoms, southeast Asia, Mandala of city-states, Kingdom of Funan East Asia, Han Dynasty, Yamatai, Xiongnu and Xianbei tribal chiefdoms, Three Kingdoms of Korea. North America, Central America, Mayan, Teotihuacan and Zapotec civilizations, caribbean, South America, Nazca, Moche civilizations, Tairona tribal chiefdoms. Early 1st century – Augustus of Primaporta, is made and it is now kept in Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome. Early 1st century – Gemma Augustea is made and it is now kept at Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Early 1st century – House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii, is built, excavated in 1893, the year of the silver wedding anniversary of Italys King Humbert and his wife, Margherita of Savoy, who have supported archaeological fieldwork at Pompeii. Early 1st century - Inner shrine, Ise, Mie, Mie Prefecture, is built, AD1, Lions became extinct in Western Europe. AD2, First Census of China, the census is one of the most accurate in Chinese history, AD7, Prince Cunobeline of Catuvellauni defeats the Trinovantes in England and establishes his capital at Camulodunum. AD9, Three Roman legions were ambushed and destroyed at Teutoberg Forest by Germans under the leadership of Arminius, AD9, Prince Cunobeline is crowned King of Catuvellauni, his Kingdom dominates Southern England. AD 9–23, Wang Mang temporarily overthrew the Han dynasty of China, AD14, Augustus Caesar, first emperor of Rome, dies. His adopted son, stepson and son-in-law Tiberius is his successor, AD25, The Han dynasty is restored by Liu Xiu who proclaims himself Emperor Guangwu of Han. AD 28–75, Emperor Ming of Han, Buddhism reaches China, humans arrive on Pentecost Island and establish the Bunlap tribe, among others. AD29, Jesus begins his ministry, AD33, The Crucifixion of Jesus
13.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
14.
Cod liver oil
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Cod liver oil is a nutritional supplement derived from liver of cod fish. As with most fish oils, it has levels of the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid. Cod liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin D and it has historically been taken because of its vitamin A and vitamin D content. It was once given to children, because vitamin D has been shown to prevent rickets. Cod liver oil has come in many grades. Cod liver oil for human consumption is pale and straw colored, ancient Scandinavian Vikings produced cod liver oil by laying birch tree branches over a kettle of water, and fresh livers were laid over the branches. The water was brought to a boil and as the steam rose, there was also a method for producing fresh raw cod liver oil. In the Industrial Revolution, cod liver oil became popular for industrial purposes, livers placed in barrels to rot, with the oil skimmed off over the season, was the main method for producing this oil. The resulting oil was brown and foul tasting, in the 1800s cod liver oil became popular as a medicine and both pale and brown oils were used. Brown oils were common because they were cheaper to produce, some doctors believed in only using the fresh pale oil, while others believed the brown oil was better. However the brown oils tended to cause intestinal upset, the Möller Process was invented by Peter Möller in 1850. The livers are ground with water into a slurry, then this is gently simmered until the oil rises to the top, the oil is skimmed off and purified. Other methods used in modern times include the Cold Flotation Process, Pressure Extraction and these all require further purification steps to get a pure oil. Fermented Cod Liver Oil is made using a secret process. Testing has shown FCLO has high levels of fatty acids. However, free fatty acids and acid value may not be the marker to reflect the oxidation level of this product. Though similar in composition to fish oil, cod liver oil has higher concentrations of vitamins A and D, according to the United States Department of Agriculture, a tablespoon of cod liver oil contains 4080 μg of retinol and 34 μg of vitamin D. The Dietary Reference Intake of vitamin A is 900 μg per day for men and 700 μg per day for women
15.
Fracture
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A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid, fracture strength or breaking strength is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures. The word fracture is often applied to bones of living creatures, or to crystalline materials, sometimes, individual crystals fracture without the structure actually separating into two or more pieces. Depending on the substance, a fracture reduces strength or inhibits transmission of waves, a detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics. Fracture strength, also known as breaking strength, is the stress at which a specimen fails via fracture and this is usually determined for a given specimen by a tensile test, which charts the stress-strain curve. The final recorded point is the fracture strength, ductile materials have a fracture strength lower than the ultimate tensile strength, whereas in brittle materials the fracture strength is equivalent to the UTS. If a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength in a load-controlled situation, it will continue to deform, with no additional load application. However, if the loading is displacement-controlled, the deformation of the material may relieve the load, in brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding. In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline structure results in a conchoidal fracture, the sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912 from an iceberg collision is widely reported to have been due to brittle fracture of the hulls steel plates. Putting these two together, we get σ f r a c t u r e = E γ ρ4 a r o. Looking closely, we can see that sharp cracks and large defects both lower the strength of the material. Recently, scientists have discovered supersonic fracture, the phenomenon of crack propagation faster than the speed of sound in a material and this phenomenon was recently also verified by experiment of fracture in rubber-like materials. Brittle fracture may be avoided by limiting pressure and temperature within limits, each system has a brittle fracture prevention limit curve defined by the weakest components at given temperatures and pressures allowing for the largest undetected preexisting flaw in each component. In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation takes place before fracture, the terms rupture or ductile rupture describe the ultimate failure of ductile materials loaded in tension. Rather than cracking, the material pulls apart, generally leaving a rough surface, in this case there is slow propagation and an absorption of a large amount energy before fracture. The ductility of a material is referred to as toughness. Many ductile metals, especially materials with high purity, can sustain very large deformation of 50–100% or more strain before fracture under favorable loading condition, the strain at which the fracture happens is controlled by the purity of the materials
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Greenstick fracture
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A greenstick fracture is a fracture in a young, soft bone in which the bone bends and breaks. Greenstick fractures usually occur most often during infancy and childhood when bones are soft, the name is by analogy with green wood which similarly breaks on the outside when bent. It was discovered by British-American orthopedist, John Insall, and Polish-American orthopedist, the second form is a torus or buckling fracture, caused by impaction. The word torus is derived from the Latin word torus, meaning swelling or protuberance, the third is a bow fracture in which the bone becomes curved along its longitudinal axis. Complete fractures There are also physeal fractures, the Salter-Harris classification is the most used to describe these fractures. Some clinical features of a greenstick fracture are similar to those of a long bone fracture - greenstick fractures normally cause pain at the injured area. As these fractures are specifically a pediatric problem, a child will be protective of the fractured part. As per a standard fracture, the area may be swollen, the greenstick fracture pattern occurs as a result of bending forces. Activities with a risk of falling are risk factors. Non-accidental injury more commonly causes spiral fractures but a blow on the forearm or shin could cause a green stick fracture, the fracture usually occurs in children and teens because their bones are flexible, unlike adults whose more brittle bones usually break. Removable splints result in better outcomes than casting in children with torus fractures of the distal radius, evidence for greenstick fractures found in the fossil record is studied by paleopathologists, specialists in ancient disease and injury. Greenstick fractures have been reported in fossils of the large carnivorous dinosaur Allosaurus fragilis, Greenstick fractures are found in the fossil remains of Lucy, the most famous specimen of Australopithecus afarensis, discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. Salter-Harris fractures Radiology Greenstick vs Torus Fractures
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Fontanelle
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A fontanelle is an anatomical feature of the infant human skull comprising any of the soft membranous gaps between the cranial bones that make up the calvaria of a fetus or an infant. Fontanelles allow for stretching and deformation of the neurocranium as the brain expands faster than the surrounding bone can grow. Premature complete ossification of the sutures is called craniosynostosis, during infancy, the anterior fontanelle is known as the bregma. The skull of a baby consists of five main bones, two bones, two parietal bones, and one occipital bone. These are joined by fibrous sutures, which allow movement that facilitates childbirth and it lies at the junction between the sagittal suture and lambdoid suture. At birth, the features a small posterior fontanelle with an open area covered by a tough membrane. The posterior fontanelles ossify within 2 or 3 months after birth, the mesenchymal connective tissue turns into bone tissue. Anterior fontanelle is a diamond-shaped membrane-filled space located between the two frontal and two bones of the developing fetal skull. It persists until approximately 18 months after birth and it is at the junction of the coronal suture and sagittal suture. The fetal anterior fontanelle may be palpated until 18 months, in cleidocranial dysostosis, however, it is often late in closing or may never close. Examination of an infant includes palpating the anterior fontanelle, two smaller fontanelles are located on each side of the head, more anteriorly the sphenoidal or anterolateral fontanelle and more posteriorly the mastoid or posterolateral fontanelle. During birth, fontanelles enable the bony plates of the skull to flex, the ossification of the bones of the skull causes the anterior fontanelle to close over by 9 to 18 months. The sphenoidal and posterior fontanelles close during the first few months of life, the closures eventually form the sutures of the neurocranium. Other than the anterior and posterior fontanelles, the mastoid fontanelle and this pulsating action is how the soft spot got its name – fontanelle is borrowed from the old French word fontenele, which is a diminutive of fontaine, meaning spring. It is assumed that the spring is used because of the analogy of the dent in a rock or earth where a spring arises. Parents may worry that their infant may be prone to injury at the fontanelles. In fact, although they may colloquially be called soft-spots, the covering the fontanelles is extremely tough. Fontanelles allow the infant brain to be imaged using ultrasonography, once they are closed, most of the brain is inaccessible to ultrasound imaging, because the bony skull presents an acoustic barrier
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Vertebral column
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The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses, there are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column. The human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples, the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. There are ligaments extending the length of the column at the front and the back, the vertebrae in the human vertebral column are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine, vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum. There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae, the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. The number of those in the region however is only rarely changed. The vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spines are independent bones, the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. Two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests, a typical vertebra consists of two parts, the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. The vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person, together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord ends in the spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused. Two transverse processes and one process are posterior to the vertebral body. The spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, the spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin. Above and below each vertebra are joints called facet joints and these restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. In between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina, the spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes
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Hip bone
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The hip bone is a large flat bone, constricted in the center and expanded above and below. In some vertebrates it is composed of three parts, the ilium, ischium, and the pubis, the two hip bones join at the pubic symphysis and together with the sacrum and coccyx comprise the skeletal component of the pelvis – the pelvic girdle which surrounds the pelvic cavity. They are connected to the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton, each hip bone is connected to the corresponding femur through the large ball and socket joint of the hip. The hip bone is formed by three parts, ilium, ischium, and pubis, at birth, these three components are separated by hyaline cartilage. They join each other in a Y-shaped portion of cartilage in the acetabulum, by the end of puberty the three regions will have fused together, and by the age of 25 they will have ossified. The two hip bones join each other at the pubic symphysis, together with the sacrum and coccyx, the hip bones form the pelvis. Ilium is the uppermost and largest region and it makes up two fifths of the acetabulum. The body of ilium forms the joint with the sacrum. The edge of the wing of ilium forms the S-shaped iliac crest which is located through the skin. The iliac crest shows clear marks of the attachment of the three abdominal wall muscles, the ischium forms the lower and back part of the hip bone and is located below the ilium and behind the pubis. The ischium is the strongest of the three regions that form the hip bone and it is divisible into three portions, the body, the superior ramus, and the inferior ramus. The body forms approximately one-third of the acetabulum, the ischium forms a large swelling, the tuberosity of the ischium, also referred to colloqially as the sit bone. When sitting, the weight is placed upon the ischial tuberosity. The gluteus maximus covers it in the posture, but leaves it free in the seated position. The pubic region or pubis is the ventral and anterior of the three forming the hip bone. It is divisible into a body, a superior ramus, the body forms one-fifth of the acetabulum. The body forms the wide, strong, medial and flat portion of the bone which unites with the other pubic bone in the pubic symphysis. The fibrocartilaginous pad which lies between the surfaces of the coxal bones, that secures the pubic symphysis, is called the interpubic disc
. PMID 24818008.