1.
Bishop of Orkney
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The Bishop of Orkney was the ecclesiastical head of the Diocese of Orkney, one of thirteen medieval bishoprics of Scotland. It included both Orkney and Shetland and it was based for almost all of its history at St. Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall. The bishopric appears to have been suffragan of the Archbishop of York until the creation of the Archbishopric of Trondheim in 1152, although Orkney itself did not unite with mainland Scotland until 1468, the Scottish kings and political community had been pushing for control of the islands for centuries. The see, however, remained under the control of Trondheim until the creation of the Archbishopric of St. Andrews in 1472. The Bishoprics links with Rome ceased to exist after the Scottish Reformation, the bishopric continued, saving temporary abolition between 1638 and 1661, under the episcopal Church of Scotland until the Glorious Revolution of 1688. A Scottish Episcopal Church bishopric encompassing Orkney was created in 1865, as the Bishopric of Aberdeen and Orkney. Dowden, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed. J. Maitland Thomson, Keith, Robert, An Historical Catalogue of the Scottish Bishops, Down to the Year 1688, Watt, fasti Ecclesiae Scotinanae Medii Aevi ad annum 1638, 2nd Draft
2.
Dieppe
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Dieppe is a coastal community in the Arrondissement of Dieppe in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northern France. The population stood at 34,670 in 2006, the mouth of the Scie river lies in the Canton of Dieppe-Ouest at Hautot-sur-Mer. The inhabitants of the town of Dieppe are called Dieppois and Dieppoise in French, Dieppe belongs to the Pays de Caux, lying along the Alabaster Coast in the region of Normandy. It is located on the Channel coast, north of Rouen at the mouth of the Arques river, mentioned as Deppae in 1015–1029, Dieppa in 1030, then in the 12th century, Deppa, Deupa and Diopa. From Dutch diep > deep, or Old English deop or Old Norse djupr, the same adjective can be recognized in other place-names like Dieppedalle and Dipdal in Normandy, which is the same as Deepdale in Great Britain. The stream running through Dieppe was called Tella in Merovingian and Carolingian documents, the name has stuck to the town, although the name of the stream changed again, to Béthune. First recorded as a fishing settlement in 1030, Dieppe was an important prize fought over during the Hundred Years War. Dieppe housed the most advanced French school of cartography in the 16th century, the expedition resulted in the construction of Fort Caroline, the first French colony in the New World. Another expedition two years before where Goulaine de Laudonnière was under command of Jean Ribault, a local Huguenot captain, had resulted in the foundation of Charlesfort, Dieppe was the premier port of the kingdom in the 17th century. On July 23,1632,300 colonists heading to New France departed from Dieppe, at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dieppe lost 3,000 of its Huguenot citizens, who fled abroad. Dieppe was an important target in wartime, the town was destroyed by an Anglo-Dutch naval bombardment in 1694. It was rebuilt after 1696 in a typical French classical style by Ventabren, an architect and it was popularised as a seaside resort following the 1824 visit of the widowed Duchess of Berry, daughter-in-law of Charles X. She encouraged the building of the recently renovated municipal theatre, the Petit-Théâtre, during the later 19th century, Dieppe became popular with English artists as a beach resort. Prominent literary figures such as Arthur Symons loved to keep up with the latest fads of avant-garde France here, Dieppe was occupied by German naval and army forces after the fall of France in 1940. In order to allow a better defence of the coast against a possible Allied landing, the destruction of the casino had only begun at the time of the Dieppe Raid. The Dieppe Raid in the Second World War was a battle for the Allies. The Allies suffered more than 1,400 deaths,1,946 Canadian soldiers were captured—more prisoners than the army lost in the 11 months of the 1944–45 NW Europe campaign. However, no major objectives on the ground were achieved, in the air, the port remained garrisoned by German forces until the conclusion of the Battle of Normandy
3.
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
4.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
5.
University of St Andrews
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The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894
6.
Battle of Flodden
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The Battle of Flodden or Flodden Field, or occasionally Battle of Branxton, was part of a conflict between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland. It was a decisive English victory, in terms of troop numbers, it was the largest battle fought between the two Kingdoms. James IV was killed in the battle, becoming the last monarch from the island of Britain to suffer such a death, Henry VIII had also opened old wounds by claiming to be the overlord of Scotland, which angered the Scots and their King. At this time England was involved as a member of the Catholic League in the War of the League of Cambrai—defending Italy, James also summoned sailors and sent the Scottish navy, including the Great Michael, to join the ships of Louis XII of France. Henry was in France with the Emperor Maximilian at the siege of Thérouanne, the Scottish Lyon King of Arms brought James IVs letter of 26 July to him. James asked him to desist from attacking France in breach of their treaty, henrys exchange with Islay Herald or the Lyon King on 11 August at his tent at the siege was recorded. The Herald declared that Henry should abandon his efforts against the town, moreover, fellow, I care for nothing but for misentreating of my sister, that would God she were in England on a condition she cost the Schottes King not a penny. Henry also replied by letter on 12 August that James was mistaken, however, both sides had been making lengthy preparations for this conflict. Henry VIII had already organised an army and artillery in the north of England to counter the expected invasion, some of the guns had been returned to use against the Scots by Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy. A year earlier, Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, had been appointed Lieutenant-General of the army of the north and was issued with banners of the Cross of St George, only a small number of the light horsemen of the Scottish border had been sent to France. A northern army was maintained with artillery and its expense account starts on 21 July 1513, the first captains were recruited in Lambeth. Many of these soldiers wore green and white Tudor colours, Surrey marched to Doncaster in July and then Pontefract. Where he assembled more troops from Northern England, on 18 August, five cannon brought down from Edinburgh Castle to the Netherbow Gate at St Marys Wynd for the invasion set off towards England dragged by borrowed oxen. On 19 August two gross culverins, four culverins pickmoyance and six culverins moyane followed with the gunner Robert Borthwick, the King himself set off that night with two hastily prepared standards of St Margaret and St Andrew. Catherine of Aragon was Regent in England and on 27 August she issued warrants for the property of all Scotsmen in England to be seized, on hearing of the invasion on 3 September she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the Midland counties. In keeping with his understanding of the code of chivalry, King James sent notice to the English, one month in advance. After a muster on the Burgh Muir of Edinburgh, the Scottish host moved to Ellemford, to the north of Duns, the Scottish army then crossed the River Tweed near Coldstream. On 24 August James IV held a council or parliament at Twiselhaugh, by 29 August Norham Castle was taken and partly demolished
7.
Elgin Cathedral
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Elgin Cathedral is a historic ruin in Elgin, Moray, north-east Scotland. The cathedral—dedicated to the Holy Trinity—was established in 1224 on land granted by King Alexander II outside the burgh of Elgin and it replaced the cathedral at Spynie,3 kilometres to the north, that was served by a small chapter of eight clerics. The new and bigger cathedral was staffed with 18 canons in 1226, after a damaging fire in 1270, a rebuilding programme greatly enlarged the building. In 1402 the cathedral precinct again suffered an attack by the followers of the Lord of the Isles. The number of required to staff the cathedral continued to grow, as did the number of craftsmen needed to maintain the buildings. The number of canons had increased to 25 by the time of the Scottish Reformation in 1560, after the removal of the lead that waterproofed the roof in 1567, the cathedral steadily fell into decay. Its deterioration was arrested in the 19th century, by time the building was in a substantially ruinous condition. Today, these walls are at height in places and at foundation level in others yet the overall cruciform shape is still discernible. A mostly intact octagonal chapterhouse dates from the major enlargement after the fire of 1270, the gable wall above the double door entrance that links the west towers is nearly complete and was rebuilt following the fire of 1390. It accommodates a large opening that now only contains stub tracery work. The homes of the dignitaries and canons, or manses, stood in the chanonry and were destroyed by fire on three occasions, in 1270,1390 and 1402, the two towers of the west front are mostly complete and were part of the first phase of construction. Only the precentors manse is substantially intact, two others have incorporated into private buildings. A protective wall of massive proportions surrounded the cathedral precinct, the wall had four access gates, one of which—the Pans Port—still exists. It is uncertain whether there were bishops of Moray before c.1120, Gregory was a signatory to the foundation charter of Scone Priory, issued by Alexander I between December 1123 and April 1124, and again in a charter defining the legal rights of the same monastery. He is recorded for the last time when he witnessed a charter granted by David I to Dunfermline Abbey in c and these actions are all that is known of Gregory with no basis for later assertions that he was a promoted monk in a Pictish Church. After the suppression of Óengus of Morays rebellion in 1130, King David must have regarded the existence of a bishopric in Moray as essential to the stability of the province. Following Felixs death, Simon de Toeni, King Williams kinsman and he was followed by Richard of Lincoln, once again a royal clerk, and one who struggled to build up the revenues of the bishopric during and after the insurgence of Donald MacWilliam. Richard is regarded as the first real resident bishop of the see and these early bishops had no settled location for their cathedral, and sited it successively at the churches of Birnie, Kinneddar and Spynie
8.
Official
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An official is someone who holds an office in an organization or government and participates in the exercise of authority. A government official or functionary is an official who is involved in administration or government, through either election, appointment, selection. A bureaucrat or civil servant is a member of the bureaucracy, an elected official is a person who is an official by virtue of an election. Officials may also be appointed ex officio, some official positions may be inherited. A person who holds an office is referred to as an incumbent. The word official as a noun has been recorded since the Middle English period and it comes from the Old French official, from the Latin officialis, the noun use of the original adjective officialis from officium. The meaning person in charge of public work or duty was first recorded in 1555. The adjective is first attested in English in 1533 via the Old French oficial, the informal term officialese, the jargon of officialdom, was first recorded in 1884. An officialis was the term for any member of the officium of a high dignitary such as a governor. The 1983 Code of Canon Law gives precedence to the title Judicial Vicar, the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches uses only the title Judicial Vicar. The title of principal, together with that of vicar-general, has in Anglicanism been merged in that of Diocesan chancellor of a diocese. The term officer is close to being a synonym, a functionary is someone who carries out a particular role within an organization, this again is quite a close synonym for official, as a noun, but with connotations closer to bureaucrat. Any such person acts in their capacity, in carrying out the duties of their office, they are also said to officiate. A public official is an official of central or local government, some examples, An official holiday is a public holiday, having national recognition. An official language is a recognised by a government, for its own use in administration. An official spokesperson is an individual empowered to speak for the government, or some part of it such as a ministry, on a range of issues and on the record for the media. An official statement is an issued by an organisation as an expression of its position or opinion. Official policy is policy publicly acknowledged and defended by an organisation, in these cases unofficial is an antonym, and variously may mean informal, unrecognised, personal or unacknowledged
9.
Piedmont
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Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
10.
Renaissance humanism
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Renaissance humanism is the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term Renaissance humanism is contemporary to that period — Renaissance, Renaissance humanism was a response to the utilitarian approach and what came to be depicted as the narrow pedantry associated with medieval scholasticism. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis, today known as the humanities, grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. Humanism was a cultural mode and not the program of a small elite, a program to revive the cultural legacy, literary legacy. There were important centres of humanism in Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Genoa, Mantua, Ferrara, some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique manuscripts, including Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Bracciolini. Of the four, Petrarch was dubbed the Father of Humanism because of his devotion to Greek, some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessarion, a convert to the Catholic Church from Greek Orthodoxy, who was considered for the papacy, and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th-century and early 16th-century humanist Popes one of whom, Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, was a prolific author and these subjects came to be known as the humanities, and the movement which they inspired is shown as humanism. They included Gemistus Pletho, George of Trebizond, Theodorus Gaza, budé was a royal absolutist who was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for François I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux. Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II, Sixtus IV, and Leo X, humanity—with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, inevitably, the rediscovery of classical philosophy and science would eventually challenge traditional religious beliefs. Lorenzo Valla, however, puts a defense of epicureanism in the mouth of one of the interlocutors of one of his dialogues. And if it is names that bother us, no one deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy Christ. Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christs having been sad and gloomy in character, on the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure. This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan classical works, such as the philosophy of Epicurus, Renaissance Neo-Platonists such as Marsilio Ficino attempted to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church fathers Lactantius and Saint Augustine. In this spirit, Pico della Mirandola attempted to construct a syncretism of all religions, historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view, when he writes that, The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city-states of northern Italy had come into contact with the customs of the East. The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom, in the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy
11.
Beauly Priory
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Beauly Priory was a Valliscaulian monastic community located at Insula de Achenbady, now Beauly, Inverness-shire. It was probably founded in 1230 and it is not known for certain who the founder was, different sources giving Alexander II of Scotland, John Byset, and both. The French monks, along with Bisset, had a strong enough French-speaking presence to give the location and it is not the best documented abbey, and few of the priors of Beauly are known by name until the 14th century. It became Cistercian on April 16,1510, after the suppression of the Valliscaulian Order by the Pope, the priory was gradually secularized, and ruled by a series of commendators. The priorys lands were given over to the bishop of Ross by royal charter on October 20,1634, the ruins today are still extensive and are one of the main visitor attractions in Inverness-shire. In August 1818 John Keats and his friend Charles Brown stopped at Beauly on their way to Cromarty and their visit produced a collaborative poem, On Some Skulls in Beauley Abbey, near Inverness, written early in August 1818 or possibly some weeks or months later. The majority of the lines are by Brown, Keats contributed the first line of the poem and the first four words of the second line, and three stanzas. Chisholm-Batten, Edmund, The Charters of the Priory of Beauly with Notices of the Priories of Pluscardine and Ardchattan, medieval Religious Houses, Scotland With an Appendix on the Houses in the Isle of Man, Second Edition, p.84 Watt, D. E. R
12.
James V of Scotland
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James V was King of Scots from 9 September 1513 until his death, which followed the Scottish defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss. His only surviving child, Mary, succeeded him when she was just six days old. James was son of King James IV of Scotland and his wife Margaret Tudor, a daughter of Henry VII of England, and was the only legitimate child of James IV to survive infancy. He was born on 10 April 1512 at Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgowshire and baptized the day, receiving the titles Duke of Rothesay and Prince. He became king at just seventeen months old when his father was killed at the Battle of Flodden Field on 9 September 1513, James was crowned in the Chapel Royal at Stirling Castle on 21 September 1513. Other regents included Robert Maxwell, 5th Lord Maxwell, a member of the Council of Regency who was bestowed as Regent of Arran. In February 1517 James came from Stirling to Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh, at Stirling, the 10-year-old James had a guard of 20 footmen dressed in his colours, red and yellow. When he went to the park below the Castle, by secret and in fair and soft wedder. Poets wrote their own nursery rhymes for James and advised him on royal behavior, as a youth, his education was in the care of University of St Andrews poets such as Sir David Lyndsay. In the autumn of 1524 James dismissed his Regents and was proclaimed an adult ruler by his mother, several new court servants were appointed including a trumpeter, Henry Rudeman. Thomas Magnus, the English diplomat, gave an impression of the new Scottish court at Holyroodhouse on All Saints Day 1524, trumpets and shamulles did sounde and blewe up mooste pleasauntely. Magnus saw the young king singing, playing with a spear at Leith, and with his horses, and he was given the impression that the king preferred English manners over French fashions. In 1525 Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, the young kings stepfather, took custody of James, another attempt later that year, on 4 September at the battle of Linlithgow Bridge, failed again to relieve the King from the clutches of Angus. When James and his came to Edinburgh on 20 November 1526, she stayed in the chambers at Holyroodhouse. In February 1527 Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond, gave James twenty hunting hounds, Magnus thought the Scottish servant sent to Sheriff Hutton Castle for the dogs was intended to note the form and fashion of the Dukes household, for emulation in Scotland. James finally escaped from Anguss care in 1528 and assumed the reins of government himself, the first action James took as king was to remove Angus from the scene. The Douglas family were forced into exile and James besieged their castle at Tantallon and he then subdued the Border rebels and the chiefs of the Western Isles. Even his pursemaster and yeoman of the wardrobe, John Tennent of Listonschiels, was sent on an errand to England, James increased his income by tightening control over royal estates and from the profits of justice, customs and feudal rights
13.
James Hamilton, Earl of Arran
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James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault and 2nd Earl of Arran, was a regent for Mary, Queen of Scots. James Hamilton was the eldest legitimate son of James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Arran, through his paternal grandmother Mary, Hamilton was the great-grandson of James II of Scotland. On the death of John Stewart, Duke of Albany, in 1536, in 1543, supporters of Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, challenged Arrans claim and legitimacy by suggesting that his fathers divorce and second marriage were invalid. Initially a Protestant and a member of the party, in 1543 he was involved in negotiating the marriage of the Queen of Scots to the infant Prince of Wales. Cardinal Beaton, who favoured the Auld Alliance, was imprisoned at Dalkeith Palace, Henry VIII of England doubted Arrans commitment to English policy and wanted him deposed. On 3 September 1543 there was panic in Edinburgh when it became known that Arran had quietly left town, although he had said that he was visiting his pregnant wife at Blackness Castle, the pro-English party guessed he would try to meet Cardinal Beaton. The Governor and the Cardinal were reconciled at Callendar House and this led to the seven-year war with England now called the Rough Wooing which was declared on 20 December 1543. The declaration of war was brought by Henry Ray to give to the Parliament of Scotland, Arran replied that the parliament was dissolved, and so he thought it expedient not to answer Henry VIII on the points raised at the time. In 1548 the Queen of Scots went to live in the French court, for his work on negotiating her marriage, Hamilton was created Duke of Châtellerault, and made a knight of the Order of Saint Michael. In 1554, Arran surrendered the regency to Mary of Guise, Hamilton gave up the Regency on the condition that he would be next in line after the Queen, if she died childless. But the Scottish succession had been promised to France. In the first months of the Scottish Reformation Hamilton continued to support Mary of Guise and he faced a Protestant army with the French commander at Cupar Muir in June 1559. He changed his allegiance in August 1559, joining the Protestant Lords of the Congregation to oppose the regency of Mary of Guise, after Mary married Lord Darnley in 1565 he withdrew to his estates in France. In 1569, he returned to Scotland and was imprisoned until, in 1573, a building from his heyday as Regent survives at Kinneil in West Lothian, his Eastern residence, including carvings and paintings of his heraldry with the collar of Saint Michael. Hamilton married in 1532, to the Lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of James Douglas, 3rd Earl of Morton and his older half-brother James Hamilton of Finnart paid Morton 4000 marks as part of the marriage settlement. Claud Hamilton, 1st Lord Paisley – married Margaret, daughter of George Seton, 7th Lord Seton Franklin, the Scottish Regency of the Earl of Arran, A Study in the Failure of Anglo-Scottish Relations
14.
Mary, Queen of Scots
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Mary, Queen of Scots, also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland, reigned over Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567. Mary, the surviving legitimate child of James V of Scotland, was six days old when her father died. She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents and he ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559, and Mary briefly became queen consort of France, until his death in December 1560. Widowed, Mary returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561, four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, but their union was unhappy. In February 1567, his residence was destroyed by an explosion, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnleys death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567, and the following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle, on 24 July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of James VI, her one-year-old son by Darnley. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in custody, Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth in 1586 and was beheaded the following year. Mary was born on 7 or 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace, Scotland, to King James V and his French second wife and she was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him. She was the great-niece of King Henry VIII of England, as her paternal grandmother, Margaret Tudor, was Henry VIIIs sister. A popular legend, first recorded by John Knox, states that James, hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter, ruefully exclaimed, It cam wi a lass and it will gang wi a lass. His House of Stewart had gained the throne of Scotland by the marriage of Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce, to Walter Stewart, the crown had come to his family through a woman, and would be lost from his family through a woman. This legendary statement came true much later—not through Mary, but through her descendant Queen Anne, Mary was baptised at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born. As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two claims to the Regency, one from Catholic Cardinal Beaton, and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran, Beatons claim was based on a version of the late kings will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery. Arran, with the support of his friends and relations, became the regent until 1554 when Marys mother managed to remove and succeed him. King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son, Prince Edward, hoping for a union of Scotland and England. The treaty provided that the two countries would remain separate and that if the couple should fail to have children the temporary union would dissolve
15.
Kirkwall
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Kirkwall is the largest town and capital of the Orkney Islands of Scotland. The town is first mentioned in Orkneyinga saga in the year 1046 when it is recorded as the residence of Rögnvald Brusason the Earl of Orkney, who was killed by his uncle Thorfinn the Mighty. In 1486, King James III of Scotland elevated Kirkwall to the status of a burgh, modern roadsigns still indicate The City. The name Kirkwall comes from the Norse name Kirkjuvagr, which changed to Kirkvoe, Kirkwaa. At the heart of the town stands St. Magnus Cathedral, next to the Cathedral are the ruins of the former Bishops Palace and Earls Palace. The town has two museums, the larger being Tankerness House Museum, which items of local historical interest within one of Scotlands best-preserved sixteenth-century town-houses. The prehistoric, Pictish and Viking collections are of international importance, the other museum is the Orkney Wireless Museum, dealing with the history of radio and recorded sound. Apart from the historical buildings mentioned above, Kirkwall has many 17th–18th-century houses. The Kirk of Kirkwall was not the Cathedral, but the 11th-century church of Saint Olaf of Norway, Kirkwall also once had a medieval castle, which was destroyed in the 17th century. This is the form of house or souterrain characteristic of the Northern Isles. It was originally connected to a dwelling, which has since disappeared. Further west towards Grimbister is the similar Rennibister Earth House, one of the major annual events in the town is the Ba Game, held each Christmas Day and New Years Day between the Uppies and the Doonies, each team representing one half of the town. Kirkwall also has the most northerly of the worlds Carnegie libraries, the building survives, although the library has since moved to a larger building on Junction Road. Cromarty was added to the list in 1832, the constituency was a district of burghs known also as the Tain Burghs until 1832, and then as the Wick Burghs. It was represented by one Member of Parliament until 1918, when the constituency was abolished, the Orkney Library and Archive is located in Kirkwall. The composer Peter Maxwell Davies was among a group founded the annual St Magnus International Festival which is centred on Kirkwall each midsummer. Kirkwall Harbour can be seen in The Highlands and Islands – A Royal Tour, scottish film-maker Margaret Tait was born in Kirkwall, and many of her films are set there. The Simpsons character Groundskeeper Willie is said to be from Kirkwall, orkneyjar – The Royal Burgh of Kirkwall Listen to recordings of a speaker of Kirkwall Scots
16.
St Magnus Cathedral
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St. Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall dominates the skyline of Kirkwall, the main town of Orkney, a group of islands off the north coast of mainland Scotland. It is the most northerly cathedral in Britain, an example of Romanesque architecture built for the bishops of Orkney when the islands were ruled by the Norse Earls of Orkney. It is owned not by the church, but by the burgh of Kirkwall as a result of an act of King James III of Scotland following Orkneys annexation by the Scottish Crown in 1468. Construction began in 1137, and it was added to over the three hundred years. The first bishop was William the Old, and the diocese was under the authority of the Archbishop of Nidaros in Norway and it was for Bishop William that the nearby Bishops Palace was built. Before the Reformation, the cathedral was presided over by the Bishop of Orkney, today, it is a parish church of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and therefore technically no longer a cathedral. The Orkneyinga Saga tells how bloodthirsty intrigue and saintly piety led to the cathedrals foundation, other accounts tell a similar, though slightly less saintly, tale. St. Magnus had a reputation for piety and gentleness, on a raid led by the King of Norway on Anglesey, Wales, Magnus refused to fight and stayed on board singing psalms. King Eystein II of Norway granted him a share of the earldom of Orkney held by his cousin Håkon and their followers fell out, and the two sides met at a thing on Orkney Mainland, ready to do battle. Peace was negotiated and the Earls arranged to meet each other on the island of Egilsay. Magnus arrived on 16 April 1116 with his two ships, but then Håkon treacherously turned up with eight ships, Magnus was captured and offered to go into exile or prison, but an assembly of chieftains insisted that one earl must die. Håkons standard bearer refused to execute Magnus, and an angry Håkon made his cook Lifolf kill Magnus by striking him on the head with an axe, Magnus was buried in the Christchurch at Birsay. The rocky area around his grave became a green field. Gunhild, sister of Magnus, had married Kol, and the king of Norway granted their son Rögnvald Kolsson the right to his uncles earldom in 1129. Earl Rögnvald eventually took a fleet to Orkney, but the islanders resisted, in addition, his holy relics and the episcopal seat must be moved there. Meanwhile, Rögnvald secretly had Paul kidnapped and shipped away, later to be murdered in Caithness, Rögnvald duly became Earl of Orkney. In 1135, Magnus was canonised, with 16 April becoming St. Magnus day and his remains were moved east to St. Olafs Kirk in the small settlement known as Kirkjuvágr, meaning church bay, now Kirkwall. Work on the began in 1137, under the direction of Kol
17.
Boulogne-sur-Mer
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Boulogne-sur-Mer, often called Boulogne, is a city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais, Boulogne lies on the Côte dOpale, a tourist coast on the English Channel, and is the most-visited location in its region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its departments second-largest city after Calais, and the 60th largest in France and it is also the countrys largest fishing port, specialising in herring. Boulogne was the major Roman port for trade and communication with Britain, the citys 12th-century belfry is recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, while another popular attraction is the marine conservation centre Nausicaa. The French name Boulogne derives from the Latin Bononia, which was also the Roman name for Bologna in Italy, both places—and Vindobona —are thought to have derived from native Celtic placenames, with bona possibly meaning foundation, citadel, or granary. The French epithet sur-Mer distinguishes the city from Boulogne-Billancourt on the edge of Paris, in turn, the Boulogne in Boulogne-Billancourt originates from a church there dedicated to Notre-Dame de Boulogne, Our Lady of Boulogne. Boulogne-sur-Mer is in Northern France, at the edge of the Channel, Boulogne is a relatively important city of the North, exercising an influence on the Boulonnais territory. The coast consists of important tourist natural sites, like the capes Gris Nez and Blanc Nez, the hinterland is mainly rural and agricultural. Boulogne is close to the A16 motorway, metropolitan bus services are operated by Marinéo. The company Flixbus propose a bus line connecting Paris to Boulogne, there are coach services to Calais and Dunkerque. The city has railway stations, which the most important is Boulogne-Ville station, boulogne-Tintelleries station is used for regional transit. It is located near the university and the city centre, the former Boulogne-Maritime and Boulogne-Aéroglisseurs stations served as a boat connection for the railway. Boulogne currently has no cross channel ferry services since the closure of the route to Dover by LD Lines in 2010. The city is divided into parts, City centre, groups historic and administrative buildings. Fortified town, old-town where are a lot of monuments and also the city hall. It is surrounded by 13th-century ramparts very appreciated today by walkers, gambetta-Sainte-Beuve, tourist area situated in the northwest of the city, on the edge of the beach and the recreational harbour. Capécure, economic and industrial area, situated in the west of the city, saint-Pierre, former neighborhood of the fishermen, destroyed during the World War II and reconstructed after. Chemin Vert, zone borned in the 1950s, knowing today poverty and it is the neighborhood of Franck Ribéry
18.
Matriculation
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Matriculation is the formal process of entering a university, or of becoming eligible to enter by fulfilling certain academic requirements such as a matriculation examination. The matriculation exam was the prerequisite for entry into universities, Matriculation has generally been replaced with a Higher School Certificate or a completion certificate such as the Victorian Certificate of Education. In Bangladesh, the shortened term Matric refers to the Secondary School Examination taken at year 10, in Brazilian Portuguese, the word matrícula refers to the act of enrolling in an educational course, whether it be elementary, high school, college or post-graduate education. In Canada, the term is used by some universities to refer to orientation events, however some universities, including University of Kings College. The ceremony at Kings is quite similar to the ceremonies held in universities such as Oxford or Cambridge. In Ontario during the era with grade 13, satisfactory completion of grade 12 was considered junior matriculation, satisfactory completion of grade 13 was senior matriculation. In Nova Scotia, at the present time, Junior matriculation is grade 11, at Charles University in Prague, the oldest and most prestigious university in the Czech Republic, matriculation is held at the Great Hall. The ceremony is attended by students commencing their studies and it is intended as a demonstration of the adoption of students duties and obtaining of students rights. The ceremony itself involves students taking the Matriculation Oath of the University and symbolically touching the Faculty mace, other Czech universities hold ceremonies similar to the one just described. In Denmark, the University of Copenhagen holds a ceremony each year. The ceremony is held in the Hall of Ceremony in the building of the University. The ceremony begins with a procession with the rector and the deans in academic dress, the ceremony continues with the rector listing the different faculties, after which the different student, shouts when their respective faculty is mentioned. In Finland, Matriculation is the examination taken at the end of Secondary education to qualify for entry into University, the test also constitutes the high schools final exam, in other words it is a high school graduation exam. Since 1919, the test has been arranged by a national body, before that, the administration of the test was the responsibility of the University of Helsinki. The German term Immatrikulation describes the process of enrolling at university as a student. This can happen for winter semester and, depending on the degree program and it does not involve a ceremony. A prerequisite for matriculation is generally the Abitur, which is the matriculation examination in Germany, for regular universities. Both Abitur and Fachhochschulreife are school leaving certificates which students receive after passing their examinations at some types of German secondary schools
19.
Notary public
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Any such act is known as a notarization. The term notary public only refers to common-law notaries and should not be confused with civil-law notaries, Notaries are appointed by a government authority, such as a court or lieutenant governor, or by a regulating body often known as a society or faculty of notaries public. For lawyer notaries, an appointment may be for life, while lay notaries are usually commissioned for a briefer term, in most common law countries, appointments and their number for a given notarial district are highly regulated. To these documents a notary affixes a notarial certificate which attests to the execution of the document, usually by the person who appears before the notary, originals or secondary originals are then filed and stored in the notarys archives, or protocol. Notaries are generally required to undergo training in the performance of their duties. Some must also first serve as an apprentice before being commissioned or licensed to practice their profession, however, notaries public in the U. S. Notarial practice is universally considered to be distinct and separate from that of an attorney. In England and Wales, there is a course of study for notaries which is conducted under the auspices of the University of Cambridge and the Society of Notaries of England and Wales. In bi-juridical jurisdictions, such as South Africa or Louisiana, the office of notary public is a profession with educational requirements similar to those for attorneys. Many even have institutes of learning that offer degrees in notarial law. Therefore, despite their name, notaries public in these jurisdictions are in civil law notaries. Notaries public hold an office which can trace its origins back to the ancient Roman Republic, the history of notaries is set out in detail in Chapter 1 of Brookes Notary, The office of a public notary is a public office. It has a long and distinguished history, the office has its origin in the civil institutions of ancient Rome. A writer who adopted the new method was called a notarius, originally, a notary was one who took down statements in shorthand using these notes, and wrote them out in the form of memoranda or minutes. Later, the title notarius was applied almost exclusively to registrars attached to government officials, including provincial governors. Notwithstanding the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century AD, the separate development of the common law in England, free from most of the influences of Roman law, meant that notaries were not introduced into England until later in the 13th and 14th centuries. At first, notaries in England were appointed by the Papal Legate, in 1279 the Archbishop of Canterbury was authorized by the Pope to appoint notaries. Not surprisingly, in early days, many of the notaries were members of the clergy. The Reformation produced no change in the position and functions of notaries in England
20.
Diocese of Moray
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The Diocese of Moray was one of the most important of the medieval dioceses in Scotland. It was founded in the years of the 12th century by David I of Scotland under its first bishop. It was suppressed in 1638 and never revived a s a titular see, in the year of his death, Andreas changed the cathedrals constitution to that of Salisbury. The last of the Roman Catholic bishops was Patrick Hepburn, who alienated almost all of the lands pertaining to the church at the time of the Scottish Reformation and it was divided into the four deaneries of Elgin, Inverness, Strathbogie and Strathspey. Each of these contained a number of parishes that provided the mensal and prebendal means for the church. The early Moray bishops did not have a seat but took their cathedrals to the culdee centres at Birnie, Kinneddar. Bishop Bricius de Douglas finally obtained permission from Pope Innocent III on 7 April 1206 to fix the cathedral at the Church of the Holy Trinity at Spynie, authorisation was also granted to create a chapter of eight canons to administer the cathedral. The chapter based its constitution on that of Lincoln Cathedral and it is possible that this decision may have been influenced by the fact that Bricius immediate predecessor was Bishop Richard de Lincoln. It was not until after his death, however, that this was achieved under the episcopate of Bishop Andreas de Moravia and this transference took place with the authority of Pope Honorius III and King Alexander II on 19 July 1224. GigaCatholic, with three incembeut bishop biography links
21.
Alms
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Alms or almsgiving involves giving to others as an act of virtue, either materially or in the sense of providing capabilities for free. It exists in a number of religions and regions, the word, in the modern English language, comes from the Old English ælmesse, ælmes, from Late Latin eleemosyna, from Greek ἐλεημοσύνη eleēmosynē, from ἐλεήμων, eleēmōn, from ἔλεος, eleos. In Judaism, tzedakah - a Hebrew term literally meaning righteousness but commonly used to signify charity - refers to the obligation to do what is right. Tzedakah, along with prayer and repentance, is regarded as ameliorating the consequences of bad acts, in Judaism, Tzedakah is seen as one of the greatest deeds that man can do. For that reason, while Zakat plays a larger role within Islamic charity. Zakat is the third of the five pillars of Islam, various rules attach to the practice but, in general terms, it is obligatory to give 2. 5% of ones savings and business revenue and 5–10% of ones harvest to the poor. One of the most important principles of Islam is that all belong to God and, therefore. The literal meaning of the word Zakat is to purify, to develop, according to Shariah it is an act of worship. Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need and this cutting back, like the pruning of plants, balances and encourages new growth. Zakat is the amount of money that every adult, mentally stable, free, the obligatory nature of Zakat is firmly established in the Quran, the Sunnah, and the consensus of the companions and the Muslim scholars. Allah states in Surah at-Taubah verses 34–35, O ye who believe, there are indeed many among the priests and anchorites, who in Falsehood devour the substance of men and hinder from the way of Allah. And there are those who bury gold and silver and spend it not in the way of Allah. - This is the which ye buried for yourselves, taste ye, then, the ye buried. Muslims of each era have agreed upon the nature of paying Zakat for gold and silver. Zakat is obligatory when a certain amount of money, called the nisab is reached or exceeded, Zakat is not obligatory if the amount owned is less than this nisab. The nisab of gold and golden currency is 20 mithqal, approximately 85 grams of pure gold, one mithqal is approximately 4.25 grams. The nisab of silver and silver currency is 200 dirhams, which is approximately 595 grams of pure silver. The nisab of other kinds of money and currency is to be scaled to that of gold, Zakat is obligatory after the money has been in the control of its owner for the span of one lunar year. Then the owner needs to pay 2. 5% of the money as Zakat
22.
Ellon, Aberdeenshire
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Ellon is a town in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, approximately 16 miles north of Aberdeen, lying on the River Ythan, which has one of the few undeveloped river estuaries on the eastern coast of Scotland. It is in the ancient region of Formartine and its name is believed to derive from the Gaelic term Eilean, an island, on account of the presence of an island in the River Ythan, which offered a convenient fording point. The Riverside Park offers walkways alongside the Ythan, from which herons, salmon, trout, in 2013, a new 5.5 acre eco-brewery, owned and crowdfunded by BrewDog, was opened in a greenfield site just outside of Ellon. The town has three schools, Ellon Primary School Auchterellon Primary School Meiklemill Primary School Each of these schools has some type of greenspace as well as a concrete playground. A new school was opened in July 2015, on the outskirts of Ellon, Ellon has a community centre, which includes a swimming pool and café. The Ythan Centre is a dedicated to serving the needs of Ellons teenage population. This facility includes a room where amateur bands can practise and a large hall with roof to floor length mirrors. The Meadows is also home to the Ellon United football team, the Ellon RFC, the town has two weekly newspapers, the Ellon Times, published on Thursdays by Angus County Press and the Ellon Advertiser, published on Fridays by Peters of Turriff. Ellon has benefited from the North Sea oil demand, and is one of the main dormitory towns for Aberdeen and it is part of the proposed Energetica corridor of development. The population is expanding as young families seek to escape Aberdeen and move to towns like Ellon, Inverurie. During 2006, Ellon ranked as the town with the fourth most rapidly increasing average house prices in Scotland, Ellon is bypassed by the A90 road, which offers convenient access to Aberdeen to the south and Peterhead and Fraserburgh to the north. Other major road links are the A920 west to Oldmeldrum and Huntly, Ellon railway station was a principal station on the Great North of Scotland Railway line that ran from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh and Peterhead. Due to the Beeching Axe, passenger services were withdrawn on the Formartine, freight services continued on the line until 1979, at which point the entire line was closed. The former railway line was purchased by Grampian Regional Council in 1981, due to the population expansion since the North Sea Oil boom, the A90 has become overloaded between Aberdeen, Ellon and Peterhead. The Aberdeen Crossrail project has looked at reopening sections of the former railway, the Boddam Branch that ran to Boddam via Cruden Bay started at Ellon. Representative from Wisconsin Teddy Scott, footballer, coach for Aberdeen F. C
23.
Melrose Abbey
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St Marys Abbey, Melrose is a partly ruined monastery of the Cistercian order in Melrose, Roxburghshire, in the Scottish Borders. It was founded in 1136 by Cistercian monks at the request of King David I of Scotland and it was headed by the Abbot or Commendator of Melrose. Today the abbey is maintained by Historic Scotland, the east end of the abbey was completed in 1146. Other buildings in the complex were added over the next 50 years, the abbey was built in the Gothic manner, and in the form of a St. Johns Cross. A considerable portion of the abbey is now in ruins, a structure dating from 1590 is maintained as a museum open to the public. Alexander II and other Scottish kings and nobles are buried at the abbey, a lead container believed to hold the embalmed heart of Robert the Bruce was found in 1921 below the Chapter House site, it was found again in a 1998 excavation. This was documented in records of his death, the rest of his body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey. The abbey is known for its many carved decorative details, including likenesses of saints, dragons, gargoyles, on one of the abbeys stairways is an inscription by John Morow, a master mason, which says, Be halde to ye hende. This has become the motto of the town of Melrose, an earlier monastery was founded by, then later dedicated to, Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne. This was shortly before his death in 651 at Old Melrose, then within the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, set in a bend of the River Tweed, a graveyard marks the site. St. Cuthbert, who grew up nearby, trained at Old Melrose abbey and he was prior from 662 before he was moved to Lindisfarne. The abbey site was raided by Kenneth I of Scotland in 839, Melrose was the first Cistercian abbey in Scotland. King David I wanted the new abbey to be built on the same site and it was said to have been built in ten years. The church of the convent was dedicated to St. Mary on 28 July 1146, the abbey became the mother church of the order in Scotland. Its first community came from Rielvaux, the Yorkshire house colonized from Cîteaux, in the 12th century, around Melrose, the Cistercians implemented new farming techniques and marketed Melrose wool throughout the great trading ports across northern Europe. A town slowly grew up around the abbey, during a time of famine four thousand starving people were fed by the monastery for three months. The monastery had 100 monks, exclusive of the abbot and dignitaries, the last abbot was James Stewart, natural son of James V, who died in 1559. The privileges and possessions of the abbey were very extensive and its founder David endowed it with the lands of Melrose, Eildon, and other places, and the right of fishery on the River Tweed
24.
Dryburgh Abbey
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The arrival of the canons along with their first abbot, Roger, took place on 13 December 1152. It was burned by English troops in 1322, after which it was restored only to be burned by Richard II in 1385. It was finally destroyed in 1544, briefly to survive until the Scottish Reformation, the 12th Earl of Buchan bought the land in 1786. Sir Walter Scott and Douglas Haig are buried in its grounds, the Premonstratensian order was founded by St Norbert of Xanten who was firstly a canon at Xanten Cathedral. Bartholomew persuaded Norbert to form an order at Prémontré, in Aisne in 1120 and while the order was Augustinian in form. They followed a monastic life, but had a duty to preach and teach to those on the outside of the monastery walls. The order spread rapidly across Europe with the Abbot of Prémontré becoming Abbot-General for all the daughter-houses, even before the first Abbot-General Hugh of Fosse died, one hundred and twenty abbots attended the annual general chapter. The Premonstratensians took on many of the methods of the Cistercians including land management, unlike the situation at nearby Melrose Abbey with its royal patronage, Hugh de Morville, although a very wealthy noble, could not endow Dryburgh on the same scale as that of a monarch. Beatrice gave the income from the church at Bozeat, Northamptonshire to the abbey as well as lands at Roxburgh that she bought solely for the purpose of subsequent donation. Hugh, in around 1162, like some other magnates of the period, turned his back on worldly affairs and entered the abbey-church and he gave his elder son, Richard, his large Scottish estates while his younger son, Hugh, received those in England. Hugh, the senior, died at Dryburgh Abbey that same year, following Hughs death, his son Richard carried on as patron to the abbey. However, in c.1170 he founded the hospital of St Leonard near his castle at Lauder, Richard de Morvilles establishment of this second monastery ensured that both establishments would remain in a state of relative poverty. Slow improvement in the finances took place over the next forty or so years in a period of relative stability. However this improvement was only relative, Dryburghs neighbouring monasteries with their more extensive grazing lands provided the main source of a much greater income. Hugh de Morvilles line had died out in 1196 on the death of his grandson, William, the semi-independent Lords of Galloway were much wealthier than the de Morvilles but even they could not lavish large amounts on all their dependencies. Dryburgh being one of many establishments who sought the generosity of the Galloway lords got a further setback in 1234 when Alan and his property was to be split between three daughters and their husbands. Devorguillas main concern however was her own foundation at Sweetheart Abbey, but she was at Dryburgh in 1281 to settle her lands in England on her son, John Balliol and this heralded the end of a long period of stability in the borderlands. Evidence is lacking on Roberts participation as a patron of Dryburgh and he certainly used the abbey as a base in July 1316 while conducting raiding expeditions into Northumberland
25.
Bishop of Ross (Scotland)
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The Bishop of Ross was the ecclesiastical head of the Diocese of Ross, one of Scotlands 13 medieval bishoprics. The first recorded bishop appears in the late 7th century as a witness to Adomnán of Ionas Cáin Adomnáin, the bishopric was based at the settlement of Rosemarkie until the mid-13th century, afterwards being moved to nearby Fortrose and Fortrose Cathedral. As far as the evidence goes, this bishoric was the oldest of all bishoprics north of the Forth, and was perhaps the only Pictish bishopric until the 9th century. Indeed, the Cáin Adomnáin indicates that in the reign of Bruide mac Der Ilei, king of the Picts, the bishopric is located conveniently close to the heartland of Fortriu, being just across the water from Moray. However, in the High and Later Middle Ages, the bishopric was only of medium-to-low status in the Scottish church, episcopacy in the established church in Scotland was permanently abolished in 1689. Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History, AD 500–1286,2 Vols, vol
26.
Sack of Rome (1527)
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The Sack of Rome on 6 May 1527 was a military event carried out by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome, then part of the Papal States. It marked a crucial victory in the conflict between Charles and the League of Cognac —the alliance of France, Milan, Venice, Florence. The army of the Holy Roman Emperor defeated the French army in Italy, the 34,000 Imperial troops mutinied and forced their commander, Charles III, Duke of Bourbon and Constable of France, to lead them towards Rome. Numerous bandits, along with the Leagues deserters, joined the army during its march, the Duke left Arezzo on 20 April 1527, taking advantage of the chaos among the Venetians and their allies after a revolt which had broken out in Florence against the Medici. In this way, the undisciplined troops sacked Acquapendente and San Lorenzo alle Grotte. The troops defending Rome were not at all numerous, consisting of 5,000 militiamen led by Renzo da Ceri and 189 Papal Swiss Guard, the citys fortifications included the massive walls, and it possessed a good artillery force, which the Imperial army lacked. Duke Charles needed to conquer the city swiftly, to avoid the risk of being trapped between the city and the Leagues army. On 6 May, the Imperial army attacked the walls at the Gianicolo, Duke Charles was fatally wounded in the assault, allegedly shot by Benvenuto Cellini. The Duke was wearing his famous white cloak to him out to his troops. The death of the last respected command authority among the Imperial army caused any restraint in the soldiers to disappear, Philibert of Châlon took command of the armies, but he was not as popular or feared, leaving him with little authority. One of the Swiss Guards most notable hours occurred at this time, almost the entire guard was massacred by Imperial troops on the steps of St Peters Basilica. After the brutal execution of some 1,000 defenders of the Papal capital and shrines, churches and monasteries, as well as the palaces of prelates and cardinals, were looted and destroyed. Even pro-Imperial cardinals had to pay to save their properties from the rampaging soldiers, on 8 May, Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, a personal enemy of Clement VII, entered the city. He was followed by peasants from his fiefs, who had come to avenge the sacks they had suffered by Papal armies, however, Colonna was touched by the pitiful conditions of the city and hosted in his palace a number of Roman citizens. The Vatican Library was saved because Philibert had set up his headquarters there, after three days of ravages, Philibert ordered the sack to cease, but few obeyed. In the meantime, Clement remained a prisoner in Castel SantAngelo, francesco Maria della Rovere and Michele Antonio of Saluzzo arrived with troops on 1 June in Monterosi, north of the city. Their cautious behaviour prevented them from obtaining a victory against the now totally undisciplined Imperial troops. At the same time Venice took advantage of this situation to capture Cervia and Ravenna, Emperor Charles V was greatly embarrassed by the fact that he had been powerless to stop his troops striking against Pope Clement VII and imprisoning him
27.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
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Charles V was ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1506. He voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556, through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned nearly four square kilometers and were the first to be described as the empire on which the sun never sets. Charles was the heir of three of Europes leading dynasties, the Houses of Valois-Burgundy, Habsburg, and Trastámara and he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands and the Franche-Comté as heir of the House of Valois-Burgundy. From his own dynasty, the Habsburgs, he inherited Austria and he was also elected to succeed his Habsburg grandfather, Maximilian I, as Holy Roman Emperor, a title held by the Habsburgs since 1440. Charles was the first king to rule Castile and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, the personal union, under Charles, of the Holy Roman Empire with the Spanish Empire resulted in the closest Europe would come to a universal monarchy since the death of Louis the Pious. France recovered and the wars continued for the remainder of Charless reign, enormously expensive, they led to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe, the Tercios. The struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary and the Mediterranean, after seizing most of eastern and central Hungary in 1526, the Ottomans’ advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. A lengthy war of attrition, conducted on his behalf by his younger brother Ferdinand, in the Mediterranean, although there were some successes, Charles was unable to prevent the Ottomans’ increasing naval dominance and the piratical activity of the Barbary Corsairs. Charles opposed the Reformation and in Germany he was in conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League who were motivated by religious and political opposition to him. Once the rebellions were quelled the essential Castilian and Burgundian territories remained mostly loyal to Charles throughout his rule, Charles’s Spanish dominions were the chief source of his power and wealth, and they became increasingly important as his reign progressed. In the Americas, Charles sanctioned the conquest by Castillian conquistadors of the Aztec, Castillian control was extended across much of South and Central America. The resulting vast expansion of territory and the flows of South American silver to Castile had profound long term effects on Spain. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery. Upon Charles’s abdications, the Holy Roman Empire was inherited by his younger brother Ferdinand, the Spanish Empire, including the possessions in the Netherlands and Italy, was inherited by Charles’s son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century, Charles was born in 1500 as the eldest son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile in the Flemish city of Ghent, which was part of the Habsburg Netherlands. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life and he was tutored by William de Croÿ, and also by Adrian of Utrecht. He also gained a decent command of German, though he never spoke it as well as French, a witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is, I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse
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Holy Roman Emperor
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The Holy Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. From an autocracy in Carolingian times the title evolved into an elected monarchy chosen by the Prince-electors, until the Reformation the Emperor elect was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. The title was held in conjunction with the rule of the Kingdom of Germany, in theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares among the other Catholic monarchs, in practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances made him. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, effectively became hereditary holders of the title, after the Reformation many of the subject states and most of those in Germany were Protestant while the Emperor continued to be Catholic. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last Emperor as a result of the collapse of the polity during the Napoleonic wars, from the time of Constantine I the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. In the west, the title of Emperor was revived in 800, as the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was known as the Investiture Controversy. After Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, no pope appointed an emperor again until the coronation of Otto the Great in 962. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, the various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. After Charles Vs coronation, all succeeding emperors were called elected Emperor due to the lack of papal coronation, the term sacrum in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope, the final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empires final dissolution. The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was August Emperor of the Romans, the word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents. In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman Emperor on one hand, the English term Holy Roman Emperor is a modern shorthand for emperor of the Holy Roman Empire not corresponding to the historical style or title. Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors, elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. The Electoral council was set at seven princes by the Golden Bull of 1356, another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire. After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the exception of Charles VII. Maximilian I and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope, Maximilian therefore named himself Elected Roman Emperor in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors, of his successors only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation
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Pope Clement VII
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Pope Clement VII, born Giulio di Giuliano de Medici, was Pope from 19 November 1523 to his death in 1534. The Sack of Rome and English Reformation occurred during his papacy, Giulio de Medici was born in Florence one month after the assassination of his father, Giuliano de Medici, following the Pazzi Conspiracy. Although his parents had not had a marriage, they had been formally betrothed per sponsalia de presenti. Despite this accommodation for an important and powerful family, Giulio was considered illegitimate by his contemporaries and he was the nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent, who educated him in his youth. Giulios mother, Fioretta Gorini, also died leaving him an orphan, Giulio was enrolled in the Knights Hospitaller and made Grand Prior of Capua. On the death of Archbishop Cosimo de Pazzi, Giulio was named Archbishop of Florence on 9 May 1513, a post he held until his own election as pope on 19 November 1523. On 23 September 1513, he was created a cardinal by Leo X, and on 29 September was appointed Cardinal Deacon of Santa Maria in Domnica, which had been vacated by the election of his cousin the Pope. On 26 June 1517 he was created Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente and he was ordained a priest on 19 December 1517, and consecrated bishop two days later. Cardinal de Medici soon became a figure in Rome. Upon his cousins accession to the papacy, Giulio became his principal minister and confidant, in 1517 he conducted his first diocesan Synod in Florence. On 14 February 1515, Cardinal de Medici was named Archbishop of Narbonne and he ruled the diocese through a Vicar General. He bestowed upon the Cathedral of Saint Just a picture of Saint Lazare and he decided to keep the original, however, and an alternative version was made for Narbonne by Sebastiano del Piombo. At the same time as he was named Archbishop, Cardinal Giulio was granted the Abbey of Cîteaux and he held these offices until he was elected pope. But he is returning to Florence to govern the city and he had the credit of being the main director of papal policy during the whole of Leo Xs pontificate, especially as cardinal protector of England. Between 7 June 1521 and 26 September 1522 he was Apostolic Administrator of the Diocese of Worcester, on that date the Pope appointed Hieronymus Ghinucci, who was expelled from the See in 1535 as a foreigner by the legislation of Henry VIII. At Leo Xs death in 1521, Cardinal Medici was considered papabile in the protracted conclave. Following Adrian VIs death on 14 September 1523, Medici overcame the opposition of the French king, Pope Leo brought to the papal throne a high reputation for political ability and possessed in fact all the accomplishments of a wily diplomat. However, he was considered by his contemporaries as worldly and indifferent to the dangers of the Protestant Reformation by the people of the papacy
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Castel Sant'Angelo
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The Mausoleum of Hadrian, usually known as Castel SantAngelo, is a towering cylindrical building in Parco Adriano, Rome, Italy. It was initially commissioned by the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself, the building was later used by the popes as a fortress and castle, and is now a museum. The Castle was once the tallest building in Rome, the tomb of the Roman emperor Hadrian, also called Hadrians mole, was erected on the right bank of the Tiber, between 134 and 139 AD. Originally the mausoleum was a cylinder, with a garden top. Hadrians ashes were placed here a year after his death in Baiae in 138, together with those of his wife Sabina, and his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius, who also died in 138. Following this, the remains of succeeding emperors were also placed here, the urns containing these ashes were probably placed in what is now known as the Treasury room deep within the building. Much of the contents and decorations have been lost since the buildings conversion to a military fortress in 401. The use of spolia from the tomb in the period was noted in the 16th century — Giorgio Vasari writes. Legend holds that the Archangel Michael appeared atop the mausoleum, sheathing his sword as a sign of the end of the plague of 590, thus lending the castle its present name. A less charitable yet more apt elaboration of the legend, given the militant disposition of this archangel, was heard by the 15th-century traveler who saw a statue on the castle roof. He recounts that during a season of the plague, Pope Gregory I heard that the populace. A vision urged the pope to lead a procession to the church, upon arriving, the idol miraculously fell apart with a clap of thunder. Returning to St Peters by the Aelian Bridge, the pope had another vision of an angel atop the castle, wiping the blood from his sword on his mantle, and then sheathing it. While the pope interpreted this as a sign that God was appeased, leo X built a chapel with a Madonna by Raffaello da Montelupo. In 1536 Montelupo also created a statue of Saint Michael holding his sword after the 590 plague to surmount the Castel. Later Paul III built an apartment, to ensure that in any future siege the pope had an appropriate place to stay. Montelupos statue was replaced by a statue of the same subject, executed by the Flemish sculptor Peter Anton von Verschaffelt. Verschaffelts is still in place and Montelupos can be seen in a court in the interior of the Castle
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Umbria
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Umbria, is a region of historic and modern central Italy. It is the only Italian region having neither a coastline nor a border with other countries and it includes the Lake Trasimeno, Marmores Falls, and is crossed by the River Tiber. Umbria is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, culinary delights, artistic legacy, and influence on culture. Contained within Umbria is Cospaia, a republic created by accident that existed from 1440 to 1826 Umbria is bordered by Tuscany to the west, Marche to the east. It is the only Italian region having neither a coastline nor a border with other countries. The commune of Città di Castello has an exclave named Monte Ruperto within Marche. Umbria is crossed by two valleys, the Umbrian valley, stretching from Perugia to Spoleto, and the Tiber Valley, west of the first one, the Tiber River forms the approximate border with Lazio, although its source is just over the Tuscan border. The Tibers three principal tributaries flow southward through Umbria, the Chiascio basin is relatively uninhabited as far as Bastia Umbra. About 10 kilometres farther on, it joins the Tiber at Torgiano, the third river is the Nera, flowing into the Tiber further south, at Terni, its valley is called the Valnerina. The upper Nera cuts ravines in the mountains, the lower, in antiquity, the plain was covered by a pair of shallow, interlocking lakes, the Lacus Clitorius and the Lacus Umber. They were drained by the Romans over several hundred years, an earthquake in the 4th century and the political collapse of the Roman Empire resulted in the refilling of the basin. The eastern part of the region, being crossed by many faults, has often hit by earthquakes, the last ones have been that of 1997. In literature, Umbria is referred to as il cuore verde dItalia, the phrase is taken from a poem by Giosuè Carducci, the subject of which is the source of the Clitunno River in Umbria. The region is named for the Umbri people, an Italic people which was absorbed by the expansion of the Romans, the Umbris capital city was Gubbio, where today is housed the longest and most important document of any of the Osco-Umbrian group of languages, the Iguvine Tablets. In fact, they belonged to a family of neighbouring peoples with similar roots. Their language was Umbrian, one of the Italic languages, related to Latin, the Etruscans were the chief enemies of the Umbri. The Etruscan invasion went from the western seaboard towards the north and east, eventually driving the Umbrians towards the Apennine uplands, nevertheless, the Umbrian population does not seem to have been eradicated in the conquered districts. The border between Etruria and Umbria was the Tiber river, the ancient name of Todi, Tular, after the downfall of the Etruscans, Umbrians aided the Samnites in their struggle against Rome
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Orvieto
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Orvieto is a city and comune in the Province of Terni, southwestern Umbria, Italy situated on the flat summit of a large butte of volcanic tuff. The site of the city is among the most dramatic in Europe, the ancient city, populated since Etruscan times, has usually been associated with Etruscan Velzna, but some modern scholars differ. Orvieto was certainly a centre of Etruscan civilization, the archaeological museum houses some of the Etruscan artifacts that have been recovered in the immediate neighbourhood. Orvieto was annexed by Rome in the third century BC, because of its site on a high, steep bluff of tufa, a volcanic rock, the city was virtually impregnable. It was last conquered by Julius Caesar, by the thirteenth century, three papal palaces had been built. In the 13th century bitter feuds divided the city, which was at the apogée of its wealth but found itself often at odds with the papacy, Pope Urban IV stayed at Orvieto from 1262-64. The city became one of the cultural centers of its time when Thomas Aquinas taught at the studium there. A small university, had its origins in a studium generale that was granted to the city by Pope Gregory IX in 1236. The territory of Orvieto was under papal control long before it was added to the Papal States, it remained a papal possession until 1860. The design has often attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio. The church is striped in white travertine and greenish-black basalt in narrow bands, similar in ways to the cathedral of Siena. In the following decade, cathedral authorities called Sienese architect and sculptor Lorenzo Maitani to stabilize the building and he enlarged the choir and planned a transept with two chapels, spaces that were not finished until long after his death. The Cathedral has five bells, tuned in E flat, which date back to the renaissance, the façade is particularly striking and includes some remarkable sculpture by Lorenzo Maitani. Inside the cathedral, the Chapel of San Brizio is frescoed by Fra Angelico and with Luca Signorellis masterpiece, from the 11th century onward, the popes maintained an aggressive political presence in the papal territory which occupied central Italy. Together with his court, the pope moved from palace to palace in the manner of his European secular counterparts, several central Italian cities hosted the pope and his retinue during the years of wandering, housing them in the bishops palace. Outside Rome, only Orvieto and Viterbo had papal palaces, Pope Adrian IV was the first pope to spend significant time in Orvieto. His successor, Pope Innocent III, was a militant opponent of the Cathar heresy, which had infiltrated the city, in 1227, Pope Gregory IX confirmed the Dominican studium generale in Orvieto, a school of theology, and one of the first in Europe. Pope Urban IV, a Frenchman who was crowned in the Dominican church in Viterbo, in 1263, he began a papal palace, perhaps the first outside Rome, and consecrated the new Dominican church in Orvieto
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Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
34.
Hector Boece
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Hector Boece, known in Latin as Hector Boecius or Boethius, was a Scottish philosopher and historian, and the first Principal of Kings College in Aberdeen, a predecessor of the University of Aberdeen. He was born in Dundee where he attended school and was educated at the nearby University of St Andrews, by 1497 he had become a professor of philosophy at the university. From then onwards, he worked closely with Elphinstone, to set up the new university and by 1505, the university structure was modelled on those of Paris and of Orléans. As intended, Boece was installed as the first principal of the university and gave lectures on medicine, at the end of 1534, Boece became Rector of Fyvie. He died in Aberdeen two years later at the age of 71, Boece wrote and published two books, one of biography and one of history. In 1522 he published the Vitae Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium and in 1527 the Historia Gentis Scotorum to the accession of James III of Scotland, the former was the basis of a poem in Scots by Alexander Gardyne. It was written in a flowing and pleasing style, became popular, by modern standards it is overly patriotic, and has many inaccuracies. The historical account of Macbeth of Scotland, in particular, flattered the antecedents of Boeces patron King James IV of Scotland, and greatly maligned the real Macbeth. The work was received at the time, both in Europe and in Scotland, after its translation from Latin into French and then in 1536 from Latin into Scots by John Bellenden. There are some glimpses in the Historia of contemporary Scotland, such as the statement that the Eurasian beaver, continuations of the Historia and its influence Boeces Historia as published terminated in 1438. In the early 1530s the scholar Giovanni Ferrerio, engaged by Robert Reid of Kinloss Abbey, wrote a continuation of Boeces history, extending it another 50 years, to the end of the reign of James III. John Lesley in his De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus Gestis Scotorum, the metrical translation into Scots by William Stewart, not published until the nineteenth century, also provided some expansion. The chronicler Polydore Vergil made some use of Boece for his 1534 Historia Anglica, david Chalmers of Ormond in his Histoire abbregée wrote about the French, English and Scottish monarchies, relying on Boece for the Scottish account. The Historia was translated into English for Raphael Holinsheds Chronicles of England, Scotland, the account in Holinsheds Chronicle was then used by William Shakespeare as the basis of his play Macbeth. George Buchanan made heavy use of Boece in his Rerum Scoticarum Historia, Boeces sources Boeces claimed sources fell into three classes. The works of John Fordun and Walter Bower defined the tradition which he attempted to make seamless, filling the gaps in the chronicle, and applying the approach common to humanists of his period. The works of Tacitus had been rediscovered, in the 14th century, and contained material relevant to British history, finally there was a group of sources that remain debated, material from Elphinstone, and the authors Veremundus, Cornelius Hibernicus, and John Campbell. No written record of these works survives, sharp criticism of the sourcing of Boeces history was voiced in the sixteenth century by Humphrey Lhuyd and John Twyne
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George Buchanan
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George Buchanan was a Scottish historian and humanist scholar. According to historian Keith Brown, Buchanan was the most profound intellectual sixteenth century Scotland produced and his ideology of resistance to royal usurpation gained widespread acceptance during the Scottish Reformation. Brown says the ease with which King James VII was deposed in 1689 shows the power of Buchananite ideas. Georges mother, Agnes Heriot, was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, East Lothian, of which George Heriot, Buchanan, a native speaker of Scottish Gaelic, is said to have attended Killearn school, but not much is known of his early education. His brother, Patrick Buchanan, was also a scholar, in 1520 he was sent by his uncle, James Heriot, to the University of Paris, where he first came in contact with the two great influences of the age, the Renaissance and the Reformation. There, according to him, he devoted himself to the writing of verses partly by liking, in 1522 his uncle died, and George Buchanan, who was at that time severely ill, was unable to stay in Paris and returned to Scotland. In the following year he entered the University of St Andrews and he had gone there mainly to attend the lectures of John Mair on logic, and when Mair moved to Paris, Buchanan followed him in 1526. In 1528 Buchanan graduated M. A. at the Scots College in Paris, the next year he was appointed regent, or professor, in the College of Sainte-Barbe, and taught there for over three years. Sainte-Barbe was one of the most prestigious and advanced colleges at that time, George added to that prestige by creating new reforms in teaching Latin. In 1529 he was elected Procurator of the German Nation in the University of Paris, and was re-elected four times in four successive months. He resigned his regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd Earl of Cassilis, with whom he returned to Scotland early in 1537 having acquired a great reputation for learning. At this period Buchanan assumed the attitude toward the Roman Catholic Church as Erasmus, he did not repudiate its doctrines. Though he listened to the arguments of the Protestant Reformers, he did not join their ranks until 1553. This assault on the monks was not displeasing to James V, who engaged Buchanan as tutor to one of his sons, Lord James Stewart. The poems Palinodia and Franciscanus et Fratres remained unpublished for many years, in 1539 there was persecution in Scotland of the Lutherans, and Buchanan among others was arrested. Although the King had withheld his protection, Buchanan managed to escape and made his way to London, and then Paris. In Paris, however, he himself in danger when his main enemy, Cardinal David Beaton, arrived there as ambassador. Gouveia was then principal of the newly founded College of Guienne, during his time there several of his major works, the translations of Medea and Alcestis, and the two dramas, Jephthes and Baptistes, were completed
36.
Forres
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Forres is a town and former royal burgh situated in the north of Scotland on the Moray coast, approximately 25 miles east of Inverness and 12 miles west of Elgin. Forres has been a winner of the Scotland in Bloom award on several occasions, there are many geographical and historical attractions nearby such as the River Findhorn, and there are many historical artifacts and monuments within the town itself. The earliest written reference to Forres may be the Οὐάραρ εἴσχυσις mentioned in the second century Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, a royal castle was in the area from at least 900 AD, and around 1140 AD Forres became a royal burgh. Royal burghs were founded by the Kings of Scots of the 12th century to encourage trade, the local abbey was plundered by the Wolf of Badenoch. The population of Forres has grown in recent years and now has over 12000 inhabitants, local bars and pubs include The Newmarket, The Red Lion, locally known as the Beastie, The Mosset Tavern, and The Carlton Hotel. The town is the location of Suenos Stone, a carved stone probably created by Picts to commemorate a battle against Norse invaders. The stele is 20 feet tall and encased in glass structure to protect it from the elements, Suenos Stone translates to Svens Stone. Brodie Castle lies near the town, other attractions to Forres include Dallas Dhu Distillery, which lies just south of the town. Although no longer in production, the distillery is maintained in working order by Historic Scotland, benromach Distillery is an active distillery with a visitors centre and is located just north of the Forres bypass. Shakespeares play Macbeth locates Duncans castle in Forres, and the Three Witches meet on a heath near the town in the scene of the drama. Macbeths castle was located at Inverness, Forres has a network of footpaths that have been established and waymarked by the Forres Footpaths Trust in recent years. Forres has also just completed a flood prevention scheme at Chapletonmoss. The constituency was abolished in 1918 and the Forres and Nairn components were merged into the new constituency of Moray. As with the rest of the British Isles and Scotland, Forres experiences a climate with cool summers. The nearest official Metoffice weather station for which records are available is Kinloss. The lowest temperature to be recorded in recent years was −16.0 °C during December 2010, Forres is situated on the A96 trunk route connecting the cities of Aberdeen and Inverness. The River Findhorn was originally crossed by fording near Waterford Farm, a suspension bridge was opened in 1831 to cross the river at the west end of the town. This bridge was replaced by the current bridge in 1938, due to high volumes of traffic passing through the town centre, a bypass was built in the late 1980s to reduce congestion in the town centre
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In commendam
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In canon law, commendam was a form of transferring an ecclesiastical benefice in trust to the custody of a patron. The word commendam is the singular of the Low Latin noun commenda, trust, or custody. The establishment of eccelsiastical benefices was a way of guaranteeing the stability of the Church. Real property and other donated to the Church were erected as a stable fund. The parish priest, bishop, or other minister would have the right to receive the income of the benefice to support himself, there is clear evidence that the granting of a benefice in commendam was practiced in the fourth century. In a letter Ambrose mentions a church which he gave in commendam, while he was Bishop of Milan, Commendo tibi, fili, the patron would receive any revenues generated from the property in the meantime. Each of the basilicas of Rome was under the guardianship of a patron. The benefice held in commendam could be used to provide a temporary administrator to a church or monastery that was at risk of financial ruin and it also provided a steady income for whoever was nominated, and St. These abbots did not have spiritual care of the monks but did have the right to manage the affairs of the monastery. When in 1122 the Investiture Controversy was settled in favor of the church, clergy, however, could still be appointed as commendatory abbots, and the practice was used to provide an income to a professor, student, priest, or cardinal. This cleric would name another man to fulfill the daily responsibilities of the office, the practice was open to abuse, favored cardinals began to receive multiple benefices, accepting them like absentee landlords, increasing their personal possessions to the detriment of the Church. The arrangements were no longer temporary and could be held for a lifetime, monastic communities, from which these grants were taken, lost revenues and gained nothing in return, suffering from spiritual and temporal mismanagement. In 16th-century France, however, the Kings continued to appoint abbots, following the Second Vatican Council, the Church drastically reformed and, in most cases, completely abolished the system of benefices. In the Church of England the stipends of bishops and other senior ecclesastics were sometimes augmented by the stipends of sinecure benefices held in commendam, in 1719 Hugh Boulter succeeded to the deanery of Christ Church, which he held in commendam with the bishoprick of Bristol. These were made illegal by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836, section 18, the Act does not extend to the Isle of Man, but similar provision with respect to the bishop of Sodor and Man was made by the Sodor and Man Act 1838, section 3. Commendatory abbot Catholic Encyclopedia, Commendatory Abbot UK Statute Law Database, Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836
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College of Justice
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The College of Justice includes the Supreme Courts of Scotland, and its associated bodies. The constituent bodies of the supreme courts are the Court of Session, the High Court of Justiciary. Its associated bodies are the Faculty of Advocates, the Society of Writers to Her Majestys Signet, the College was founded in 1532 by King James V following a bull issued by Pope Clement VII on 15 September 1531. The Parliament of Scotland passed an Act on 17 May 1532 authorising the creation of the college with 14 members, half spiritual, half temporal, plus a president, the college convened for the first time on 27 May 1532, in the royal presence. Supplementing the 14 ordinary lords, who were called Senators, were a number of supernumerary judges called extraordinary lords. The College at its foundation dealt with underdeveloped civil law and it did not dispense justice in criminal matters as that was an area of the law reserved to the Kings justice, through the justiciars, the Barony Courts and the Commission of Justiciary. The High Court of Justiciary was only incorporated into the College of Justice in 1672, initially, there was little legal literature. Acts of the Parliament of Scotland and the books of the Old Law as well as Roman Law and it was only after the establishment of the court that this situation improved, with judges noting their decisions in books of practicks. The Treaty of Union 1707 with England preserved the Scottish Legal System
39.
Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
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Mary of Bourbon
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Mary of Bourbon or Marie de Bourbon was a daughter of Charles, Duke of Vendôme and Françoise dAlençon, daughter of René, Duke of Alençon. Mary was the subject of negotiations of James V of Scotland. He visited her in France, but subsequently married Madeleine of Valois, a marriage to a French princess for the Scottish king had been an expectation since the Franco-Scottish alliance by the Treaty of Rouen of 1517. The Treaty itself was concerned with mutual military support. As James V of Scotland came of age, at first it was thought he would marry the Princess, by December 1534, it was clear that Madeleine was sickly. Francis I of France suggested that James V should marry Mary of Bourbon instead to fulfill the Treaty, however, Marguerite de Navarre had discussed this marriage plan with Henry VIIIs diplomat, the Duke of Norfolk in June 1533. She pointed out that the Duke of Vendôme was closely allied with the Emperor and claimed that Mary of Bourbon, the Queen of Navarre wondered if James V might marry Christina of Denmark, and suggested her sister-in-law Isabella as Queen of Scotland instead. In January 1535, James V wrote to Francis I explaining that he felt he had been misrepresented in this negotiation, Aikenhead was instructed to explain that James could not deviate from the 1517 Treaty by marrying a bride not a Princess without the consent of the Parliament of Scotland. On 3 June 1535, James V wrote from Stirling Castle to Francis I regarding his marriage to Madeleine, the treaty. He wrote that he had heard from Nicolas Canivet that Mary of Bourbon was a possible bride, Aikenhead, if satisfied on these points, was to enquire about a dowry for Mary as if she were a daughter of Francis. If the business was concluded, Mary should haste home to Scotland with an honest train of gentlewomen before winter, James sent letters on the same day with Aikenhead to Philippe Chabot and Anne de Montmorency. Again, the Duke of Albany briefly entertained the idea that James V might marry Christina of Denmark, now the widowed Duchess of Milan, at the point, there was also an investigation into the possibility of him marrying his former mistress, Margaret Erskine. Then, on 28 December 1535, Aikenhead was sent to France to resume the Vendôme marriage plan, once again, Aikenheads instructions included that Marys train should consist of a sobir nummyr of gentlewomen. James V then appointed his procurators, his representatives to finalise the match. On 29 March 1536 a final contract made at Cremieu, near Lyon, the resultant contract was signed by Cardinal Tournon, the Chancellor Antoine de Bourg, Anne de Montmorency, Marshal of France, and Admiral Philippe de Chabot, Count of Busançois. James V had already consented to the marriage by appointing his procurators to finalise the details on 29 December 1535, in April 1536 Francis I consolidated the agreement by sending James V the collar of the Order of Saint Michael. The Duke of Albany, who had promoted this marriage plan, the Scottish King visited Mary of Bourbon at St. Quentin in Picardy in September 1536, but then went south to meet Francis I. Instead of marrying Mary, he married the French kings daughter, on 14 October 1536, Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Bishop of Faenza, wrote that Francis I now intended Mary of Bourbon to marry Francis, Marquis of Lorraine
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Madeleine of Valois
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Very frail from birth, she grew up in the warm and temperate Loire Valley region of France, rather than at Paris, as her father feared that the cold would destroy her delicate health. Together with her sister Margaret, she was raised by her aunt and this lasted until her father remarried and his new wife, Eleanor of Austria, took them into her own household. By her sixteenth birthday, she had contracted tuberculosis, three years before Madeleines birth, the Franco-Scottish Treaty of Rouen was made to bolster the Auld Alliance after Scotlands defeat at the Battle of Flodden. A marriage to a French Princess for the Scottish King was one of its provisions, in April 1530, John Stewart, Duke of Albany, was appointed commissioner to finalise the royal marriage between James V and Madeleine. However, as Madeleine did not enjoy good health, another French bride, Mary of Bourbon would be given a dowry as if she were the French kings daughter. James V contracted to marry Mary of Bourbon, and travelled to France in 1536 to meet her, citing her illness and the harsh climate of Scotland, which he feared would prove fatal to his daughters already failing health, Francis I initially refused to permit the marriage. The pair married on 1 January 1537 at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Francis I also provided Madeleine with a very generous dowry, which considerably boosted the Scottish treasury. According to the contract made at Blois, Madeleine renounced her. After months of festivities and celebrations, the couple left France for Scotland in May 1537, by this time, Madeleines health had deteriorated even further, and she was very sick when the royal pair landed in Scotland. They arrived at Leith at 10 oclock on Whitsun-eve,19 May, a detailed list of wedding presents from Francis I also survives. Madeleine wrote to her father from Edinburgh on 8 June 1537 saying that she was better and her symptoms had diminished, however, a month later, on 7 July 1537, Madeleine, the so-called Summer Queen of Scots, died in her husbands arms at Edinburgh, Scotland. Queen Madeleine was interred in Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Madeleines marriage and death was commemorated by the poet David Lyndsays Deploration of Deith of Quene Magdalene, the poem describes the pageantry of the marriage in France and Scotland, O Paris. Quhilk did resave our prince with laud and glorie, Solempnitlie, less than a year after her death, her husband married the widowed Mary of Guise, who had attended his wedding to Madeleine. Twenty years later, listed amongst the treasures in Edinburgh Castle were two little gold cups, a basin, a jasper vase, and crystal jug given to Madeleine when she was a child in France
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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