1.
Secretary-General of the United Nations
–
The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
Secretary-General of the United Nations
–
Incumbent
Ban Ki-moon since 1 January 2007
Secretary-General of the United Nations
–
Emblem of the United Nations
Secretary-General of the United Nations
–
The
Secretariat Building is a 154 m (505 ft) tall
skyscraper and the centerpiece of the
Headquarters of the United Nations.
Secretary-General of the United Nations
–
–
2.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
Wikisource
–
The original Wikisource logo
Wikisource
–
Screenshot of wikisource.org home page
Wikisource
–
::: Original text
Wikisource
–
::: Action of the modernizing tool
3.
Treaty
–
A treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, pact, or exchange of letters, regardless of terminology, all of these forms of agreements are, under international law, equally considered treaties and the rules are the same. A treaty is an official, express written agreement that states use to bind themselves. Since the late 19th century, most treaties have followed a consistent format. A treaty typically begins with a preamble describing the parties and their joint objectives in executing the treaty. Modern preambles are sometimes structured as a very long sentence formatted into multiple paragraphs for readability. The end of the preamble and the start of the agreement is often signaled by the words have agreed as follows. After the preamble comes numbered articles, which contain the substance of the actual agreement. Each article heading usually encompasses a paragraph, a long treaty may further group articles under chapter headings. The date is written in its most formal, longest possible form. For example, the Charter of the United Nations was DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one nine hundred. If the treaty is executed in multiple copies in different languages, that fact is always noted, the signatures of the parties representatives follow at the very end. Bilateral treaties are concluded between two states or entities, each of these treaties has seventeen parties. These however are still bilateral, not multilateral, treaties, the parties are divided into two groups, the Swiss and the EU and its member states. The treaty establishes rights and obligations between the Swiss and the EU and the member states severally—it does not establish any rights and obligations amongst the EU, a multilateral treaty is concluded among several countries. The agreement establishes rights and obligations between each party and every other party, Treaties of mutual guarantee are international compacts, e. g. the Treaty of Locarno which guarantees each signatory against attack from another. Reservations are essentially caveats to an acceptance of a treaty. Reservations are unilateral statements purporting to exclude or to modify the legal obligation and these must be included at the time of signing or ratification, i. e. a party cannot add a reservation after it has already joined a treaty
Treaty
–
The first two pages of the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in (left to right) German, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Turkish and Russian
4.
International Criminal Court
–
The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague in the Netherlands. The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity. The ICC began functioning on 1 July 2002, the date that the Rome Statute entered into force, the Rome Statute is a multilateral treaty which serves as the ICCs foundational and governing document. States which become party to the Rome Statute, for example by ratifying it, currently, there are 124 states which are party to the Rome Statute and therefore members of the ICC. However, Burundi has given notice that it will withdraw from the Rome Statute. The ICC has four organs, the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor. The President is the most senior judge chosen by his or her peers in the Judicial Division, the Office of the Prosecutor is headed by the Prosecutor who investigates crimes and initiates proceedings before the Judicial Division. The Registry is headed by the Registrar and is charged with managing all the functions of the ICC, including the headquarters, detention unit. The Office of the Prosecutor has opened ten official investigations and is conducting an additional nine preliminary examinations. The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it, following the Second World War, the allied powers established two ad hoc tribunals to prosecute axis power leaders accused of war crimes. The International Military Tribunal, which sat in Nuremberg, prosecuted German leaders while the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted Japanese leaders. In 1948 the United Nations General Assembly first recognised the need for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the kind prosecuted after the Second World War. In his first book published in 1975, entitled Defining International Aggression, The Search for World Peace, following Trinidad and Tobagos proposal, the General Assembly tasked the ILC with once again drafting a statute for a permanent court. While work began on the draft, the United Nations Security Council established two ad hoc tribunals in the early 1990s, the creation of these tribunals further highlighted the need for a permanent international criminal court. To consider major substantive issues in the statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court. After considering the Committees report, the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of the ICC to prepare a draft text. Finally the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, on 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United States, following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal Court was formally established
International Criminal Court
–
The current headquarters of the ICC in The Hague
International Criminal Court
–
Official logo
International Criminal Court
–
Song Sang-Hyun was President of the Court from 2009 to 2015
International Criminal Court
–
ICC prosecutors
Fatou Bensouda and
Luis Moreno Ocampo, with
Estonia's Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Urmas Paet, in 2012
5.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
6.
Genocide
–
Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term genocide was coined in a 1943 book responding to mass murder of populations in the 20th century, in 1943, Raphael Lemkin created the term genocide in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, the term described the systematic destruction of a nation or people, and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno-, Lemkin defined genocide as follows, Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history. Lemkins lifelong interest in the murder of populations in the 20th century was initially in response to the killing of Armenians in 1915. He dedicated his life to mobilizing the international community, to together to prevent the occurrence of such events. In a 1949 interview, Lemkin said I became interested in genocide because it happened so many times and it happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler took action. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention, the CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. The USSR argued that the Conventions definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. ”The conventions purpose and scope was later described by the United Nations Security Council as follows, In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights, noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements, in the case of Onesphore Rwabukombe the German Supreme Court adhered to its previous judgement and didnt follow the narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ. The phrase in whole or in part has been subject to discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 ICTY8 that Genocide had been committed. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the destruction of entire human groups. The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. The judges continue in paragraph 12, The determination of when the part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations
Genocide
–
Buchenwald concentration camp was not an
extermination camp, though it was responsible for a vast number of deaths
Genocide
–
Armenian Genocide victims
Genocide
–
Nuon Chea, the Khmer Rouge's chief ideologist, before the
Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on 5 December 2011.
Genocide
–
The cemetery at the
Srebrenica-Potočari Memorial and Cemetery to Genocide Victims
7.
Crimes against humanity
–
The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the Nuremberg trials. The law of crimes against humanity has developed through the evolution of customary international law. Crimes against humanity are not codified in a convention, although there is currently an international effort to establish such a treaty. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during peace or war and they are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. The term crimes against humanity is potentially ambiguous because of the ambiguity of the word humanity, the history of the term shows that the latter sense is intended. The term crimes against humanity was used by George Washington Williams, in a pamphlet published in 1890, the preamble of the two Conventions referenced the “laws of humanity” as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values. The term is part of what is known as the Martens Clause, on May 24,1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging for the first time ever another government of committing a crime against humanity. At the conclusion of the war, a war crimes commission recommended the creation of a tribunal to try violations of the laws of humanity. However, the US representative objected to references to law of humanity as being imprecise and insufficiently developed at that time, the drafters of this document were faced with the problem of how to respond to the Holocaust and grave crimes committed by the Nazi regime. A traditional understanding of war crimes gave no provision for crimes committed by a power on its own citizens, the legal basis for the trial was established by the Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946. The tribunal convened on May 3,1946, and was adjourned on November 12,1948, in the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity was not applied for any suspect. This was because the values of lives of Asian civilians were considered to be less than the lives of Caucasian or Jewish civilians. Prosecutions related to the Nanking Massacre were categorised as infringements upon the Laws of War, War crimes charges against more junior personnel were dealt with separately, in other cities throughout Far East Asia, such as the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal and the Khabarovsk War Crimes Trials. A panel of eleven judges presided over the IMTFE, one each from victorious Allied powers, the different types of crimes which may constitute crimes against humanity differs between definitions both internationally and on the domestic level. The Charter of the United Nations makes actions of the General Assembly advisory to the Security Council, in regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any findings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against humanity been conducted. The statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, there are eleven international texts defining crimes against humanity, but they all differ slightly as to their definition of that crime and its legal elements. In 2008, the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative was launched to address this gap in international law, the Initiative represents the first concerted effort to address the gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes against humanity. On July 30,2013, the United Nations International Law Commission voted to include the topic of crimes against humanity in its program of work
Crimes against humanity
–
Criminology and
penology
Crimes against humanity
–
Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in the dock. The main target of the prosecution was
Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving official in the
Third Reich after
Hitler 's death.
Crimes against humanity
–
The defendants at the Tokyo International Tribunal.
General Tojo was one of the main defendants, and is in the centre of the middle row
Crimes against humanity
–
The current headquarters of the ICC in The Hague
8.
War crime
–
A war crime is an act that constitutes a serious violation of the law of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility. The concept of war crimes emerged at the turn of the century when the body of customary international law applicable to warfare between sovereign states was codified. Moreover, trials in national courts during this period further helped clarify the law, following the end of World War II, major developments in the law occurred. Numerous trials of Axis war criminals established the Nuremberg principles, such as notion that war crimes constituted crimes defined by international law, additionally, the Geneva Conventions in 1949 defined new war crimes and established that states could exercise universal jurisdiction over such crimes. The trial of Peter von Hagenbach by an ad hoc tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire in 1474 was the first international war crimes trial, and also of command responsibility. He was convicted and beheaded for crimes that he as a knight was deemed to have a duty to prevent, although he had argued that he was only following orders. In 1654 a Major Connaught was tried at Chester Assizes and hanged for his part in the massacre of villagers in the church at the village of Boughton, twelve villagers were smoked out, stripped naked and had their throats cut. He was hanged at the scene of the crime having been convicted of striking a blow to the head of John Fowler with an axe. The Geneva Conventions are four related treaties adopted and continuously expanded from 1864 to 1949 that represent a legal basis, accordingly, states retain different codes and values with regard to wartime conduct. Some signatories have routinely violated the Geneva Conventions in a way which either uses the ambiguities of law or political maneuvering to sidestep the laws formalities and principles. Three conventions were revised and expanded with the one added in 1949, First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded. Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick, third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Protocol II relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts. Protocol III relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem, a small number of German military personnel of the First World War were tried in 1921 by the German Supreme Court for alleged war crimes. The modern concept of war crime was further developed under the auspices of the Nuremberg Trials based on the definition in the London Charter that was published on August 8,1945. Along with war crimes the charter also defined crimes against peace and crimes against humanity, on July 1,2002, the International Criminal Court, a treaty-based court located in The Hague, came into being for the prosecution of war crimes committed on or after that date. Several nations, most notably the United States, China, Russia, the United States still participates as an observer. Article 12 of the Rome Statute provides jurisdiction over the citizens of non-contracting states in the event that they are accused of committing crimes in the territory of one of the state parties
War crime
–
Criminology and
penology
War crime
–
A picture taken by the
Polish Underground of
Nazi Secret Police rounding up Polish intelligentsia at
Palmiry near
Warsaw in 1940 for mass execution (
German AB-Aktion in occupied Poland).
War crime
–
Suchow, China, 1938. A ditch full of the bodies of Chinese civilians, killed by
Japanese soldiers.
War crime
–
HRW wrote that the
Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen that began on 26 March 2015 had conducted airstrikes in apparent violation of the laws of war.
9.
United Nations Security Council
–
The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Republic of China, and the United States—serve as the bodys five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General, the Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The bodys presidency rotates monthly among its members, Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2016,103,510 peacekeeping soldiers and 16,471 civilians are deployed on 16 peacekeeping operations and 1 special political mission. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the rights of permanent members. At the conference, H. V. Evatt of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the power of Security Council permanent members. Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conferences failure, the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom. The Security Council was largely paralysed in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and USSR and their allies, and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts. Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Councils Military Staff Committee, the committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping. After the Cold War, the UN saw an expansion in its peacekeeping duties. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, undersecretary-General Brian Urquhart later described the hopes raised by these successes as a false renaissance for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide in the face of Security Council indecision, in the late 1990s, UN-authorised international interventions took a wider variety of forms
United Nations Security Council
–
UN Security Council Chamber in
New York City
United Nations Security Council
–
United Nations Security Council
United Nations Security Council
–
British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill, US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet General Secretary
Joseph Stalin at the
Yalta Conference, February 1945
United Nations Security Council
–
US Secretary of State Colin Powell holds a model vial of
anthrax while giving a presentation to the Security Council in February 2003.
10.
Crime against international law
–
The core crimes under international law are genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression. This article also discusses crimes against international law, which may not be part of the body of international criminal law, classical international law governs the relationships, rights, and responsibilities of states. Criminal law generally deals with prohibitions addressed to individuals, and penal sanctions for violation of those imposed by individual states. International criminal law comprises elements of both in that although its sources are those of law, its consequences are penal sanctions imposed on individuals. Some precedents in international law can be found in the time before World War I. However, it was only after the war that an international crime tribunal was envisaged to try perpetrators of crimes committed in this period. Thus, the Treaty of Versailles stated that a tribunal was to be set up to try Wilhelm II of Germany. In the event, however, the Kaiser was granted asylum in the Netherlands, after World War II, the Allied powers set up an international tribunal to try not only war crimes, but crimes against humanity committed under the Nazi regime. The Nuremberg Tribunal held its first session in 1945 and pronounced judgments on 30 September /1 October 1946, a similar tribunal was established for Japanese war crimes. It operated from 1946 to 1948, the ICC issued its first arrest warrants in 2005. International criminal law is a subset of international law, as such, its sources are the same as those that comprise international law. The classical enumeration of those sources is in Article 38 of the 1946 Statute of the International Court of Justice and comprise, treaties, customary international law, general principles of law. The Rome Statute governing the International Criminal Court contains an analogous, though not identical, the prosecution of severe international crimes—including genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes—is necessary to enforce international criminal law and deliver justice to victims. This is an important component of transitional justice, or the process of transforming societies into rights-respecting democracies, investigations and trials of leaders who have committed crimes and caused mass political or military atrocities is a key demand of victims of human rights abuses. Prosecution of such criminals can play a key role in restoring dignity to victims, the International Criminal Court, as described below, can play an important role in prosecuting international crimes in cases where domestic courts are unwilling or unable to do so. The courts creation perhaps constitutes the most significant reform of international law since 1945 and it gives authority to the two bodies of international law that deal with treatment of individuals, human rights and humanitarian law. The courts official seat is in The Hague, Netherlands, as of March 2016,124 states are parties to the Statute of the Court, including all the countries of South America, nearly all of Europe, most of Oceania and roughly half of Africa. A further 31 countries have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute, the law of treaties obliges these states to refrain from acts which would defeat the object and purpose of the treaty until they declare they do not intend to become a party to the treaty
Crime against international law
–
The International Criminal Court in The Hague
Crime against international law
–
The Lebanon Tribunal in Leidschendam, Netherlands
11.
Crime against humanity
–
The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the Nuremberg trials. The law of crimes against humanity has developed through the evolution of customary international law. Crimes against humanity are not codified in a convention, although there is currently an international effort to establish such a treaty. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during peace or war and they are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. The term crimes against humanity is potentially ambiguous because of the ambiguity of the word humanity, the history of the term shows that the latter sense is intended. The term crimes against humanity was used by George Washington Williams, in a pamphlet published in 1890, the preamble of the two Conventions referenced the “laws of humanity” as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values. The term is part of what is known as the Martens Clause, on May 24,1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging for the first time ever another government of committing a crime against humanity. At the conclusion of the war, a war crimes commission recommended the creation of a tribunal to try violations of the laws of humanity. However, the US representative objected to references to law of humanity as being imprecise and insufficiently developed at that time, the drafters of this document were faced with the problem of how to respond to the Holocaust and grave crimes committed by the Nazi regime. A traditional understanding of war crimes gave no provision for crimes committed by a power on its own citizens, the legal basis for the trial was established by the Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946. The tribunal convened on May 3,1946, and was adjourned on November 12,1948, in the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity was not applied for any suspect. This was because the values of lives of Asian civilians were considered to be less than the lives of Caucasian or Jewish civilians. Prosecutions related to the Nanking Massacre were categorised as infringements upon the Laws of War, War crimes charges against more junior personnel were dealt with separately, in other cities throughout Far East Asia, such as the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal and the Khabarovsk War Crimes Trials. A panel of eleven judges presided over the IMTFE, one each from victorious Allied powers, the different types of crimes which may constitute crimes against humanity differs between definitions both internationally and on the domestic level. The Charter of the United Nations makes actions of the General Assembly advisory to the Security Council, in regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any findings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against humanity been conducted. The statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, there are eleven international texts defining crimes against humanity, but they all differ slightly as to their definition of that crime and its legal elements. In 2008, the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative was launched to address this gap in international law, the Initiative represents the first concerted effort to address the gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes against humanity. On July 30,2013, the United Nations International Law Commission voted to include the topic of crimes against humanity in its program of work
Crime against humanity
–
Criminology and
penology
Crime against humanity
–
Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in the dock. The main target of the prosecution was
Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving official in the
Third Reich after
Hitler 's death.
Crime against humanity
–
The defendants at the Tokyo International Tribunal.
General Tojo was one of the main defendants, and is in the centre of the middle row
Crime against humanity
–
The current headquarters of the ICC in The Hague
12.
United Nations General Assembly
–
The United Nations General Assembly is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. The General Assembly is the deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. It has also established a number of subsidiary organs. It can also reconvene for special and emergency special sessions and its composition, functions, powers, voting, and procedures are set out in Chapter IV of the United Nations Charter. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London, other questions are decided by a straightforward majority. Each member country has one vote, apart from approval of budgetary matters, including adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace, the one state, one vote power structure potentially allows states comprising just five percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote. During the 1980s, the Assembly became a forum for the North-South dialogue and these issues came to the fore because of the phenomenal growth and changing makeup of the UN membership. In 1945, the UN had 51 members and it now has 193, of which more than two-thirds are developing countries. Because of their numbers, developing countries are able to determine the agenda of the Assembly, the character of its debates. For many developing countries, the UN is the source of much of their diplomatic influence, the Assembly can consider the matter immediately with a view to making recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain or restore international peace and security. The first session of the UN General Assembly was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London, the next few annual sessions were held in different cities, the second session in New York, and the third session was in Paris. It moved to the permanent United Nations Headquarters in New York at the start of its seventh regular annual session, on 14 October 1952. In December 1988, in order to hear Yasser Arafat, the General Assembly organised its 29th session in the Palace of Nations, all 193 members states of the United Nations are members of the General Assembly. The agenda for each session is planned up to seven months in advance and this is refined into a provisional agenda 60 days before the opening of the session. Items on the agenda are numbered, the General Assembly votes on many resolutions brought forth by sponsoring states. These are generally statements symbolizing the sense of the community about an array of world issues. Most General Assembly resolutions are not enforceable as a legal or practical matter, the General Assembly has authority to make final decisions in some areas such as the United Nations budget
United Nations General Assembly
–
United Nations (UN) General Assembly hall at the
UN Headquarters,
New York City
United Nations General Assembly
–
United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
–
Westminster Central Hall,
London, the location of the first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly in 1946.
United Nations General Assembly
–
Russian President Dmitry Medvedev addresses the 64th session of the UN General Assembly on 24 September 2009
13.
Review Conference of the Rome Statute
–
A Review Conference of the Rome Statute took place from 31 May to 11 June 2010, in Kampala, Uganda to consider amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The Review Conference considered amendments to the Rome Statute and the Statute made specific reference to reviewing the list of crimes within the courts jurisdiction, two amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court were adopted. The first one is to extend the jurisdiction of the Court over some war crimes committed in non-international conflicts for which it already had jurisdiction if committed in international conflicts. The second one defines the crime of aggression and lays out conditions for the jurisdiction of the Court to be in force. The transitional provision of Article 124 regarding the war crimes opt-out was also discussed at the review conference, but it was decided to retain it for the time being. With the latter view prevailing, the United Nations Security Council could also refer to the Court a situation regarding a crime of aggression allegedly committed by a national of a non-state party. In November 2009, South Africa floated a proposal at the Assembly of States Party that the power of the UN Security Council to defer an investigation should also be given to the UN General Assembly and this followed the African Unions unsuccessful attempt to defer the investigation in Darfur. In September 2007, Trinidad and Tobago specifically called for drug trafficking to be included in the list of crimes. The British television media company ITN wrote to the UK government in 2007 asking them to support an amendment to the definition of war crimes to include the intentional targeting of journalists
Review Conference of the Rome Statute
–
Legal texts
14.
Kampala
–
Kampala is the capital and largest city of Uganda. The city is divided into five boroughs that oversee local planning, Kampala Central Division, Kawempe Division, Makindye Division, Nakawa Division, the city is coterminous with Kampala District. Surrounding Kampala is the rapidly growing Wakiso District, whose more than doubled between 2002 and 2014 and now stands at over 2 million. Kampala was named the 13th fastest growing city on the planet, with a population growth rate of 4.03 percent. Kampala has been ranked the best city to live in East Africa ahead of Nairobi and Kigali by Mercer, in December 2015, Google launched its first wi-fi network in Kampala. Before the arrival of the British colonists, the Kabaka of Buganda had chosen the zone that would become Kampala as a hunting reserve, the area, composed of rolling hills with grassy wetlands in the valleys, was home to several species of antelope, particularly impala. When the British arrived, they called it Hills of the Impala, the language of the Buganda, Luganda, adopted many English words because of their interactions with the British. The Buganda translated Hill of the Impala as Akasozi keEmpala - Kasozi meaning hill, ke meaning of, and empala the plural of impala. In Luganda, the words mean that is of the impala, in reference to a hill. The city grew as the capital of the Buganda kingdom, from several buildings survive, including the Kasubi Tombs, the Lubiri Palace, the Buganda Parliament. In 1894, the British government officially established a protectorate within this territory, and in 1896, the protectorate expanded to cover the Ankole, Toro Kingdom, in 1905, the British government formally declared the entire territory to be a British colony. From that time until the independence of the country in 1962, following the 1962 independence, Milton Obote became president of Uganda, and held the position until 1971, when former sergeant Idi Amin defeated his government in a military coup. He proceeded to expel all Asian residents living within Kampala, in 1978, he invaded the neighboring country of Tanzania, and in turn, the government there started the Uganda–Tanzania War, which created severe damage to the buildings of Kampala. Traditionally, Kampala was a city of seven hills, but over time it has come to have a lot more, the main campus of Makerere University is in the Makerere Hill area of the city. Kampala also hosts the headquarters of the East African Development Bank on Nakasero Hill, Kampala was originally built on seven hills, but as its size has increased, it has expanded to more hills than seven. The original seven hills are, The first hill in historical importance is Kasubi Hill, the third is Kibuli Hill, which is home to the Kibuli Mosque. The fourth is Namirembe Hill, home to the Namirembe Anglican Cathedral, the fifth is Lubaga Hill, the site of the Rubaga Catholic Cathedral. A mosque was built with assistance from Libya on the hill in 2003
Kampala
–
From left to right: Kampala skyline,
Bahá'í House of Worship on
Kikaaya Hill,
Uganda National Mosque,
Makerere University main building, skyscraper in central business district, and view over
Victoria Lake
Kampala
–
View of Kampala from space
Kampala
–
Gaddafi National Mosque.
Kampala
–
Uganda House, Kampala Road, Kampala
15.
Hague Conferences
–
The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. The First Hague Conference was held in 1899 and the Second Hague Conference in 1907, along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, the 1874 Brussels Declaration listed 56 articles that drew inspiration from the Lieber Code. Much of the regulations in the Hague Conventions were borrowed heavily from the Lieber Code, both conferences included negotiations concerning disarmament, the laws of war and war crimes. This effort, however, failed at both conferences, instead a voluntary forum for arbitration, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, was established, the peace conference was proposed on 24 August 1898 by Russian Tsar Nicholas II. Nicholas and Count Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov, his minister, were instrumental in initiating the conference. The conference opened on 18 May 1899, the Tsars birthday, the treaties, declarations, and final act of the conference were signed on 29 July of that year, and they entered into force on 4 September 1900. Convention with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land This voluminous convention contains the laws to be used in all wars on land between signatories, inhabitants of occupied territories may not be forced into military service against their own country and collective punishment is forbidden. The section was ratified by all major powers mentioned above and it too was ratified by all major powers. The declaration was ratified by all the powers mentioned above, except the United Kingdom. Ratified by all major powers, except the United States and this directly banned soft-point bullets and cross-tipped bullets. It was ratified by all major powers, except the United States, the second conference, in 1907, resulted in conventions containing only few major advancements from the 1899 Convention. However, the meeting of powers did prefigure later 20th-century attempts at international cooperation. The second conference was called at the suggestion of U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, the Second Peace Conference was held from 15 June to 18 October 1907. The intent of the conference was to expand upon the 1899 Hague Convention by modifying some parts and adding new topics, in particular, the 1907 conference had an increased focus on naval warfare. The British attempted to secure limitation of armaments, but these efforts were defeated by the powers, led by Germany. Germany also rejected proposals for compulsory arbitration, however, the conference did enlarge the machinery for voluntary arbitration and established conventions regulating the collection of debts, rules of war, and the rights and obligations of neutrals. The treaties, declarations, and final act of the Second Conference were signed on 18 October 1907, Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land This convention confirms, with minor modifications, the provisions of Convention of 1899
Hague Conferences
–
The First Hague Conference in 1899
Hague Conferences
–
The Second Hague Conference in 1907
Hague Conferences
–
Nicholas II of Russia
Hague Conferences
–
Commemorative medal of the 1907 convention
16.
Laws of war
–
The law of war is a legal term of art that refers to the aspect of public international law concerning acceptable justifications to engage in war and the limits to acceptable wartime conduct. Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, the earliest known instances are found in the Mahabharata and the Torah. One should not assail someone in distress, neither to him nor to defeat him. War should be waged for the sake of conquest, one should not be enraged toward an enemy who is not trying to kill him and you may eat from them, but you shall not cut them down. Are the trees in the human, that they should be besieged by you. 20 Only the trees that you know are not trees for food you may destroy and cut down, also, Deuteronomy 20, 10–12, requires the Israelites to make an offer of peace to the opposing party before laying siege to their city. When you draw near to a city to fight against it,11 And if it responds to you peaceably and it opens to you, then all the people who are found in it shall do forced labor for you and shall serve you. 12 But if it makes no peace with you, but makes war against you, similarly, Deuteronomy 21, 10–14 requires that female captives who were forced to marry the victors of a war could not be sold as slaves. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path and you must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man, bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services, in the history of the early Christian church, many Christian writers considered that Christians could not be soldiers or fight wars. Augustine of Hippo contradicted this and wrote about just war doctrine, in medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church also began promulgating teachings on just war, reflected to some extent in movements such as the Peace and Truce of God. The impulse to restrict the extent of warfare, and especially protect the lives and property of non-combatants continued with Hugo Grotius, the modern law of war is made up from three principal sources, Lawmaking treaties — see § International treaties on the laws of war below. Not all the law of war derives from or has been incorporated in such treaties, such customary international law is established by the general practice of nations together with their acceptance that such practice is required by law. Certain fundamental principles provide basic guidance, for instance, the principles of distinction, proportionality, and necessity, all of which are part of customary international law, always apply to the use of armed force. Positive international humanitarian law consists of treaties which directly affect the laws of war by binding consenting nations, the opposite of positive laws of war is customary laws of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. These laws define both the rights of states as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories
Laws of war
–
The
First Geneva Convention governing the sick and wounded members of armed forces was signed in 1864.
Laws of war
–
The signing of the
First Geneva Convention by some of the major European powers in 1864.
17.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
18.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
19.
Presumption of innocence
–
The presumption of innocence, sometimes referred to by the Latin expression Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat, is the principle that one is considered innocent unless proven guilty. If reasonable doubt remains, the accused is to be acquitted, under the Justinian Codes and English common law, the accused is presumed innocent in criminal proceedings, and in civil proceedings both sides must issue proof. The same principle is recognized by Islamic law, the sixth century Digest of Justinian provides, as a general rule of evidence, Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat—Proof lies on him who asserts, not on him who denies. It is there attributed to the second and third century jurist Paul and it was introduced in Roman criminal law by emperor Antoninus Pius. Similar to that of Roman Law, Islamic law also holds the principle that the onus of proof is on the accusor or claimant based on a hadith documented by Imam Nawawi. Suspicion is also highly condemned, this also from a hadith documented by Imam Nawawi as well as Imam Bukhari, after the time of Muhammad, the fourth Caliph Ali ibn Abi Thalib has also been cited to say Avert the prescribed punishment by rejecting doubtful evidence. Under western legal systems, like English and Anglo-American Common Law, unlike in Islamic law, this is left to the Trier of Fact, which was either a high lord. In Islam this is not established, often a religious leader or other Elder would sit as Trier of Fact. Other time Trier of Fact can be the prosecutor and executioner if Family Honor is questioned, after the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe fell back on a Germanic system that presumed guilt. The accused could prove his innocence by having, for example and this tended to favor the nobility over the lower classes. In sources from common law jurisdictions, the expression appears in a version, in its original form. As found in its form, it is, Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat—The proof lies upon the one who affirms. Then, shortened from the original, it is, Ei incumbit probatio qui—the onus of proving a fact rests upon the man who. The maxim or its equivalent has been adopted by civil law systems, including Brazil, France, Italy, Philippines, Poland, Romania. Presumption of innocence serves to emphasize that the prosecution has the obligation to each element of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt. This is often expressed in the phrase innocent until proven guilty, Garrow insisted that accusers be robustly tested in court. An objective observer in the position of the juror must reasonably conclude that the defendant almost certainly committed the crime and it is literally considered favorable evidence for the accused that automatically attaches at trial. It requires that the trier of fact, be it a juror or judge, to ensure this legal protection is maintained a set of three related rules govern the procedure of criminal trials
Presumption of innocence
–
Article 48 of the
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms the right to the presumption of innocence
20.
Nuremberg trials
–
The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, and their decisions marked a turning point between classical international law and contemporary international law. Not included were Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels, all of whom had committed suicide in the spring of 1945, reinhard Heydrich was not included, as he had been assassinated in 1942. The second set of trials of war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No.10 at the U. S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals, which included the Doctors Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT, see Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for details on the NMT, at the beginning of 1940, the Polish government-in-exile asked the British and French governments to condemn the German invasion of their country. The British initially declined to do so, however, in April 1940, three-and-a-half years later, the stated intention to punish the Germans was much more trenchant. In order that justice may be done and this intention by the Allies to dispense justice was reiterated at the Yalta Conference and at Berlin in 1945. British War Cabinet documents, released on 2 January 2006, showed that as early as December 1944 the Cabinet had discussed their policy for the punishment of the leading Nazis if captured. In late 1943, during the Tripartite Dinner Meeting at the Tehran Conference, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt joked that perhaps 49,000 would do. Churchill was vigorously opposed to executions for political purposes, US Secretary of the Treasury, suggested a plan for the total denazification of Germany, this was known as the Morgenthau Plan. The plan advocated the forced de-industrialisation of Germany and the execution of so-called arch-criminals. Roosevelt initially supported this plan, and managed to convince Churchill to support it in a less drastic form, later, details were leaked generating widespread condemnation by the nations newspapers. Roosevelt, aware of public disapproval, abandoned the plan. The demise of the Morgenthau Plan created the need for a method of dealing with the Nazi leadership. The plan for the Trial of European War Criminals was drafted by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, following Roosevelts death in April 1945, the new president, Harry S. Truman, gave strong approval for a judicial process. After a series of negotiations between Britain, the US, Soviet Union and France, details of the trial were worked out, the trials were to commence on 20 November 1945, in the Bavarian city of Nuremberg. On 20 April 1942, representatives from the nine countries occupied by Germany met in London to draft the Inter-Allied Resolution on German War Crimes, France was also awarded a place on the tribunal. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was that defined by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany. Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, leipzig and Luxembourg were briefly considered as the location for the trial
Nuremberg trials
–
Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in the dock. The main target of the prosecution was
Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving official in the
Third Reich after Hitler's death.
Nuremberg trials
–
The courthouse in Nuremberg, where the trials took place
Nuremberg trials
–
Judges sitting in Nuremberg, from left to right:
Volchkov,
Nikitchenko,
Birkett,
Sir Geoffrey Lawrence,
Biddle,
Parker,
Donnedieu de Vabres and
Falco.
21.
Legal history
–
Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it changed. Legal history is connected to the development of civilisations and is set in the wider context of social history. Twentieth century historians have viewed legal history in a more contextualised manner more in line with the thinking of social historians, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, had a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the concept of Maat, characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, by the 22nd century BC, Ur-Nammu, an ancient Sumerian ruler, formulated the first law code, consisting of casuistic statements. Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone, Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see, this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. Ancient Greek has no word for law as an abstract concept, yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy. Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and had independent schools of legal theory. The Arthashastra, dating from the 400 BC, and the Manusmriti from 100 BCE were influential treatises in India, manus central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across South East Asia. But this Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was supplanted by the law when India became part of the British Empire. Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law, the eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences. Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French and this partly reflected Germanys status as a rising power in the late nineteenth century. Similarly, traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the years of the Qing dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law. The current legal infrastructure in the Peoples Republic of China was heavily influenced by soviet Socialist law, today, however, because of rapid industrialisation China has been reforming, at least in terms of economic rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a turn away from administrative domination, furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organization. Yassa of the Mongol Empire The legal history of the Catholic Church is the history of Catholic canon law, Canon law originates much later than Roman law but predates the evolution of modern European civil law traditions. The cultural exchange between the secular and ecclesiastical law produced the jus commune and greatly influenced both civil and common law. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods, the jus antiquum, the jus novum, the jus novissimum, in relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus and the jus novum. In the twentieth century, canon law was comprehensively codified, on 27 May 1917, Pope Benedict XV codified the 1917 Code of Canon Law
Legal history
–
Contents
Legal history
–
King John of England signs the Magna Carta
22.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
23.
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
–
In 1995, it became located in Arusha, Tanzania, under Resolution 977. In 1998 the operation of the tribunal was expanded in Resolution 1165, through several resolutions, the Security Council called on the tribunal to complete its investigations by end of 2004, complete all trial activities by end of 2008, and complete all work in 2012. The tribunal has jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes,13 others are still at large, some suspected to be dead. The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997, jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pleaded guilty. It has recently been discussed that these goals may not be realistic and are likely to change, the Tribunal was officially closed on 31 December 2015. In March 2010, the ICTR announced plans to digitize all video recordings of the trials and this is part of a larger project that included digitizing audio recordings. This huge killing was started in April 1994 after peace agreement was signed that created democratic institutions in Rwanda, before that, Hutus—the majority ethnic group—had been under Belgian rule while Tutsi had historically enjoyed power. Due to the historical resent between two ethnics, the agreement that formed a coalition government finally caused Tutsi rebel group to fight the Hutu government. From April 1994, the genocide continued for one hundred days until the defeat of Hutu rebel in mid-July. The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda is regarded as a major failure, the international response to the Rwandan Genocide was poor. For weeks, the major power nations denied that a genocide was taking place in Rwanda, even, the United States refused to call the incident genocide, because using the term would make an obligation for the United States to send troops. The tribunal consists of 16 judges in four chambers - three to hear trials, and one to hear appeals, in addition, there are 9 ad litem judges, making 25 in all. At present, all 9 ad litem judges are assigned to Chambers II and III, there is an additional pool of 9 further ad litem judges who may be called on in the case of a judge being absent. The column denoted by # indicates the order of precedence, the Office of the Prosecutor is divided into two Sections, The Investigation Section is responsible for collecting evidence implicating individuals in crimes committed in Rwanda in 1994. The Prosecution Section is responsible for prosecuting all cases before the Tribunal, hassan Bubacar Jallow of the Gambia is the current prosecutor. He has previously served as the Gambian Attorney-General and Minister of Justice from 1984 to 1994 and he was appointed by the Security Council on September 15,2003 to replace Carla Del Ponte. The Registry is responsible for the administration and management of the ICTR. It also performs other functions assigned to it by the Tribunal’s Rules of Procedure and Evidence
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
–
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
–
An ICTR building in
Kigali,
Rwanda.
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
–
Offices of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in
Arusha, 2003.
24.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
–
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is a treaty concerning the international law on treaties between states. It was adopted on 22 May 1969 and opened for signature on 23 May 1969, the Convention entered into force on 27 January 1980. The VCLT has been ratified by 114 states as of April 2014, some countries that have not ratified the Convention, such as the United States, recognize parts of it as a restatement of customary law and binding upon them as such. The VCLT was drafted by the International Law Commission of the United Nations, during the twenty years of preparation, several draft versions of the convention and commentaries were prepared by special rapporteurs of the ILC. James Brierly, Hersch Lauterpacht, Gerald Fitzmaurice and Humphrey Waldock were the four special rapporteurs, in 1966, the ILC adopted 75 draft articles which formed the basis for the final work. Over two sessions in 1968 and 1969, the Vienna Conference completed the Convention, which was adopted on 22 May 1969, the Convention codifies several bedrocks of contemporary international law. The Convention has been referred to as the treaty on treaties, it is recognized as the authoritative guide regarding the formation. Even those countries who have not ratified it recognize its significance, for example, the United States recognizes that parts of the Convention constitute customary law binding on all nations. In India, the Supreme court has also recognised the status of the convention. The scope of the Convention is limited and it does apply, however, to treaties between states within an intergovernmental organization. Also, in treaties between states and international organizations, the terms of the Convention still apply between the state members, the Convention does not apply to agreements not in written form. As of April 2014, there are 114 state parties that have ratified the convention, the PRC subsequently acceded to the Convention. 66 UN member states have neither signed nor ratified the Convention, International treaties and conventions contain rules about what entities could sign, ratify or accede to them. Some treaties are restricted to states that are members of the UN or parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in rare cases there is an explicit list of the entities that the treaty is restricted to. When a treaty is open to States, for the authority it is difficult or impossible to determine which entities are States. If the treaty is restricted to Members of the United Nations or Parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, there is no ambiguity. Accordingly, and in order to allow for as wide a participation as possible, a number of conventions then provided that they were also open for participation to States members of specialized agencies
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
–
Parties
25.
United States and the International Criminal Court
–
The United States is not a participant in the International Criminal Court. As of November 2016,124 states are members of the Court, countries that have not signed or ratified the Rome Statute include India, Indonesia, and China. On May 6,2002, the United States, in a position shared with Israel and Sudan, having signed the Rome Statute. Positions in the United States concerning the ICC vary widely, the Clinton Administration signed the Rome Statute in 2000, but did not submit it for Senate ratification. The Bush Administration, the U. S. administration at the time of the ICCs founding, the Obama Administration has subsequently re-established a working relationship with the Court as an observer, but the Rome Statute remains unratified by the United States. On 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, the seven countries that voted against the treaty were Iraq, Israel, Libya, China, Qatar, Yemen, and the United States. U. S. President Bill Clinton originally signed the Rome Statute in 2000, signature of a treaty provides a preliminary endorsement, but a treaty that is signed but not ratified is not legally binding. Clinton stated that he would not submit it to the Senate for advice, given these concerns, I will not, and do not recommend that my successor, submit the treaty to the Senate for advice and consent until our fundamental concerns are satisfied. Nonetheless, signature is the action to take at this point. After the Rome Statute reached the requisite 60 ratifications in 2002, the note informed the Secretary-General that the U. S. no longer intend to ratify the Rome Statute, and that it did not recognize any obligation toward the Rome Statute. In addition, the U. S. stated that its not to become a state party should be reflected in the U. N. depositorys list. A treaty becomes part of the law of a nation only when the treaty has been ratified, accepted. In the U. S. the Constitution gives the President power to negotiate treaties under the Treaty Clause of Article Two. The President must then submit a treaty to the Senate for advice and consent for ratification, the Senate may submit amendments, reservations, or explanations to the President regarding the treaty. In the U. S. however, a treaty does not immediately effective as U. S. domestic law upon entry into force. In Foster v. Neilson 27 U. S.253, a treaty requiring additional action is not self-executing, it would create an international obligation for the U. S. but would have no effect on domestic law. Constitution contains the Supremacy Clause, which gives all treaties ratified in accordance with the Constitution the effect of federal law, in the U. S. if a treaty is found to be self-executing it will preempt inconsistent state law and previous legislation. This issue was addressed by the U. S. Supreme Court in Ware v. Hylton 3 U. S.199, however, a treaty cannot preempt the Constitution itself
United States and the International Criminal Court
–
The International Criminal Court in The Hague
26.
United Nations member state
–
The United Nations member states are the 193 sovereign states that are members of the United Nations and have equal representation in the UN General Assembly. The UN is the worlds largest intergovernmental organization, ahead of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. A recommendation for admission from the Security Council requires affirmative votes from at least nine of the fifteen members. The Security Councils recommendation must then be approved in the General Assembly by a majority vote. In principle, only states can become UN members. Although five members were not sovereign when they joined the UN and this is because the UN does not consider them to possess sovereignty, mainly due to the lack of international recognition or due to opposition from one of the permanent members. Observers are generally intergovernmental organizations and international organizations and entities whose statehood or sovereignty is not precisely defined, the other two original members, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, had been dissolved and their memberships in the UN not continued from 1992 by any one successor state. India was under British colonial rule, until gaining independence in 1947. The Philippines was a commonwealth with the United States, until gaining independence in 1946. New Zealand, while de facto sovereign at that time, only gained full capacity to enter into relations with states in 1947 when it passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act. This occurred 16 years after the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster Act in 1931 that recognised New Zealands autonomy, if judged by the Montevideo Convention criteria, New Zealand did not achieve full de jure statehood until 1947. The current members and their dates of admission are listed below with their official designations used by the United Nations, the member states can be sorted by their official designations and dates of admission by clicking on the buttons in the header of the columns. See related sections on former members by clicking on the links in the column See also, original members are listed with blue background. Both sides rejected compromise proposals to both states to participate in the UN, based on the One-China policy. By the 1970s, a shift had occurred in diplomatic circles. This effectively transferred the seat of China in the UN, including its permanent seat on the Security Council, from the ROC to the PRC, from the United Nations perspective the Republic of China is not a former member. No UN member was expelled in 1971, rather, the credentials of one Chinese delegation were rejected and the credentials of another Chinese delegation were accepted. In addition to losing its seat in the UN, the UN Secretary-General concluded from the resolution that the General Assembly considered Taiwan to be a province of China
United Nations member state
–
Flags of the member states of the United Nations, in front of the
Palace of Nations (
Geneva,
Switzerland). Since 2015, the flags of the two
non-member observer states are raised alongside those of the 193 member states.
United Nations member state
–
Map of the United Nations (UN) member states, with their territories (including
dependent territories) recognized by the UN in blue
United Nations member state
–
The presidency of
Ma Ying-jeou saw the first participation of the
Republic of China on a United Nations body in almost 40 years.
United Nations member state
–
Egyptian president
Gamal Abdel Nasser (seated right) and Syrian president
Shukri al-Quwatli sign the accord to form the
United Arab Republic in 1958. The short-lived political union briefly represented both states and was used as the name of
Egypt following
Syria 's withdrawal in 1961.
27.
China
–
China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
China
–
Yinxu, ruins of an ancient
palace dating from the
Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)
China
–
Flag
China
–
Some of the thousands of life-size
Terracotta Warriors of the
Qin Dynasty, c. 210 BCE
China
–
The
Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the
Chinese interior from incursions by
nomadic pastoralists of the northern
steppes.
28.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court at Wikisource
