1.
Rotterdam Rules
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The Rotterdam Rules is a treaty proposing new international rules to revise the legal framework for maritime affreightment and carriage of goods by sea. The Rules primarily address the relationship between carriers and cargo-owners. As of October 2015, the Rules are not yet in force as they have been ratified by three states. The Hague Rules of 1924 were updated in 1968 to become the Hague-Visby Rules, the modified convention still covered only tackle to tackle carriage contracts, with no provision for multimodal transport. The industry-changing phenomenon of containerization was barely acknowledged, the 1978 Hamburg Rules were introduced to provide a framework that was both more modern, and less biased in favour of ship-operators. Although the Hamburg Rules were readily adopted by developing countries, the new convention was shunned by richer countries who stuck with Hague and it had been expected that a Hague/Hamburg compromise might arise, but instead the vast Rotterdam Rules appeared. Signatories included the United States, France, Greece, Denmark, Switzerland, signatures were allowed after the ceremony at the U. N. Headquarters in New York City, United States, the World Shipping Council is a prominent supporter of the Rotterdam Rules. In 2010, the American Bar Association House of Delegates approved a resolution supporting U. S. ratification of the Rotterdam Rules. It extends the period that carriers are responsible for goods, to cover the time between the point where the goods are received to the point where the goods are delivered and it allows for more e-commerce and approves more forms of electronic documentation. It increases the limit liability of carriers to 875 units of account per shipping unit or three units of account per kilogram of gross weight and it eliminates the nautical fault defence which had protected carriers and crew from liability for negligent ship management and navigation. It extends the time that legal claims can be filed to two following the day the goods were delivered or should have been delivered. It allows parties to so-called Volume Contracts to opt-out of some liability rules set in the convention and it obliges carriers to keep ships seaworthy and properly crewed throughout the voyage. The standard of care is not strict, but due diligence, the Rotterdam Rules will enter into effect a year after 20 countries have ratified that treaty. As of 9 August 2011, there were 24 signatories to the treaty, the most recent country to sign the treaty was Sweden, which signed on 20 July 2011. Spain was the first country to ratify the convention in January 2011, Hague-Visby Rules Hamburg Rules Seaworthiness ratifications
2.
Rotterdam
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Rotterdam is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety, in 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europes largest port and has a population of 633,471, ranking second in the Netherlands, just behind Amsterdam. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people, Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000. The city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life, the near-complete destruction of Rotterdams city centre during World War II has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed eighth in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit, the port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdams logistic success is based on its location on the North Sea. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, the extensive distribution system including rail, roads, and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname Gateway to Europe, and, conversely, Gateway to the World in Europe. The settlement at the end of the fen stream Rotte dates from at least 900 CE. A dam on the Rotte or Rotterdam was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat, on 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. The port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six chambers of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdams rapid growth, when completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m. During World War I the city was the worlds largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality, many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes, from there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters, during World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, the Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitlers bombing of Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities
3.
Secretary-General of the United Nations
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The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
4.
Basel Convention
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It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The Convention was opened for signature on 22 March 1989, as of November 2016,184 states and the European Union are parties to the Convention. Haiti and the United States have signed the Convention but not ratified it, with the tightening of environmental laws in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically. At the same time, globalization of shipping made transboundary movement of more accessible. Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to LDCs and it sailed for many months, changing its name several times. Unable to unload the cargo in any port, the crew was believed to have dumped much of it at sea and these practices have been deemed Toxic Colonialism by many developing countries. At its most recent meeting,27 November to 1 December 2006, the Conference of the parties of the Basel Agreement focused on issues of electronic waste, according to Maureen Walsh, only around 4% of hazardous wastes that come from OECD countries are actually shipped across international borders. These wastes include, among others, chemical waste, radioactive waste, municipal waste, asbestos, incinerator ash. Of internationally shipped waste that comes from developed countries, more than half is shipped for recovery, increased trade in recyclable materials has led to an increase in a market for used products such as computers. This market is valued in billions of dollars, at issue is the distinction when used computers stop being a commodity and become a waste. As of November 2016, there are 185 parties to the treaty, which includes 182 UN member states, the Cook Islands, the European Union, and the State of Palestine. The 11 UN member states that are not party to the treaty are Angola, East Timor, Fiji, Grenada, Haiti, San Marino, Solomon Islands, South Sudan, Tuvalu, United States, and Vanuatu. A waste falls under the scope of the Convention if it is within the category of wastes listed in Annex I of the Convention, in other words, it must both be listed and possess a characteristic such as being explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive. The definition of the disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV. The examples of disposal are broad and include also recovery, recycling, radioactive waste that is covered under other international control systems and wastes from the normal operation of ships are not covered. Annex IX attempts to define commodities which are not considered wastes, in addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries. It is of note that the Convention places a prohibition on the exportation or importation of wastes between Parties and non-Parties. The exception to rule is where the waste is subject to another treaty that does not take away from the Basel Convention
5.
2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
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2,4, 5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, a synthetic auxin, is a chlorophenoxy acetic acid herbicide used to defoliate broad-leafed plants. It was developed in the late 1940s and was used in the agricultural industry until being phased out. Agent Orange, a defoliant used by the British in the Malayan Emergency,2,4, 5-T itself is toxic with a NOAEL of 3 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of 10 mg/kg/day. Additionally, the process for 2,4, 5-T contaminates this chemical with trace amounts of 2,3,7. TCDD is a persistent organic pollutant with long-term effects on the environment. With proper temperature control during production of 2,4, 5-T, before the TCDD risk was well-understood, early production facilities lacked proper temperature controls and individual batches tested later were found to have as much as 60 ppm of TCDD. In 1970, the United States Department of Agriculture halted the use of 2,4, 5-T on all crops except rice, and in 1985. The international trade of 2,4, 5-T is restricted by the Rotterdam Convention,2,4, 5-T has since largely been replaced by dicamba and triclopyr. Human health effects from 2,4, 5-T at low environmental doses or at biomonitored levels from low environmental exposures are unknown, cometabolism of 2,4, 5-T is possible to produce 3, 5-dichlorocatechol which, in turn, can be degraded by Pseudomona bacteria. IARC considers the chlorophenoxyacetic acids group of chemicals as possibly carcinogenic to humans, in 1963 a production vessel for 2,4, 5-T exploded in the Philips-Duphar plant in the Netherlands. Six workers that cleaned up afterwards got seriously intoxicated and developed chloracne, after twelve years, four of the six cleaners had died. Ecological effects of the war in Vietnam, neilands JB, Orians GH, Pfeiffer EW, Vennema A, Westing AH. Harvest of Death, Chemical Warfare in Vietnam and Cambodia, the other victims of the Vietnam war. Westing AH, ed. Herbicides in War, the Long Term Ecological and Human Consequences. Schecter AJ, Tong HY, Monson SJ, Goss ML, levels of 2,3,7, 8-TCDD in silt samples collected between 1985-86 from rivers in the North and South of Vietnam. Schecter AJM, Dai LC, Thuy LTB, et al, Agent Orange and the Vietnamese, the persistence of elevated dioxin levels in human tissues. Kahn PC, Gochfeld M, Nyugen M, Hansson M, Rappe C, Velez H. Dioxins and dibenzofurans in blood and adipose tissue of Agent Orange-exposed Vietnam veterans, fingerhut MA, Halperin WE, Marlow DA, et al. Cancer mortality in workers exposed to 2,3,7,2,4, 5-T - Identification, toxicity, use, water pollution potential, ecological toxicity and regulatory information CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
6.
Alachlor
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Alachlor is an herbicide from the chloroacetanilide family. It is an odorless, white solid, the greatest use of alachlor is for control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds in crops. It is the second most widely used herbicide in the United States, use of alachlor as a herbicide is banned in the European Union. Its mode of action is elongase inhibition, and inhibition of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate cyclisation enzymes and it is marketed under the trade names Alanex, Bronco, Cannon, Crop Star, Intrro, Lariat, Lasso, Micro-Tech and Partner. The largest use of alachlor is as a herbicide for control of grasses and broadleaf weeds in crops, primarily on corn, sorghum. It is the second most widely used herbicide in the United States, with heavy use on corn and soybeans in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio. Alachlor mixes well with other herbicides and it is marketed in mixed formulations with atrazine, glyphosate, trifluralin and imazaquin. It is a selective, systemic herbicide, absorbed by germinating shoots and its mode of action is elongase inhibition, and inhibition of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate cyclisation enzymes, part of the gibberellin pathway. Stated more simply, it works by interfering with an ability to produce protein. It is most commonly available as microgranules containing 15% active ingredients, homologuation in Europe requires a maximum dose of 2,400 g per hectare of AI, or 5 litres/hectare of emulsifiable concentrate or 17 kg/ha of microgranules. The products are applied as either pre-drilling, soil incorporated or pre-emergence, the United States Environmental Protection Agency classifies the herbicide as toxicity class III - slightly toxic. The Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for Alachlor is zero, to prevent long-term effects, the Maximum Contaminant Level for drinking water is two parts per billion. The major source of release of alachlor is through its manufacture. Alachlor was detected in rural domestic well water by EPAs National Survey of Pesticides in Drinking Water Wells, EPAs Pesticides in Ground Water Database reports detections of alachlor in ground water at concentrations above the MCL in at least 15 U. S. states. Alachlor is a substance under Australian law and is listed as a Schedule 7 substance. Access, use and storage are strictly controlled under state and territory law, since 2006, use of alachlor as a herbicide has been banned in the European Union. In 2015 a French appeals court upheld the ruling and ordered the company to compensate the grower. Alachlor exhibits moderate sorption in soil, ranging from 43-209 mL/g, photodegradation is a minor contributor to alachlor fate
7.
Aldicarb
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Aldicarb is a carbamate insecticide which is the active substance in the pesticide Temik. It is effective against thrips, aphids, spider mites, lygus, fleahoppers, and leafminers, aldicarb is a cholinesterase inhibitor which prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine in the synapse. In case of poisoning, the victim dies of respiratory failure. Aldicarb is one of the most widely used internationally, and is also one of the most environmentally toxic. Aldicarb poisoning from agricultural runoff has led to the destruction of healthy ecosystems. Poisoning from this pesticide is also believed to be linked to high rates in communities located around the Aral Sea. Its high level of solubility restricts its use in areas where the water table is close to the surface. In the United States, aldicarb was approved by the USEPA for use by professional pesticide applicators on a variety of crops, including cotton, beans and it is not approved for household use. EPA started limiting the main aldicarb pesticide, Temik 15G, in 2010, discontinuation of the use on citrus and potatoes began in 2012, with a complete phase out of the product expected by 2018. A new aldicarb pesticide named AgLogic 15G, was approved by the EPA in December 2011 and is said to be entering the market in 2015 and it will be registered for use on cotton, dry beans, peanuts, soybeans, sugar beets, and sweet potatoes. Tres Pasitos, a mouse, rat, and roach killer that contains high concentrations of aldicarb, has been imported into the United States from Mexico. The product is highly toxic to animals and people, and according to the EPA should never be used in home, aldicarb is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U. S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and is subject to reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store. Aldicarb is manufactured by Bayer CropScience, but was owned and produced by Union Carbide. Union Carbides agricultural chemicals division was sold to Rhône-Poulenc, later, Aventis Cropscience was formed from Hoechst AG and Rhone-Poulenc Agrochemical, which lasted until Bayer acquired it in 2002. In November 2009, corn treated with Temik was placed in and around peanut fields in Eastland County, Texas, the corn was eaten by feral hogs, deer, and other animals, prompting the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department to issue a hunting ban. Aldicarb is a cholinesterase inhibitor, causing rapid accumulation of acetylcholine at the synaptic cleft. It is widely used to study cholinergic neurotransmission in simple systems such as the nematode C. elegans, exposure to high amounts of aldicarb can cause weakness, blurred vision, headache, nausea, tearing, sweating, and tremors in humans
8.
Aldrin
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Aldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used until the 1970s, when it was banned in most countries. Before the ban, it was used as a pesticide to treat seed. Aldrin and related cyclodiene pesticides became notorious as persistent organic pollutants, aldrin is produced by combining hexachlorocyclopentadiene with norbornadiene in a Diels-Alder reaction to give the adduct. Similarly, an isomer of aldrin, known as isodrin, is produced by reaction of hexachloronobornadiene with cyclopentadiene, aldrin is named after the German chemist Kurt Alder, one of the coinventors of this kind of reaction. An estimated 270 million kilograms of aldrin and related cyclodiene pesticides were produced between 1946 and 1976, in soil, on plant surfaces, or in the digestive tracts of insects, aldrin oxidizes to the epoxide dieldrin, which is more strongly insecticidal. Like related polychlorinated pesticides, aldrin is highly lipophilic and its solubility in water is only 0.027 mg/L, which exacerbates its persistence in the environment. It was banned by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, in the U. S. aldrin was cancelled in 1974. The substance is banned from use for plant protection by the EU, aldrin has rat LD50 of 39 to 60 mg/kg. For fish however, it is toxic, with an LC50 of 0.006 –0.01 for trout. Further, an IDLH limit has been set at 25 mg/m3 and it is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U. S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and is subject to reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store
9.
Asbestos
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They are commonly known by their colors, as blue asbestos, brown asbestos, white asbestos, and green asbestos. It was used in applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat and these desirable properties made asbestos very widely used. Prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious and fatal illnesses including cancer, mesothelioma. Concern of asbestos-related illness in modern times began in the 20th century, by the 1980s and 1990s, asbestos trade and use were heavily restricted, phased out, or banned outright in an increasing number of countries. S. History and a much lesser legal issue in most other countries involved, asbestos-related liability also remains an ongoing concern for many manufacturers, insurers and reinsurers. Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable, the word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/. Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as asbestos including those belonging to the serpentine class, all six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens. The visible fibers are themselves composed of millions of microscopic fibrils that can be released by abrasion. Chrysotile is the member of the serpentine class. 12001-29-5, is obtained from rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg34, chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber. Chrysotile has been used more than any type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun, the most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls, chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class, one formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O222. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber and it is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles. 12001-28-4, is the form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa
10.
Benomyl
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Benomyl is a fungicide introduced in 1968 by DuPont. It is a systemic benzimidazole fungicide that is toxic to microorganisms and invertebrates. Benomyl binds to microtubules, interfering with cell functions, such as meiosis, the selective toxicity of benomyl as a fungicide is possibly due to its heightened effect on fungal rather than mammalian microtubules. Due to the development and worldwide prevalence of resistance of parasitic fungi to benomyl, it, high legal costs associated with it caused DuPont to cease its production in 2001 after 33 years on the market, and voluntarily requested cancellation for its registration. However, as DuPonts patents expired long ago and in some countries benomyls registration has not been revoked, benomyl is of such a low toxicity to mammals, it has been impossible to administer doses large enough to establish an LD50. It has an arbitrary LD50 of greater than 10,000 mg/kg/day for rats, skin irritation may occur through industrial exposure, and florists, mushroom pickers and floriculturists have reported allergic reactions to benomyl. In a laboratory study, dogs fed benomyl in their diets for three months developed no major effects, but did show evidence of altered liver function at the highest dose. With longer exposure, more severe damage occurred, including cirrhosis. The US Environmental Protection Agency classified benomyl as a possible carcinogen, Carcinogenic studies have produced conflicting results. A two-year experimental study on mice has shown it probably causes an increase in liver tumours, the British Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food took the view this was brought about by the hepatotoxic effect of benomyl. The newspaper cited a number of suspected clusters in the UK that may have corresponded to areas of benomyl use, studies have shown eye defects can occur at relatively high doses. A test in rats were dosed orally demonstrated evidence of microphthalmia at dose levels of 62.5 mg/kg. In 1996, a Miami jury awarded US$4 million to a child whose mother was exposed in pregnancy to Benlate, the child was born without eyes. The mother had been exposed to a high dose of Benlate through her occupation. An important issue in the case was whether the timing of exposure - during the formation of the nerve in the foetus - was critical. The case was prosecuted by the Ferraro Law Firm, in October 2008, DuPont paid confidential settlements to two New Zealand families whose children were born with either anophthalmia or other birth defects. The mother of one of the children had been exposed to Benlate while working as a Christchurch parks worker before his birth, a Benlate compensation case involving an English boy from Essex born without eyes is also due to be heard shortly in the US. Benomyl binds strongly to soil and does not dissolve in water to any great extent and it has a half-life in turf of three to six months, and in bare soil, a half-life of six months to one year
11.
Captafol
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It is used to control almost all fungal diseases of plants except powdery mildews. It is believed to be a carcinogen, and production for use as a fungicide in the United States stopped in 1987. Its continued use from existing stocks was allowed, but in 1999 the Environmental Protection Agency banned its use on all crops except onions, potatoes, in 2006 even these exceptions were disallowed, so currently its use on all crops is banned in the United States. Several other countries have followed suit since 2000, and as of 2010, currently, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health established a recommended exposure limit of 0.1 mg/m3 for dermal exposures. Captafol was disclosed in US patent 3,178,447 and its synergistic mixture with thiabendazol was described in US patent 4092422. International trade in captafol is regulated by the Rotterdam Convention, captafol in the Pesticide Properties DataBase
12.
Carbofuran
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Carbofuran is one of the most toxic carbamate pesticides. It is marketed under the trade names Furadan, by FMC Corporation and Curater and it is used to control insects in a wide variety of field crops, including potatoes, corn and soybeans. It is an insecticide, which means that the plant absorbs it through the roots. Carbofuran also has activity against pests. S. The main global producer is the FMC Corporation, Carbofuran exhibits toxicity mediated by the same mechanism as that of the notorious V-series nerve agents and presents a risk to human health. It is classified as a hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U. S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and is subject to reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store. The technical or chemical name of carbofuran is 2, 3-dihydro-2, 2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl methylcarbamate and it is manufactured by the reaction of methyl isocyanate with 2, 3-dihydro-2, 2-dimethyl-7-hydroxybenzofuran. Carbofuran is banned in Canada and the European Union, in 2008, the United States Environmental Protection Agency announced that it intends to ban carbofuran. In December of that year, FMC Corp, with this change, carbofuran usage in the US would be allowed only on maize, potatoes, pumpkins, sunflowers, pine seedlings and spinach grown for seed. However, in May 2009 EPA cancelled all food tolerances, an action which amounts to a de facto ban on its use on all crops grown for human consumption, Kenya is considering banning carbofuran, but it is legal to buy over-the-counter in Kenya. Carbofuran is highly toxic to vertebrates with an oral LD50 of 8–14 mg/kg in rats and 19 mg/kg in dogs, Carbofuran is known to be particularly toxic to birds. In its granular form, a grain will kill a bird. Birds often eat numerous grains of the pesticide, mistaking them for seeds, before the granular form was banned by U. S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1991, it was blamed for millions of bird deaths per year. The liquid version of the pesticide is less hazardous to birds since they are not as likely to ingest it directly, but it is still very hazardous. Carbofuran has been used to intentionally poison wildlife in the US, Canada and Great Britain, poisoned wildlife have included coyotes, kites, golden eagles. Secondary fatal poisoning of domestic and wild animals has been documented, specifically, raptors, domestic dogs, raccoons, vultures, in Kenya, farmers are using carbofuran to kill lions and other predators. In a number of publicized incidents worldwide, carbofuran has also used to poison domestic pets
13.
Chlordane
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The name Chlordane, or chlordan, is commonly used as both a specific chemical and as a mixture of compounds. This mixture, more specifically called technical chlordane, was first produced in the 1940s by Julius Hyman, technical chlordane development was by chance, during a search for possible uses of a by-product of synthetic rubber manufacturing. By chlorinating this by-product, persistent and potent insecticides were easily and cheaply produced. The chlorine atoms,7 in the case of heptachlor and 8 in chlordane, other members of the cyclodiene family of organochorine insecticides are aldrin and its epoxide, dieldrin, as well as endrin, which is a stereoisomer of dieldrin. In the United States, chlordane was used until 1988 as an insecticide for treating approximately 30 million homes for termites, for food crops like corn and citrus, technical grade chlordane is a complex mixture of over 120 structurally related chemical compounds. Chlordane is one so-called cyclodiene pesticide, meaning that it is derived from hexachlorocyclopentadiene, the β-isomer is popularly known as gamma and is more bioactive. The mixture that is composed of 147 components is called technical chlordane, Chlordane appears as a white or off-white crystals when synthesized, but it was more commonly sold in various formulations as oil solutions, emulsions, sprays, dusts, and powders. These products were sold in the United States from 1948 to 1988, because of concern about damage to the environment and harm to human health, the United States Environmental Protection Agency banned all uses of chlordane in 1983, except termite control. The EPA banned all uses of chlordane in 1988, the EPA recommends that children should not drink water with more than 60 parts of chlordane per billion parts of drinking water for longer than 1 day. EPA has set a limit in drinking water of 2 ppb, Chlordane is very persistent in the environment because it does not break down easily. It has an environmental half-life of 10 to 20 years, in the years 1948–1988 chlordane was a common pesticide for corn and citrus crops, as well as a method of home termite control. The United States Environmental Protection Agency reported that over 30 million homes were treated with technical chlordane or technical chlordane with heptachlor. Depending on the site of home treatment, the indoor air levels of chlordane can still exceed the Minimal Risks Levels for both cancer and chronic disease by orders of magnitude, Chlordane is excreted slowly through feces, urine elimination, and through breast milk in nursing mothers. It is able to cross the placenta and become absorbed by developing fetuses in pregnant women, a breakdown product of chlordane, the metabolite oxychlordane, accumulates in blood and adipose tissue with age. Being hydrophobic, chlordane adheres to soil particles and enters groundwater only slowly and it requires many years to degrade. It is highly toxic to fish, with an LD50 of 0. 022–0.095 mg/kg, trans-Nonachlor is more toxic than technical chlordane and cis-nonachlor is less toxic. Chlordane is a persistent organic pollutants, classified among the dirty dozen. No human epidemiological study has been conducted to determine the relationship between levels of chlordane/heptachlor in indoor air and rates of cancer in inhabitants, breathing chlordane in indoor air is the main route of exposure for these levels in human tissues
14.
Chlorobenzilate
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Chlorobenzilate is a pesticide that is not currently used in the USA or Europe. It was originally developed by Ciba-Geigy and introduced in 1952 and it was used as an acaricide against mites on citrus trees, including deciduous fruit trees. It has been detected as a residue on tomatoes found in Japanese markets in 2005 and it is a non-systemic pesticide that works through contact and as a neurotoxin, it disrupts the functioning of the nervous system. In the pure state, chlorobenzilate is a colorless to yellow solid. It is only soluble in water, but miscible with acetone, toluene. There is no data on the effects of chlorobenzilate in humans. However, when mice were administered the substance orally, carcinogenic effects were observed, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency has therefore classified chlorobenzilate as a probable human carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has concluded there is insufficient information available to evaluate the carcinogenicity of chlorobenzilate in humans. Chlorobenzilate is a persistent organic pollutant and is toxic to aquatic invertebrates. After carcinogenicity was established in mice, the use of chlorobenzilate was banned in the United States in 1979, after 1999, it was banned completely. In the European Union, its use is currently banned. International trade in chlorobenzilate is regulated by the Rotterdam Convention
15.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
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Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless, and almost odorless organochlorine known for its insecticidal properties and environmental impacts. First synthesized in 1874, DDTs insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939 and it was used in the second half of World War II to control malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. After the war, DDT was also used as an insecticide and its production. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods in 1948. In 1962, Rachel Carsons book Silent Spring was published, the book claimed that DDT and other pesticides had been shown to cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. Its publication was an event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972. DDT is similar in structure to the insecticide methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol and it is highly hydrophobic and nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most organic solvents, fats and oils. It is produced by the reaction of chloral with chlorobenzene in the presence of an acid catalyst. DDT has been marketed under names including Anofex, Cezarex, Chlorophenothane, Clofenotane, Dicophane, Dinocide, Gesarol, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gyron, Ixodex, Neocid, Neocidol. Commercial DDT is a mixture of several closely–related compounds, the major component is the p, p isomer. The o, p isomer is present in significant amounts. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane make up the balance, DDE and DDD are the major metabolites and environmental breakdown products. In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt, production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year. More than 600,000 tonnes were applied in the US before the 1972 ban, usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes. In 2009,3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control, India is the only country still manufacturing DDT and is the largest consumer. In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides. Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the supervision of Adolf von Baeyer. It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch, the insecticide properties of multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold
16.
Dieldrin
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Dieldrin is an organochloride originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin, aldrin is not toxic to insects, it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound. Both dieldrin and aldrin are named after the Diels-Alder reaction which is used to form aldrin from a mixture of norbornadiene and hexachlorocyclopentadiene. Originally developed in the 1940s as an alternative to DDT, dieldrin proved to be an effective insecticide and was very widely used during the 1950s to early 1970s. Endrin is a stereoisomer of dieldrin, however, it is an extremely persistent organic pollutant, it does not easily break down. Furthermore, it tends to biomagnify as it is passed along the food chain, long-term exposure has proven toxic to a very wide range of animals including humans, far greater than to the original insect targets. For this reason it is now banned in most of the world and it has been linked to health problems such as Parkinsons, breast cancer, and immune, reproductive, and nervous system damage. It is also an endocrine disruptor, acting as an estrogen and antiandrogen, dieldrin can be formed from the synthesis of hexachloro-1, 3-cyclopentadiene with norbornadiene in a Diels-Alder reaction, followed by epoxidation of the norbornene ring. The chemicals dieldrin and aldrin were widely applied in areas throughout the world. Aldrin does break down to dieldrin in living systems, but dieldrin is known to resist bacterial and chemical processes in the environment. Aldrin was used to control pests on corn and potato crops. Dieldrin was a used on fruit, soil, and seed. It persists in the soil with a half-life of five years at temperate latitudes, both aldrin and dieldrin may be volatilized from sediment and redistributed by air currents, contaminating areas far from their sources. They have been measured in Arctic wildlife, suggesting long range transport from southern agricultural regions, both aldrin and dieldrin have been banned in most developed countries, but aldrin is still used as a termiticide in Malaysia, Thailand, Venezuela and parts of Africa. In Canada, their sale was restricted in the mid-1970s, with the last registered use of the compounds in Canada being withdrawn in 1984, the European Community legislation prohibits the marketing of phytopharmaceutical products containing dieldrin. In Argentina, Canada, Chile, the Federal Republic of Germany, Hungary, the use of dieldrin is restricted in India, Mauritius, Togo, and the United Kingdom. Its use in industry is prohibited in Switzerland and its manufacture, in Finland, the only accepted use for dieldrin is as a termiticide in one glue mixture for exported plywood. India requires registration and licences for all importation, manufacture, sale, organochlorines and other chemicals were originally developed in the 1930s for use as insecticides and pesticides
17.
Dinitro-ortho-cresol
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Dinitro-ortho-cresol is an organic compound with the structural formula CH3C6H22OH. It is a solid that is only slightly soluble in water. DNOC and some related derivatives have been used as herbicides and this compound is prepared by dinitration of o-cresol. The resulting disulfonate is then treated with acid to give DNOC. A variety of related derivatives are known including those where the group is replaced by sec-butyl, tert-butyl. These are prepared by the nitration of the alkyphenols. This toxicant interferes with adenosine triphosphate production, symptoms of dinitro-ortho-cresol poisoning, due to ingestion or other forms of exposure, include confusion, headache, shortness of breath, and sweating. World Health Organization CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
18.
Endosulfan
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Endosulfan is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that is being phased out globally. The two isomers, endo and exo, are known popularly as I and II, endosulfan sulfate is a product of oxidation containing one extra O atom attached to the S atom. Endosulfan became a highly controversial due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation. Because of its threats to health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture. The ban has taken effect in mid-2012, with certain uses exempted for five additional years and it is still used extensively in India, China, and few other countries. It is produced by Makhteshim Agan and several manufacturers in India, endosulfan has been used in agriculture around the world to control insect pests including whiteflies, aphids, leafhoppers, Colorado potato beetles and cabbage worms. Due to its mode of action, it is useful in resistance management, however, as it is not specific. It is, however, considered to be toxic to honey bees. The World Health Organization estimated worldwide production to be about 9,000 metric tonnes in the early 1980s. From 1980 to 1989, worldwide consumption averaged 10,500 tonnes per year, endosulfan is a derivative of hexachlorocyclopentadiene, and is chemically similar to aldrin, chlordane, and heptachlor. Specifically, it is produced by the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene with cis-butene-1, 4-diol, technical endosulfan is a 7,3 mixture of stereoisomers, designated α and β. α- and β-Endosulfan are configurational isomers arising from the pyramidal stereochemistry of the teravalent sulfur, α-Endosulfan is the more thermodynamically stable of the two, thus β-endosulfan irreversibly converts to the α form, although the conversion is slow. 1954, Hoechst AG won USDA approval for the use of endosulfan in the United States,2000, Home and garden use in the United States was terminated by agreement with the EPA. 2002, The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that endosulfan registration should be cancelled, the agency allowed endosulfan to stay on the US market, but imposed restrictions on its agricultural uses. 2007, International steps were taken to restrict the use and trade of endosulfan, such inclusion would ban all use and manufacture of endosulfan globally. In October, the Review Committee of the Stockholm Convention moved endosulfan along in the procedure for listing under the treaty,2010, The POPRC nominated endosulfan to be added to the Stockholm Convention at the Conference of Parties in April 2011, which would result in a global ban. The EPA announced that the registration of endosulfan in the U. S. will be cancelled Australia banned the use of the chemical,2011, The Supreme Court of India banned manufacture, sale, and use of toxic pesticide endosulfan in India. In the meantime, a quantity can be imported and sold
19.
1,2-Dichloroethane
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The chemical compound 1, 2-dichloroethane commonly known as ethylene dichloride, is a chlorinated hydrocarbon. It is a liquid with a chloroform-like odour.1, 2-Dichloroethane is also used generally as an intermediate for other organic chemical compounds. It forms azeotropes with many solvents, including water and other chlorocarbons. Although the Gezelschap in practice did not do much in-depth scientific research, they, part of that acknowledgement is that 1, 2-dichloroethane was called Dutch oil in old chemistry. Nearly 20 million tons of 1, 2-dichloroethane are produced in the United States, Western Europe, production is primarily achieved through the iron chloride-catalysed reaction of ethene and chlorine. Approximately 80% of the production of 1, 2-dichloroethane is used in the production of vinyl chloride monomer with hydrogen chloride as a byproduct. VCM is the precursor to polyvinyl chloride, cl−CH2−CH2−Cl → H2C=CH−Cl + HCl The hydrogen chloride can be re-used in the production of more 1, 2-dichloroethane via the oxychlorination route described above. As a good polar solvent,1, 2-dichloroethane could be used as degreaser and paint remover but is now banned from use due to its toxicity. As a useful building block reagent, it is used as an intermediate in the production of organic compounds such as ethylenediamine. In the laboratory it is used as a source of chlorine, with elimination of ethene. Via several steps,1, 2-dichloroethane is a precursor to 1,1, 1-trichloroethane, historically,1, 2-dichloroethane was used as an anti-knock additive in leaded fuels to scavenge lead from cylinders and valves preventing buildup. 1, 2-Dichloroethane is toxic, highly flammable, and possibly carcinogenic and its high solubility and 50-year half-life in anoxic aquifers make it a perennial pollutant and health risk that is very expensive to treat conventionally, requiring a method of bioremediation. Substitutes are recommended and will vary according to application, dioxolane and toluene are possible substitutes as solvents. Dichloroethane is unstable in the presence of metal and, when moist, with zinc
20.
Heptachlor
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Heptachlor is an organochlorine compound that was used as an insecticide. Usually sold as a white or tan powder, heptachlor is one of the cyclodiene insecticides, in 1962, Rachel Carsons Silent Spring questioned the safety of heptachlor and other chlorinated insecticides. Due to its highly stable structure, heptachlor can persist in the environment for decades, the US EPA has limited the sale of heptachlor products to the specific application of fire ant control in underground transformers. The amount that can be present in different foods is regulated, analogous to the synthesis of other cyclodienes, heptachlor is produced via the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene and cyclopentadiene. The resulting adduct is chlorinated followed by treatment with hydrogen chloride in nitromethane in the presence of aluminum trichloride or with iodine monochloride, compared to chlordane, it is about 3–5 times more active as an insecticide, but more inert chemically, being resistant to water and caustic alkalies. Soil microorganisms transform heptachlor by epoxidation, hydrolysis, and reduction, when the compound was incubated with a mixed culture of organisms, chlordene formed, which was further metabolized to chlordene epoxide. Other metabolites include 1-hydroxychlordene, 1-hydroxy-2, 3-epoxychlordene, and heptachlor epoxide, soil microorganisms hydrolyze heptachlor to give ketochlordene. Rats metabolize heptachlor to the epoxide 1-exo-1-hydroxyheptachlor epoxide and 1, 2-dihydrooxydihydrochlordene, when heptachlor epoxide was incubated with microsomal preparations form liver of pigs and from houseflies, the products found were diol and 1-hydroxy-2, 3-epoxychlordene. Metabolic scheme in rats shows two pathways with the same metabolite, the first involves following scheme, heptachlor → heptachlor epoxide → dehydrogenated derivative of 1-exo-hydroxy-2, 3-exo-epoxychlordene →1, 2-dihydrooxydihydrochlordene. The second involves, Heptachlor → 1-exo-hydroxychlordene → 1-exo-hydroxy,2, 3-exo-epoxychlordene →1 and it has a half life of ~1. 3-4.2 days, ~0. 03-0.11 years, ~0. 11-0.34 years. One study described its life to be 2 years and claimed that its residues could be found in soil 14 years after its initial application. Like other POPs, heptachlor is lipophilic and poorly soluble in water, thus it tends to accumulate in the fat of humans. Heptachlor epoxide is more likely to be found in the environment than its parent compound, the epoxide also dissolves more easily in water than its parent compound and is more persistent. Heptachlor and its epoxide absorb to soil particles and evaporate, the range of oral rat LD50 values are 40 mg/kg to 162 mg/kg. Daily oral doses of heptachlor at 50 and 100 mg/kg were found to be lethal to rats after 10 days, for heptachlor epoxide, the oral LD50 values ranging from 46.5 to 60 mg/kg. With rat oral of LD5047mg/kg, heptachlor epoxide is more toxic, a product of hydrogenation of heptachlor, β-dihydroheptachlor, has high insecticidal activity and low mammalian toxicity, rat oral LD50>5, 000mg/kg. Humans are exposed to heptachlor through drinking water and foods, including breast milk, Heptachlor epoxide is derived from a pesticide that was banned in the U. S. in the 1980s. It is still found in soil and water supplies and can turn up in food, high levels of it seemed to increase type 2 diabetes risk to about 7 percent
21.
Hexachlorobenzene
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Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an organochloride with the molecular formula C6Cl6. It is a formerly used as a seed treatment, especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt. It has been banned globally under the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants, HCB is a white crystalline solid that has negligible solubility in water and variable solubility in different organic solvents. It is most soluble in halogenated solvents like chloroform less soluble in esters and hydrocarbons and its vapour pressure is 1. 09×10−5 mmHg at 20 °C. Its flash point is 242 °C and it sublimes at 322 °C, Hexachlorobenzene is an animal carcinogen and is considered to be a probable human carcinogen. After its introduction as a fungicide in 1945, for crop seeds, Hexachlorobenzene was banned from use in the United States in 1966. This material has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as a Group 2B carcinogen, animal carcinogenicity data for hexachlorobenzene show increased incidences of liver, kidney and thyroid cancers. Chronic oral exposure in humans has shown to give rise to a liver disease, skin lesions with discoloration, ulceration, photosensitivity, thyroid effects, bone effects. Neurological changes have been reported in rodents exposed to hexachlorobenzene, Hexachlorobenzene may cause embryolethality and teratogenic effects. Human and animal studies have demonstrated that hexachlorobenzene crosses the placenta to accumulate in tissues and is transferred in breast milk. HCB is very toxic to aquatic organisms and it may cause long term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. Therefore, release into waterways should be avoided and it is persistent in the environment. Ecological investigations have found that biomagnification up the chain does occur. Hexachlorobenzene has a life in the soil of between 3 and 6 years. Risk of bioaccumulation in a species is high. Most of the sick were affected with a condition called porphyria cutanea tarda. In one mothers breast milk the HCB level was found to be 20 parts per million in lipid, in the same follow-up study of 252 patients, 20–30 years postexposure, many subjects had dermatologic, neurologic, and orthopedic symptoms and signs. Urine and stool porphyrin levels were determined in all patients, and 17 have at least one of the porphyrins elevated, offspring of mothers with three decades of HCB-induced porphyria appear normal
22.
Methamidophos
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Methamidophos, trade name Monitor, is an organophosphate insecticide. Due to its toxicity, the use of pesticides that contain methamidophos is currently being phased out in Brazil, in 2009, all uses in the United States were voluntarily canceled. LD50 rates of 21 and 16 mg/kg for male and female rats, 10–30 mg/kg in rabbits, and dermal LD50 of 50 mg/kg in rats. It is rapidly absorbed through the stomach, lungs, and skin in humans, and eliminated primarily through urine. Breakdown in soil is 6.1 days in sand,309 days in water at pH5.0,27 days at pH7.0 and it is uptaken through roots and leaves of plants. It is classified as a WHO Toxicity Class Class 1b, Highly Hazardous, methamidophos is used in great quantities in ricefields in China. Rice–fish culture is common in the parts of China as well as in many other rice-producing countries. Brown rice in this study contained double the concentration of polished rice, both plants and animals did not degrade the pesticide well, and fish for human consumption in these cases contains methamidophos in concentrations roughly similar to brown rice. Methamidophos was found in dumplings manufactured in China for the Japanese market after a number of consumers became sick, methamidophos in the Pesticide Properties DataBase
23.
Parathion methyl
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Parathion methyl is an organophosphate pesticide and insecticide, possessing a organothiophosphate group. It is structurally similar to parathion-ethyl. Parathion methyl is used as an insecticide on crops, including cotton, people can be exposed to parathion methyl in the workplace by breathing it in, getting it on their skin, swallowing it, or getting it in their eyes. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has not set a limit for parathion methyl exposure in the workplace. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 0.2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. Even though parathion methyl is classified as hazardous, it is not classified as a carcinogen by any global agency. Parathion methyl - or methyl parathion as it is also called - has been restricted for many years
24.
Monocrotophos
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It is acutely toxic to birds and humans. Being also a persistent organic pollutant, it has been banned in the U. S. Monocrotophos is principally used in agriculture, as a relatively cheap pesticide. However, it is used frequently as a tool to commit suicide. Monocrotophos is believed to be the contaminant responsible for the death of 23 schoolchildren in a Bihar and they ate a state-provided school lunch in the district of Saran in India in July 2013 which was prepared in oil kept in the container of this pesticide. Widespread bird kills, including a large kill of Swainsons Hawks in Argentina, have resulted from the use of monocrotophos, in the study published in Genome Biology, the researchers demonstrated the gut microbiota mediated diabetogenic effect of organophosphate insecticides. All the studies were validated in human samples from the villages in Madurai, in a recent study, Wistar rats were administered 1/50 of LD50 dosage of monocrotophos orally via gavage daily for three weeks. Animals administered Monocrotophos exhibited mild hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia in the blood, cardiac oxidative stress was conferred by accumulation of protein carbonyls, lipid peroxidation and glutathione production. The cardiac markers showed elevated levels in plasma, which indicates cardiac tissue damage. The histopathology of the heart tissue authenticated the monocrotophos induced tissue damage by showing signs of nonspecific inflammatory changes, nerve growth factor induced functional differentiation in PC12 cells has been reported. The studies have been carried out showing mitochondria mediated apoptosis in PC12 cells exposed to monocrotophos, a significant induction in reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxides, and the ratio of glutathione disulfide/reduced glutathione was observed in cells exposed to selected doses of monocrotophos. Monocrotophos-induced translocation of BAX and cytochrome-c proteins between the cytoplasm and mitochondria confirmed the role of monocrotophos in the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane, mitochondria mediated apoptosis induction was confirmed by the increased activity of caspase cascade. These apoptotic changes could be correlated with elevated levels of expression of selected cytochrome P450s in PC12 cells exposed to monocrotophos, Monocrotophos in the Pesticide Properties DataBase
25.
Parathion
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Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally known as Folidol, is an organophosphate compound possessing a organothiophosphate group. It is a potent insecticide and acaricide and it was originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to organisms, including humans. Its use is banned or restricted in countries, and there are proposals to ban it from all use. The basic structure is shared by parathion methyl, Parathion was developed by Gerhard Schrader for the German trust IG Farben in the 1940s. The most common German brand was E605, this was not a food-additive E number as used in the EU today and it is an irreversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Safety concerns have led to the development of parathion methyl. When pure, parathion is a crystalline solid. It is commonly distributed as a liquid that smells of rotting eggs or garlic. The insecticide is somewhat stable, although it darkens when exposed to sunlight, Parathion is synthesized from diethyl dithiophosphoric acid 2PS2H by chlorination to generate diethylthiophosphoryl chloride. In a salt metathesis reaction, the chloride treated with sodium 4-nitrophenolate,2 2PSH +3 Cl2 →2 2PCl + S2Cl2 +2 HCl 2PCl + NaOC6H4NO2 → 2POC6H4NO2 + NaCl As a pesticide, parathion is generally applied by spraying. It is often applied to cotton, rice and fruit trees, the usual concentrations of ready-to-use solutions are 0.05 to 0. 1%. The chemical is banned for use on food crops. Parathion acts on the enzyme acetylcholinesterase indirectly, after an insect ingests parathion, an oxidase replaces the double bonded sulfur with oxygen to give paraoxon. 2POC6H4NO2 + 1/2 O2 → 2POC6H4NO2 + S The phosphate ester is more reactive in organisms than the phosphorothiolate ester, Degradation of parathion leads to more water-soluble products. Hydrolysis, which deactivates the molecule, occurs at the ester bond resulting in diethyl thiophosphate. 2POC6H4NO2 + H2O → HOC6H4NO2 + 2POH Degradation proceeds differently under anaerobic conditions, 2POC6H4NO2 +6 H → 2POC6H4NH2 +2 H2O Parathion is a cholinesterase inhibitor. It generally disrupts the nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase and it is absorbed via skin, mucous membranes, and orally
26.
Pentachlorophenol
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Pentachlorophenol is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under trade names. It can be found as pure PCP, or as the salt of PCP. It can be biodegraded by some bacteria, including Sphingobium chlorophenolicum, PCP can be produced by the chlorination of phenol in the presence of catalyst and a temperature of up to approximately 191 °C. This process does not result in complete chlorination and commercial PCP is only 84-90% pure, the main contaminants include other polychlorinated phenols, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. Some of these species are more toxic than the PCP itself. PCP has been used as a herbicide, insecticide, fungicide, algaecide, some applications were in agricultural seeds, leather, masonry, wood preservation, cooling tower water, rope, and paper mills. Its use has declined due to its toxicity and slow biodegradation. There are two methods for preserving wood. The pressure process method involves placing wood in a vessel where it is immersed in PCP. In the non-pressure process method, PCP is applied by spraying, brushing, dipping, people may be exposed to PCP in occupational settings through the inhalation of contaminated workplace air and dermal contact with wood products treated with PCP. Also, general population exposure may occur through contact with contaminated environment media, particularly in the vicinity of wood treatment facilities and hazardous wastes sites. Short-term exposure to large amounts of PCP can cause effects on the liver, kidneys, blood, lungs, nervous system, immune system. Elevated temperature, profuse sweating, uncoordinated movement, muscle twitching, contact with PCP can irritate the skin, eyes, and mouth. Long-term exposure to low levels such as those that occur in the workplace can cause damage to the liver, kidneys, blood, finally exposure to PCP is also associated with carcinogenic, renal, and neurological effects. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Toxicity Class classifies PCP in group B2, Pentachlorophenol may be quantitated in plasma or urine as an index of excessive exposure. This is usually performed by gas chromatography with electron-capture or mass spectrometric detection, since urine contains predominantly conjugated PCP in chronic exposure situations, prior hydrolysis of specimens is recommended. The current ACGIH biological exposure limits for occupational exposure to PCP are 5 mg/L in an end-of-shift plasma specimen and 2 mg/g creatinine in a urine specimen
27.
Phosphamidon
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Phosphamidon is an organophosphate insecticide first reported in 1960. It acts as a cholinesterase inhibitor, the commercial product typically exists as a mixture of 70% -isomer and 30% -isomer. Phosphamidon is very toxic to mammals and is listed as WHO Hazard Class Ia. A harvester developed symptoms of severe poisoning after working in a field that had been sprayed with the chemical 2 weeks earlier. He collapsed and exhibited significant depression of serum cholinesterase, but recovered completely within 2 days after treatment with atropine. International trade of phosphamidon is covered by the Rotterdam Convention
28.
Polybrominated biphenyl
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Polybrominated biphenyls, also called brominated biphenyls or polybromobiphenyls, are a group of manufactured chemicals that consist of polyhalogenated derivatives of a biphenyl core. Their chlorine analogs are the PCBs, PBBs usually exist as colorless to off-white solids. PBBs soften at 72 degrees Celsius and decompose above 300 degrees Celsius and they have low vapor pressure, are very soluble in benzene and toluene, and insoluble in water. They are degraded by UV light, PBBs are used as flame retardants of the brominated flame retardant group. The mechanism of toxicity is cellular oxidative stress by aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation, there is evidence that pre- and post-natal exposure to PBB in girls leads to menarche at an earlier age. Early studies on the effects of PBBs on human beings concerned the people in Michigan, United States who consumed PBB-contaminated animal products. A study of 327 girls aged 5–24 years in Michigan found those who were exposed in utero to PBBs at or above a level of 7 ppb found had an age at menarche compared to a case-control group. Some residents complained of nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, joint pain and lethargy, there is stronger evidence that PBBs may have caused skin problems, such as acne, in consumers of the contaminated food. Some workers exposed to PBBs by breathing and skin contact for days to months also developed acne. It is not known for certain if PBBs could cause cancer in human beings, based on such animal tests, the United States Department of Health and Human Services has determined that PBBs may reasonably be anticipated to be carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer also suggests that PBBs are possibly carcinogenic to humans, before the 1970s, PBBs were widely used commercially as a flame retardant. Michigan Chemical Corporation in St. Louis, Michigan was a producer of the FireMaster range of PBB-based flame retardants. FireMaster BP-6 is a mixture of many different PBB congeners with 2,2,4,4,5, 5-hexabromobiphenyl and 2,2,3,4,4,5, FireMaster FF-1 is FireMaster BP-6 with the addition of 2% calcium silicate as an anti-caking agent. Mixed bromochlorobiphenyls and polybrominated naphthalenes, as well as lower brominated compounds formed by incomplete bromination, have also found as minor constituents of FireMaster products. In 1973, several pounds of FireMaster BP-6 were accidentally mixed with livestock feed that was distributed to farms in Michigan. Some 1.5 million chickens,30,000 cattle,5,900 pigs, and 1,470 sheep then consumed this feed, became contaminated with PBBs, a 1978 episode of Lou Grant portrays a similar, but fictionalized account. One year elapsed before the animals were culled, a study was undertaken on 4,545 people to determine the effects of PBBs on human beings. All were queried concerning 17 symptoms and conditions related to PBBs
29.
Polychlorinated biphenyls
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A polychlorinated biphenyl is an organic chlorine compound with the formula C12H10−xClx. Polychlorinated biphenyls were once widely deployed as dielectric and coolant fluids in electrical apparatus, carbonless copy paper, because of their longevity, PCBs are still widely in use, even though their manufacture has declined drastically since the 1960s, when a host of problems were identified. The International Research Agency on Cancer, rendered PCBs as definite carcinogens in humans, according to the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, PCBs cause cancer in animals and are probable human carcinogens. Many rivers and buildings including schools, parks, and other sites are contaminated with PCBs, some PCBs share a structural similarity and toxic mode of action with dioxin. Other toxic effects such as endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity are known, the bromine analogues of PCBs are polybrominated biphenyls, which have analogous applications and environmental concerns. The compounds are pale-yellow viscous liquids and they are hydrophobic, with low water solubilities —0. 0027-0.42 ng/L for Aroclors, but they have high solubilities in most organic solvents, oils, and fats. They have low vapor pressures at room temperature and they have dielectric constants of 2. 5~2.7, very high thermal conductivity, and high flash points. The density varies from 1.182 to 1.566 kg/L, other physical and chemical properties vary widely across the class. As the degree of chlorination increases, melting point and lipophilicity increase, PCBs do not easily break down or degrade, which made them attractive for industries. PCB mixtures are resistant to acids, bases, oxidation, hydrolysis and they can generate extremely toxic dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans through partial oxidation. Intentional degradation as a treatment of unwanted PCBs generally requires high heat or catalysis, PCBs readily penetrate skin, PVC, and latex. PCB-resistant materials include Viton, polyethylene, polyvinyl acetate, polytetrafluoroethylene, butyl rubber, nitrile rubber, PCBs are derived from biphenyl, which has the formula C12H10, sometimes written 2. In PCBs, some of the atoms in biphenyl are replaced by chlorine atoms. There are 209 different chemical compounds in which one to ten chlorine atoms can replace hydrogen atoms, PCBs are typically used as mixtures of compounds and are given the single identifying CAS number 1336-36-3. About 130 different individual PCBs are found in commercial PCB products, toxic effects vary depending on the specific PCB. Coplanar or non-ortho The coplanar group members have a rigid structure. They do not activate the AhR, and are not considered part of the dioxin group, because of their lower toxicity, they are of less concern to regulatory bodies. Di-ortho-substituted, non-coplanar PCBs interfere with signal transduction dependent on calcium which may lead to neurotoxicity
30.
Polychlorinated terphenyl
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Polychlorinated terphenyls are a group of chlorine derivatives of terphenyls. They are chemically related to polychlorinated biphenyls and have similar chemical properties and they have very low electrical conductivity, high heat stability, and high resistance to alkalies and strong acids. They are non-flammable and insoluble in water and their production and use has been largely phased out due to environmental and safety concerns. International trade in PCTs is regulated by the Rotterdam Convention
31.
Thiram
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Thiram is a fungicide, ectoparasiticide, and animal repellent. It is used to prevent fungal diseases in seed and crops and it is also used as an animal repellent to protect fruit trees and ornamentals from damage by rabbits, rodents and deer. It is effective against Stem gall of coriander, damping off, smut of millet, neck rot of onion, Thiram has been used in the treatment of human scabies, as a sun screen and as a bactericide applied directly to the skin or incorporated into soap. Thiram was traditionally used in apple and wine farming, since 2010 most Thiram is applied to soybeans. Thiram is a type of sulfur fungicide and it has been found to dissolve completely in chloroform, acetone and ether. It is available as dust, flowable, wettable powder, water dispersible granules, Thiram is nearly immobile in clay soils or in soils of high organic matter. It is not expected to contaminate groundwater because of its half life of 15 days. As a waste, Thiram carries an EPA U244 code, Thiram is moderately toxic by ingestion, but it is highly toxic if inhaled. Acute exposure in humans may cause headaches, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, chronic or repeated exposure may cause sensitive skin, and it may have effects on the thyroid or liver. Thiram in the Pesticide Properties DataBase
32.
Toxaphene
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Toxaphene was an insecticide used primarily for cotton in the southern United States during the late 1960s and 1970s. Toxaphene is a mixture of over 670 different chemicals and is produced by reacting chlorine gas with camphene and it can be most commonly found as a yellow to amber waxy solid. Toxaphene was banned in the United States in 1990 and was banned globally by the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and it is a very persistent chemical that can remain in the environment for 1–14 years without degrading, particularly in the soil. Testing performed on animals, mostly rats and mice, has demonstrated that toxaphene is harmful to animals, exposure to toxaphene has proven to stimulate the central nervous system, as well as induce morphological changes in the thyroid, liver, and kidneys. Toxaphene has been shown to cause health effects in humans. The main sources of exposure are through food, drinking water, breathing contaminated air, exposure to high levels of toxaphene can cause damage to the lungs, nervous system, liver, kidneys, and in extreme cases, may even cause death. It is thought to be a carcinogen in humans, though this has not yet been proven. Toxaphene is a organic compound composed of over 670 chemicals. The bulk of the found in toxaphene have chemical formulas ranging from C10H11Cl5 to C10H6Cl12. The formula weights of these range from 308 to 551 grams/mole. Toxaphene is usually seen as a yellow to amber waxy solid with a piney odor and it is highly insoluble in water but freely soluble in aromatic hydrocarbons and readily soluble in aliphatic organic solvents. It is stable at room temperature and pressure and it is volatile enough to be transported for long distances through the atmosphere. Toxaphene was primarily used as a pesticide for cotton in the southern United States during the late 1960s and 1970s. It was also used on corn, small grains, vegetables, and soybeans to control such as lice, flies, ticks, mange. In some cases it was used to kill undesirable fish species in lakes and streams. The breakdown of usage can be summarized, 85% on cotton, 7% to control pests on livestock and poultry, 5% on other field crops, 3% on soybeans. The first recorded usage of toxaphene was in 1966 in the United States and by the early to mid 1970’s, over 34 million pounds of toxaphene were used annually from 1966 to 1976. As a result of Environmental Protection Agency restrictions, annual toxaphene usage fell to 6.6 million pounds in 1982, in 1990, the EPA banned all usage of toxaphene in the United States
33.
Tributyltin
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Tributyltin is an umbrella term for a class of organotin compounds which contain the 3Sn group, with a prominent example being tributyltin oxide. For 40 years TBT was used as a biocide in anti-fouling paint, commonly known as bottom paint, bottom paint improves ship performance and durability as it reduces the rate of biofouling, which is the growth of organisms on the ships hull. Although such paints are effective, the TBT slowly leaches out into the environment where it is highly toxic to a wide range of organisms. TBT pollution is of concern as it has led to collapse of whole populations of organisms. TBT compounds are compounds, with 3 butyl groups covalently bonded to a tin centre. A general formula for these compounds is 3Sn-X, the X group is typically an electronegative leaving group such as chloride or carboxylate. When introduced into a marine or aquatic environment, TBT adheres to bed sediments because of its specific gravity. However, the adsorption of TBT to sediments is reversible and depends on pH, studies have shown that 95% of TBT can be released from the sediments back into the aquatic environment. This release makes it difficult to quantify the amount of TBT in an environment, because TBT is the most effective anti-fouling agent discovered, it was frequently used in anti-fouling paint throughout the globe. The antifouling properties of TBT compounds were discovered in the 1950s in the Netherlands by van der Kerk, the function of the biocide in the anti-fouling paint is to prevent the settling of organisms on the hull and to poison the organisms that do. Although an effective biocide, tributyltin was wrongly deemed safe environmentally, by the mid 1960s it became the most popular anti-fouling paint worldwide. TBT was mixed into paints to extend the life of antifouling coatings, the paints ensured fuel efficiency and delayed costly ship repairs. It is also an ingredient in some disinfectants, for example in combination with quaternary ammonium compounds, the effects of antifouling paint go beyond the organisms that it is intended to kill. By poisoning barnacles, algae, and other organisms at the bottom of the food chain and it has been shown to harmfully affect many layers of the ecosystem, including invertebrates and vertebrates, even humans. Toxic effects in some species occur at 1 nano-gram per liter of water, even with its ban, TBT presents a danger to the environment. One of the most problematic aspects of TBT is its accumulation in sediments and its half life of about 2 years. TBT often bonds to suspended material and sediments to the bottom, TBT has been shown to affect invertebrate development. One of the most studied organisms are marine snails, of which the dog whelk has often used as an Indicator species
34.
Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
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Tris phosphate is a chemical once widely used as a flame retardant in plastics and textiles. Tris is mutagenic and listed as an IARC Group 2A carcinogen and it is one of the chemicals covered by the Rotterdam Convention. In the United States, the Consumer Product Safety Commission banned the sale of childrens garments containing tris in 1977, arlene Blum was one of those involved in getting tris blacklisted
35.
Chrysotile
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Chrysotile or white asbestos is the most commonly encountered form of asbestos, accounting for approximately 95% of the asbestos in the United States and a similar proportion in other countries. It is a soft, fibrous silicate mineral in the subgroup of phyllosilicates, as such. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg34, the material has physical properties which make it desirable for inclusion in building materials, but poses serious health risks when dispersed into air and inhaled. Three polytypes of chrysotile are known and these are very difficult to distinguish in hand specimens, and polarized light microscopy must normally be used. Clinochrysotile is the most common of the three forms, found notably at Asbestos, Quebec, Canada and its two measurable refractive indices tend to be lower than those of the other two forms. Bulk chrysotile has a similar to a human fingernail and is easily crumbled to fibrous strands composed of smaller bundles of fibrils. Naturally-occurring fibre bundles range in length from several millimetres to more than ten centimetres, the diameter of the fibre bundles is 0. 1–1 µm, and the individual fibrils are even finer,0. 02–0.03 µm, each fibre bundle containing tens or hundreds of fibrils. Chrysotile fibres have considerable strength, and may be spun into thread. They are also resistant to heat and are excellent thermal, electrical, the idealized chemical formula of chrysotile is Mg34, although some of the magnesium ions may be replaced by iron or other cations. Substitution of the ions for fluoride, oxide or chloride is also known. A related, but much rarer, mineral is pecoraite, in all the magnesium cations of chrysotile are substituted by nickel cations. Chrysotile is resistant to strong bases, but the fibres are attacked by acids. It is thermally stable up to around 550 °C, at which temperature it starts to dehydrate, dehydration is complete at about 750 °C, with the final products being forsterite, silica and water. In other scientific publications, epidemiologists have published peer reviewed scientific papers establishing that chrysotile is the cause of pleural mesothelioma. Chrysotile has been recommended for inclusion in the Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent, if listed, exports of chrysotile would only be permitted to countries that explicitly consent to imports. Canada, a producer of the mineral, has been harshly criticized by the Canadian Medical Association for its opposition to including chrysotile in the Convention. According to EU Regulation 1907/2006 the marketing and use of chrysotile, in May 1998, Canada requested consultations before the WTO and the European Commission concerning Frances 1996 prohibition of the importation and sale of all forms of asbestos. Canada said that the French measures contravened provisions of the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and on Technical Barriers to Trade, the EC claimed that safer substitute materials existed to take the place of asbestos
36.
Fenthion
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Fenthion is an organothiophosphate insecticide, avicide, and acaricide. Like most other organophosphates, its mode of action is via cholinesterase inhibition, due to its relatively low toxicity towards humans and mammals, fenthion is listed as moderately toxic compound in U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization toxicity class. Fenthion is a contact and stomach insecticide used against many biting insects and it is particularly effective against fruit flies, leaf hoppers, cereal bugs, stem borers, mosquitoes, animal parasites, mites, aphids, codling moths, and weaver birds. It has been used in sugar cane, rice, field corn, beets, pome and stone fruit, citrus fruits, pistachio, cotton, olives, coffee, cocoa, vegetables. Based on its high toxicity on birds, fenthion has been used to control weaver birds, Fenthion is also used in cattle, swine, and dogs to control lice, fleas, ticks, flies, and other external parasites. Amid concerns of harmful effects on environment, especially birds, Food, however, fenthion has been extensively used in Florida to control adult mosquitoes. After preliminary risk assessments on human health and environment in 1998 and its revision in 1999, the EPA has classified fenthion as Restricted Use Pesticide, and warrants special handling because of its toxicity. Some common trade names for fenthion are Avigel, Avigrease, Entex, Baytex, Baycid, Dalf, DMPT, Mercaptophos, Prentox, Fenthion 4E, Queletox, and Lebaycid. Fenthion is available in dust, emulsifiable concentrate, granular, liquid concentrate, spray concentrate, ULV, Fenthion can be synthesized by condensation of 4-methylmercapto-m-cresol and dimethylphosphorochloridothionate. Fenthion exposure to general population is limited based on its bioavailability. Common form of exposure is occupation related, and occurs through dermal contact or inhalation of dust. Another likely means of contamination is through ingestion of food, especially, so far, ingestion is the most likely severe poisoning case on humans and animals. To avoid this, crops applied with fenthion should be allowed enough time before harvesting. Normally, two to four weeks time is enough depending upon the type of crop, Fenthion poisoning is consistent with symptoms of other organophosphate effects on human health. Primarily, the effect is cholinesterase inhibition, acute poisoning of fenthion results in miosis, headache, nausea/vomiting, dizziness, muscle weakness, drowsiness, lethargy, agitation, or anxiety. If the poisoning is moderate or severe, it results in chest tightness, breathing difficulty, hypertension, abdominal pain, diarrhea, heavy salivation, profuse sweating, chronic effect of fenthion has not been reported. Despite short half-life in the environment, fenthion toxicity is highly significant to birds, even though some parts of the world use fenthion to control pest birds, such as weaver bird, many non-targeted wild birds are victim of fenthion poisoning. Fenthion has been found toxic to fishes and other aquatic invertebrates, bees are also found to be greatly affected by fenthion contamination
37.
Metrifonate
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Metrifonate or trichlorfon is an irreversible organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It is a prodrug which is activated non-enzymatically into 2, 2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate and it is used as an insecticide. It can be used to treat schistosomiasis caused by Schistoma haematobium and it has been proposed for use in treatment of Alzheimers disease, but use for that purpose is not currently recommended
