1.
Soap
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In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
2.
Computer network
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A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media, the best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes, nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the networks size, topology and organizational intent. In most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered over other more general communications protocols and this formidable collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably. The chronology of significant computer-network developments includes, In the late 1950s, in 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment went online with two connected mainframes. Licklider developed a group he called the Intergalactic Computer Network. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth College developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route. Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies independently developed network systems that used packets to transfer information between computers over a network, in 1965, Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network. This was an precursor to the ARPANET, of which Roberts became program manager. Also in 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented true computer control, in 1972, commercial services using X.25 were deployed, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper Ethernet, Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks, in 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a network first used to share storage devices. In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s, by 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of a Gigabit. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 100 Gbit/s were added, the ability of Ethernet to scale easily is a contributing factor to its continued use. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks, a network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network
3.
Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
4.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
5.
Open-source model
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
6.
OASIS (organization)
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OASIS was founded under the name SGML Open in 1993. The focus of the activities also moved from promoting adoption to developing technical specifications. In July 2000 a new technical committee process was approved, with the adoption of the process the manner in which technical committees were created, operated, and progressed their work was regularized. At the adoption of the process there were five technical committees, during 1999, OASIS was approached by UN/CEFACT, the committee of the United Nations dealing with standards for business, to jointly develop a new set of specifications for electronic business. The joint initiative, called ebXML and which first met in November 1999, was chartered for a three-year period, in 2004 OASIS submitted its completed ebXML specifications to ISO TC154 where they were approved as ISO15000. The consortium has its headquarters in Burlington, Massachusetts, shared with other companies, on September 4,2014, the consortium moved from 25 Corporate Drive Suite 103 to 35 Corporate Dr Suite 150, still on the same loop route. The following standards are under development by OASIS technical committees, AMQP — Advanced Message Queuing Protocol, BCM — Business Centric-Methodology, BCM is a comprehensive approach and proven techniques that enable a service-oriented architecture and support enterprise agility and interoperability. CAP — Common Alerting Protocol, is an XML-based data format for exchanging public warnings, CAM — Content Assembly Mechanism, is a generalized assembly mechanism for using templates of XML business transaction content and the associated rules. CAM templates augment schema syntax and provide implementers with the means to specify interoperable interchange patterns, CAMP — Cloud Application Management for Platforms, is an API for managing public and private cloud applications. CMIS — Content Management Interoperability Services, is a model and Web services standard for working with Enterprise content management repositories. CIQ — Customer Information Quality, is an XML Specifications for defining, representing, interoperating and managing party information, DocBook — DocBook, a markup language for technical documentation. It was originally intended for authoring technical documents related to hardware and software. DITA — Darwin Information Typing Architecture, a modular and extensible XML-based language for topic-based information, such as for help, documentation. KMIP — The Key Management Interoperability Protocol tries to establish a single, legal XML LegalDocumentML, LegalRuleML, Electronic Court Filing, and eNotarization standards. OASIS as a body is working to approve the protocol in a way that will align. OpenDocument — OASIS Open Document Format for Office Applications, a document file format for saving office documents such as spreadsheets, memos, charts. OSLC — Open Services for Lifecycle Collaboration, develops standards that make it easy, see the OSLC community web site for more details. SAML — Security Assertion Markup Language, a standard XML-based framework for the exchange of authentication and authorization information
7.
HTTPS
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HTTPS is a protocol for secure communication over a computer network which is widely used on the Internet. HTTPS consists of communication over Hypertext Transfer Protocol within a connection encrypted by Transport Layer Security, or its predecessor, the main motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the visited website and protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data. In its popular deployment on the internet, HTTPS provides authentication of the website and associated web server with one is communicating. Additionally, it provides bidirectional encryption of communications between a client and server, which protects against eavesdropping and tampering with or forging the contents of the communication. Historically, HTTPS connections were used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web, e-mail. The HTTPS uniform resource identifier, scheme has identical syntax to the standard HTTP scheme, however, HTTPS signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of SSL/TLS to protect the traffic. SSL/TLS is especially suited for HTTP, since it can provide some protection even if one side of the communication is authenticated. This is the case with HTTP transactions over the Internet, where only the server is authenticated. HTTPS creates a channel over an insecure network. This ensures reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and man-in-the-middle attacks, provided that adequate cipher suites are used, because HTTPS piggybacks HTTP entirely on top of TLS, the entirety of the underlying HTTP protocol can be encrypted. This includes the request URL, query parameters, headers, however, because host addresses and port numbers are necessarily part of the underlying TCP/IP protocols, HTTPS cannot protect their disclosure. Web browsers know how to trust HTTPS websites based on certificate authorities that come pre-installed in their software, Certificate authorities are in this way being trusted by web browser creators to provide valid certificates. The user trusts the authority to vouch only for legitimate websites. The website provides a valid certificate, which means it was signed by a trusted authority, the certificate correctly identifies the website. The user trusts that the protocols encryption layer is sufficiently secure against eavesdroppers, HTTPS is especially important over insecure networks, as anyone on the same local network can packet-sniff and discover sensitive information not protected by HTTPS. Additionally, many free to use and even paid for WLAN networks engage in packet injection in order to serve their own ads on webpages, however, this can be exploited maliciously in many ways, such as injecting malware onto webpages and stealing users private information. This is one reason why the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Tor project started the development of HTTPS Everywhere, while metadata about individual pages that a user visits is not sensitive, when combined, they can reveal a lot about the user and compromise the users privacy. Deploying HTTPS also allows the use of HTTP/2, that are new generations of HTTP, designed to reduce load times
8.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
9.
Dave Winer
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Dave Winer is an American software developer, entrepreneur, and writer who resides in New York City. Winer is noted for his contributions to outliners, scripting, content management and he is the founder of the software companies Living Videotext, Userland Software and Small Picture Inc. Carter Journalism Institute. Winer is also the grandnephew of German novelist Arno Schmidt and a relative of Hedy Lamarr and he graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1972. Winer received a BA in Mathematics from Tulane University in New Orleans in 1976, in 1978 he received an MS in Computer Science from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In 1981 he left the company and founded Living Videotext to develop this still-unfinished product, the company was based in Mountain View, CA, and grew to more than 50 employees. ThinkTank, which was based on VisiText, was released in 1983 for Apple II and was promoted as an idea processor and it became the first popular outline processor, the one that made the term generic. A ThinkTank release for the IBM PC followed in 1984, as well as releases for the Macintosh 128K, ready, a RAM resident outliner for the IBM PC released in 1985, was commercially successful but soon succumbed to the competing Sidekick product by Borland. MORE, released for Apples Macintosh in 1986, combined an outliner and it became uncontested in the marketplace and won the MacUsers Editors Choice Award for Best Product in 1986. In 1987, at the height of the success, Winer sold Living Videotext to Symantec for an undisclosed. Winer continued to work at Symantecs Living Videotext division, but after six months he left the company in pursuit of other challenges, Winer founded UserLand Software in 1988 and served as the companys CEO until 2002. UserLands original flagship product, Frontier, was a scripting environment for the Mac, Winers pioneering weblog, Scripting News. Frontier was a scripting language, echoing Winers longstanding interest in outliners. Winer subsequently shifted the focus to online publishing products, enthusiastically promoting and experimenting with these products while building his websites. These users included notably Chris Gulker and Jorn Barger, who envisaged blogging as a practice among users of the software. Keen to enter the arena of high-end Web development, Winer then came to collaborate with Microsoft. This led to the creation of SOAP, which he co-authored with Microsofts Don Box, Bob Atkinson, by December 2000, competing dialects of RSS included several varieties of Netscapes RSS, Winers RSS0.92, and an RDF-based RSS1.0. Winer continued to develop the branch of the RSS fork originating from RSS0.92, Winers advocacy of web syndication in general and RSS2.0 in particular convinced many news organizations to syndicate their news content in that format. For example, in early 2002 the New York Times entered an agreement with UserLand to syndicate many of their articles in RSS2.0 format, Winer resisted calls by technologists to have the shortcomings of RSS2.0 improved
10.
Don Box
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Don Box is a Technical Fellow currently working at Microsoft. Leading up to the launch of Windows 10, Box drove the initiative to converge Windows, Windows Phone, Xbox, Box led the Xbox One platform development team from its inception through launch on November 22,2013. Prior to that, Box led the development team produced the Xbox SmartGlass platform. Along with Bob Atkinson, Mohsen Al-Ghosein, and Dave Winer, Box was one of the four designers of SOAP. Prior to joining Xbox, he worked on Brad Loverings team working on model-driven runtime and tool support at Microsoft, Box was an architect on Windows Communication Foundation and related technologies. At 2001 TechEd Europe, Box performed a talk about XML, before joining Microsoft in 2002, Box was a contributing editor and columnist at Microsoft Systems Journal, which later became MSDN Magazine. Box was a figure in the Component Object Model community. He is an editor for Addison Wesley where he launched two successful. targeting the Microsoft developer audience. He was one of the founders of the DevelopMentor software training company and he left DevelopMentor to join Microsoft. Interview, Don Box and Chris Sells talk to Carl and Richard
11.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
12.
Firewall (computing)
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In computing, a firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted, secure network and another outside network, such as the Internet. Firewalls are often categorized as either network firewalls or host-based firewalls, Network firewalls filter traffic between two or more networks, they are either software appliances running on general purpose hardware, or hardware-based firewall computer appliances. Host-based firewalls provide a layer of software on one host that controls network traffic in, Firewall appliances may also offer other functionality to the internal network they protect, such as acting as a DHCP or VPN server for that network. The term firewall originally referred to a wall intended to confine a fire or potential fire within a building, later uses refer to similar structures, such as the metal sheet separating the engine compartment of a vehicle or aircraft from the passenger compartment. Firewall technology emerged in the late 1980s when the Internet was a new technology in terms of its global use. It has hit Berkeley, UC San Diego, Lawrence Livermore, Stanford, the Morris Worm spread itself through multiple vulnerabilities in the machines of the time. Although it was not malicious in intent, the Morris Worm was the first large attack on Internet security. The first type of firewall was the packet filter which looks at network addresses and ports of the packet, the first paper published on firewall technology was in 1988, when engineers from Digital Equipment Corporation developed filter systems known as packet filter firewalls. This fairly basic system was the first generation of what is now a highly involved, packet filters act by inspecting the packets which are transferred between computers on the Internet. If a packet does not match the packet filters set of filtering rules, conversely, if the packet matches one or more of the programmed filters, the packet is allowed to pass. This type of packet filtering pays no attention to whether a packet is part of a stream of traffic. Instead, it filters each packet based only on information contained in the packet itself, when the packet passes through the firewall, it filters the packet on a protocol/port number basis. For example, if a rule in the firewall exists to block telnet access, from 1989–1990 three colleagues from AT&T Bell Laboratories, Dave Presotto, Janardan Sharma, and Kshitij Nigam, developed the second generation of firewalls, calling them circuit-level gateways. Second-generation firewalls perform the work of their predecessors but operate up to layer 4 of the OSI model. This is achieved by retaining packets until enough information is available to make a judgement about its state, though static rules are still used, these rules can now contain connection state as one of their test criteria. Certain denial-of-service attacks bombard the firewall with thousands of fake connection packets in an attempt to overwhelm it by filling its connection state memory, Marcus Ranum, Wei Xu, and Peter Churchyard developed an application firewall known as Firewall Toolkit. In June 1994, Wei Xu extended the FWTK with the enhancement of IP filter
