1.
Matsya
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Matsya is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a fish. Often listed as the first avatar in the lists of the ten avatars of Vishnu, Matsya is described to have rescued the first man, Manu. Matsya may be depicted as a giant fish, or anthropomorphically with a human torso connected to the half of a fish. The earliest accounts of the legend associate Matsya with the creator god Prajapati, however, Puranic scriptures incorporate Matsya as an avatar of Vishnu. When the flood destroys the world, Manu - in some versions accompanied by the seven great sages - survives by boarding the ark, which Matsya pulls to safety. In later versions of this story, the sacred texts Vedas are hidden by a demon, whom Matsya slays, Manu is rescued, the tale is in the tradition of the family of flood myths, common across cultures. Matsya is depicted in two forms, as a fish or in an anthropomorphic form. He holds in two of his hands the Sudarshana chakra and a shankha, the weapons of Vishnu. The other two make the gestures of varadamudra, which grants boons to the devotee, and abhayamudra. In another configuration, he might have all four attributes of Vishnu, namely the Sudarshana chakra, a shankha, a gada, the human torso generally wears a shawl and a garland. The shawl, worn over his elbows, may be wrapped such that the switch between the human torso and fish half is hidden, Matsya may be depicted alone or in a scene depicting his combat with a demon. A demon called Shankhasura emerging from a conch is sometimes depicted attacking Matsya with a sword as Matsya combats or kills him. Both of them may be depicted in the ocean, while the god Brahma and/or manuscripts or four men, in some scenes, Matsya is depicted as a fish pulling the boat with Manu and the seven great sages on it. Early accounts of the Deluge equate Matsya with the Vedic deity Prajapati, the Shatapatha Brahmana is the earliest extant text to mention Matsya and the flood myth in Hinduism. It identifies the fish with Prajapati-Brahma, the central characters are the fish and Vaivasvata Manu or Satyavrata who becomes the progenitor of mankind. In this version, Vaivasvata Manu, the legislator and the ancestor of two royal dynasties and who later become the progenitor of mankind. In this version, water is brought to Manu for his ablutions and while Manu was washing and taking bath, the tiny fish appealed to Manu to protect him so that he was not eaten by a bigger fish and in return promised to rescue Manu from an impending flood. The fish requested Manu to keep him in a jar and allow him to grow, as he outgrew the pit to transfer him into the ocean, where as a large fish, he will then become indestructible
2.
Manu (Hinduism)
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Manu is a term found with various meanings in different mythologies of Hinduism. In early texts, it refers to the man, or to the first man. The Sanskrit term for human. In later texts, Manu is the title or name of mystical sage-rulers of earth, the title of the text Manusmriti uses this term as a prefix, but refers to the first Manu – Svayambhuva, the spiritual son of Brahma. In some Puranic mythology, each consists of fourteen Manvantaras. The current universe, in mythology, is asserted to be ruled by the 7th Manu named Vaivasvata. In Vishnu Purana, Vaivasvata, also known as Sraddhadeva or Satyavrata, was the king of Dravida before the great flood. He was warned of the flood by the Matsya avatar of Vishnu, and built a boat carried the Vedas, Manus family. The myth is repeated with variations in other texts, including the Mahabharata and it is similar to other flood myths such as that of Gilgamesh and Noah. The texts ascribed to the Svayambhuva Manu include Manava Grihyasutra, Manava Sulbasutra, Jain mythology mentions the 14th patriarch named Nabhiraja, mentioning him also as Manu. This, state scholars, links ancient Jain tradition to Hindu mythologies, the Manu of Jainism is the father of 1st Tirthankara Rishabhanatha. This ancient story is significant as it one of earliest mentions of ikshu processing. In the Victor Hugo novel, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, proto-Indo-European religion, §Brothers Minos, king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa. Manes, king of Lydia Nuu, Hawaiian mythological character who built an ark, nüwa, goddess in Chinese mythology best known for creating mankind. Noah Ziusudra, hero of the Sumerian flood epic Atra-Hasis Shah, Natubhai, Jainism, The World of Conquerors, I, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1938-1 Manu in Vedic scripture
3.
Sanskrit language
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
4.
Rishi
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In the Vedas the term Rishi denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the Rishis as seers or sages, who after intense meditation realized truths and eternal knowledge, according to Indian tradition, the word may be derived from two different meanings of the root rsh. Sanskrit grammarians derive this word from the meaning, to go. V. S. Apte gives this particular meaning and derivation, another form of this root means to flow, to move near by flowing. Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great dictionary named ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram, more than a century ago, Monier-Williams tentatively suggested a derivation from drś to see. Monier-Wiliams also quotes the Hibernian form arsan and arrach as related to rishi, Monier-Williams also conjectures that the root drish might have given rise to an obsolete root rish meaning to see. However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš an ecstatic, yet the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h3er-s meaning rise, protrude, in the sense of excellent and thus cognate with Ṛta and right and Asha. Some of the earliest lists of Rishi are found in Jaiminiya Brahmana verse 2.218, in the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda, post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as sages or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men. Swami Vivekananda described Rishis as Mantra-drashtas or the seers of thought, the Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana. In Mahabharata 12, on the hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara, each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated, in addition to the Saptarṣi, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi, devarṣi, Paramrṣi, Shrutarṣi and Kāndarṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa. The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts riṣi at the place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha mentions seven types of riṣis, Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi, amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc. Most medieval era Hindu temples of Java, Indonesia show Rishi Agastya statues or reliefs, some examples include Candi Sambisari and the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta. Rishi Agastya is known as Phra Reusi Akkhot in Thailand, Ruesi is a hermit sage, the equivalent of Rishi in India
5.
Vedas
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The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
6.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
7.
Upanishads
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The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Sanskrit texts that contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism, some of which are shared with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Early Upanishads are considered by Hindus as part of their scriptures that discuss the nature of ultimate reality, the Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object, the highest purpose of the Veda. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of them in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the modern and modern era. Along with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra, the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for the later schools of Vedanta, among them. With the translation of the Upanishads in the early 19th century they started to attract attention from a western audience. Arthur Schopenhauer was deeply impressed by the Upanishads and called it the production of the highest human wisdom, modern era Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishads and major western philosophers. The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad translates to sitting down near, referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge, monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary adds that, According to native authorities Upanishad means setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit. Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means Ātmavidyā, other dictionary meanings include esoteric doctrine and secret doctrine. The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown, Radhakrishnan states, almost all the early literature of India was anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads. The Vedic texts themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate in the dialogues and are credited in the early Upanishads. There are exceptions to the tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature
8.
Patriarch
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Originally, a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a pater familias over an extended family. The system of rule of families by senior males is termed patriarchy. The word patriarch originally acquired its religious meaning in the Septuagint version of the Bible, today, the word has acquired specific ecclesiastical meanings. In particular, the bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church. The office and the circumscription of such a patriarch is termed a patriarchate. Historically, a patriarch has often been the choice to act as ethnarch of the community identified with his religious confession within a state or empire of a different creed. He included in this also the western part of North Africa. Justinians system was given formal recognition by the Quinisext Council of 692. Popes have in the past occasionally used the title Patriarch of the West, beginning 1863, this title appeared in the annual reference publication, Annuario Pontificio, which in 1885 became a semi-official publication of the Holy See. This publication suppressed the title in its 2006 edition, the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity explained the decision in a press release issued later that year. It stated that the title Patriarch of the West had become obsolete and practically unusable, since the Second Vatican Council, the Latin Church, with which the title could be considered associated, is now organized as a number of episcopal conferences and their international groupings. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem The Patriarch of the East Indies a titular see, united to Goa. The Patriarch of Aquileia – with rival line of succession moved to Grado - dissolved in 1752, the Patriarch of Grado – in 1451 merged with the Bishopric of Castello and Venice to form the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Venice. The Patriarch of the West Indies – a titular patriarchal see, the Latin Patriarch of Antioch – title abolished in 1964. The titular Latin Patriarch of Alexandria – title abolished in 1964, the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople – title abolished in 1964.02.24 to Alessandro Cescenzi, Somascans, former Latin Titular Patriarch of Alexandria, who resigned the title on 1682.01.09. However, differences exist in the order of precedence and in the mode of accession, no papal confirmation is needed for newly elected patriarchs before they take office. They are just required to petition the pope as soon as possible for the concession of what is called ecclesiastical communion, the five ancient Patriarchates, the Pentarchy, in order of preeminence ranked by the Quinisext Council in 692. The title of patriarch created in 531 by Justinian. The Patriarch of the West, currently not an Episcopal or Patriarchal authority in the Eastern Orthodox Church, following the Great Schism in 1054
9.
Historical Vedic religion
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The religion of the Vedic period was the religion of the Indo-Aryans of northern India. It is a predecessor of modern Hinduism, though significantly different from it. The Vedic liturgy is conserved in the portion of the four Vedas. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites, the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta continue in coastal Andhra. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, the Vedic religion was the religion of the Indo-Aryans, and existed in northern India from c.1750 to 500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-European language family, which originated in the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes, the Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the Indo-Iranian religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving, the Old Indic term rta, meaning cosmic order and truth, the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra, were known in the Mitanni kingdom. David Gordon White cites three other scholars who have emphatically demonstrated that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations. Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, the Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the purohitas. According to traditional views, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the rishis, in addition the Vedas are said to be apauraṣaya, a Sanskrit word meaning uncreated by man and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status. The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of gods like Indra, chanting of hymns. The priests performed the rituals for the noblemen and wealthy commoners Vaishyas
10.
Samaveda
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The Samaveda, is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of Hinduism, one of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text whose 1,875 verses are primary derived from the Rigveda. Three recensions of the Samaveda have survived, and variant manuscripts of the Veda have been found in parts of India. The classical Indian music and dance tradition considers the chants and melodies in Samaveda as one of its roots and it is also referred to as Sama Veda. The Samaveda is the Veda of Chants, or storehouse of knowledge of chants, according to Frits Staal, it is the Rigveda set to music. It is a fusion of melodies and the Rig verses. It has far fewer verses than Rigveda, but Samaveda is textually larger because it all the chant-. The Samaveda text contains notated melodies, and these are probably the worlds oldest surviving ones, the musical notation is written usually immediately above, sometimes within, the line of Samaveda text, either in syllabic or a numerical form depending on the Samavedic Sakha. The first part include four collections and the second part three verse books. A melody in the song corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. The Gana collection is subdivided into Gramageya and Aranyageya, while the Arcika portion is subdivided into Purvarcika and Uttararcika portions, the Purvarcika portion of the text has 585 single stanza verses and is organized in order of deities, while Uttararcika text is ordered by rituals. The Gramageya melodies are those for public recitations, while Aranyageya melodies are for personal meditative use such as in the solitude of a forest. Just like Rigveda, the sections of Samaveda typically begin with Agni and Indra hymns but shift to abstract speculations and philosophy. The later sections of the Samaveda, states Witzel, have least deviation from substance of hymns they derive from Rigveda into songs, the purpose of Samaveda was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the udgātṛ or singer priests. The Samaveda, like other Vedas, contains layers of text, with Samhita being the oldest. The Samaveda consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken almost entirely from Rigveda, the largest number of verse come from Books 9 and 8 of the Rig Veda. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once, including these repetitions, there are a total of 1,875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith. Samaveda samhita is not meant to be read as a text, the text uses creative structures, called Stobha, to help embellish, transform or play with the words so that they better fit into a desired musical harmony
11.
Agastya
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Agastya is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. In the Indian traditions, he is a recluse and an influential scholar in diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent. He and his wife Lopamudra are the authors of hymns 1.165 to 1.191 in the Sanskrit text Rigveda. Agastya is considered by many to be the father of the Tamil language, Agastya is a character in numerous inconsistent mythologies and regional epics including the major Ramayana and Mahabharata. He is also revered in the Puranic literature of Shaktism and Vaishnavism and he is one of the Indian sages found in ancient sculpture and reliefs in Hindu temples of South Asia, and Southeast Asia such as in the early medieval era Shaiva temples on Java Indonesia. He is the figure and Guru in the ancient Javanese language text Agastyaparva. He is also referred to as Mana, Kalasaja, Kumbhaja, the etymological origin of Agastya is unclear and there are several theories. One states that it is derived from a tree called Agati gandiflora. This theory suggests that Agati evolved into Agastih, and favors Dravidian origins of the Vedic sage, a third theory links it to Indo-European origins, through the Iranian word gasta which means sin, foul, and a-gasta would mean not sin, not foul. The word is written as Agasti and Agathiyar. The origins of Agastya are mythical, unlike most Vedic sages, he has neither a human mother nor a father. According to Hindu mythology, his miraculous birth follows a yajna being done by gods Varuna and Mitra and they are overwhelmed by her extraordinary sexuality, and ejaculate. Their semen falls into a mud pitcher, which is the womb in which the fetus of Agastya grows and he is born from this jar, along with his twin sage Vashistha in some mythologies. This mythology gives him the name kumbhayoni, which means he whose womb was a mud pot. Agastya leads a life, educates himself, becoming a celebrated sage. He is not born to Brahmin parents, but is called a Brahmin in many Indian texts because of his learning, in the Tamil traditions, he is considered a form of the Hindu god Shiva, one well versed in Sanskrit and a symbol of Tamil learning. According to inconsistent legends in the Puranic and the epics, the ascetic sage Agastya proposed to Lopamudra and her parents were unwilling to bless the engagement, concerned that she would be unable to live the austere lifestyle of Agastya in the forest. Therewith, Lopamudra becomes the wife of Agastya, Agastya and Lopamudra have a son named Drdhasyu, sometimes called Idhmavaha
12.
Atri
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Atri or Attri is a Vedic sage, who is credited with composing a large number of hymns to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities of Hinduism. Atri is one of the Saptarishi in the Hindu tradition, the fifth Mandala of Rigveda is called the Atri Mandala in his honour, and the eighty seven hymns in it are attributed to him and his descendants. Atri is also mentioned in the Puranas and the Hindu Epics such as the Ramayana, Atri is one of the seven great Rishi or saptarshi along with Marichi, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vashistha. According to the legends of the Vedic era, sage Atri was married to Anasuya Devi and they had three sons, Dattatreya, Durvasas and Soma. As per divine account, he is the last among the seven saptharishis and is believed to have originated from the tongue, the wife of Atri was Anusuya, who is considered one of the seven female pathivrathas. When instructed by divine voice to do penance, Atri readily agreed, pleased by his devotion and prayers, the Hindu trinity, namely, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva appeared before him and offered him boons. He sought all the three to be born to him, another version of the legend states that Anusuya, by the powers of her chastity, rescued the three gods and in return, they were born as children to her. Brahma was born to her as Chandra, Vishnu as Dattatreya, the mention about Atri is found in various scriptures, with the notable being in Rig Veda. He is also associated with various ages, the notable being in Dvapara Yuga during Ramayana, the pair is also attributed to bringing river Ganga down to earth, the mention of which is found in Shiva Purana. He is the seer of the fifth Mandala of the Rigveda, Atri had many sons and disciples who have also contributed in the compilation of the Rig Veda and other Vedic texts. Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, but also to the Visvedevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna, two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas and to Savitr. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the Atri clan composers and these hymns of Rigveda was composed in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between c. The Atri hymns of the Rigveda are significant for their structure as well as for featuring spiritual ideas in the form of riddles. These hymns include lexical, syntactic, morphological and verb play utilizing the flexibility of the Sanskrit language, the hymn 5.44 of the Rigveda in Atri Mandala is considered by scholars such as Geldner to be the most difficult riddle hymn in all of the Rigveda. The verses are known for their elegant presentation of natural phenomenon through metaphors. While the fifth mandala is attributed to Atri and his associates, sage Atri is mentioned or credited with other verses of the Rigveda in other Mandalas. In the Ramayana, Rama, Sita and Lakshmana visit Atri, a number of sages named Atri are mentioned in the various medieval era Puranas. The mythical legends therein about Atri are diverse and inconsistent and it is unclear if these refer to the same person, or to different Rishis who had the same name
13.
Bharadwaja
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Bharadwaja, also referred to as Bharadvaja or Bharadvaja Barhaspatya, is one of the revered Vedic sages in Hinduism. He and his family of students are considered the authors of the book of the Rigveda. He is one of the Saptaṛṣis and his full name in Vedic texts is Bharadvaja Barhaspatya, the last name referring to his father and Vedic sage Brihaspati. He is one of the seven rishis mentioned four times in the Rigveda as well as in the Shatapatha Brahmana, thereafter revered in the Mahabharata, in later Puranic legends, he is stated to be the son of Vedic sage Atri. In Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. The word Bharadvaja is a compound Sanskrit from bhara and vaja, Bharadvaja and his famiy of students are the authors of the sixth mandala of the Rigveda, one of the family books in this text. He and his students are also the authors of other Rigvedic hymns such as 10.87,10.152 and 10.155. Bharadvaja and his famiy of students were the poets of king Marutta of the Vedic era. Bharadvaja is a sage in the Hindu traditions, and like other revered sages, numerous treatises composed in ancient. Some treatises named after him or attributed to him include, Dhanur-veda, Bharadvaja srautasutra and grhyasutra, a ritual and rites of passage text from 1st millennium BCE. After the Kalpasutra by Baudhayana, these Bharadvaja texts are among the oldest srauta, Bharadvaja theories on medicine and causal phenomenon is described in Charaka Samhita. According to Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld, Bharadvaja is credited with many theories, niti sastra, a treatise on ethics and practical conduct. Bharadvaja-siksa, is one of many ancient Sanskrit treatises on phonetics, bhardvāja is a gotra of the Brahmin caste. According to one legend, Bharadvaja married Sushila and had a son called Garga, in the Mahabharata, he has a son with an apsara named Ghritachi, and this son is called Dronacharya. In the epic, Bharadvaja trained Drona in the use of weapons, bharadwaja had a daughter called Katyayani, who married Yajnavalkya. In the epic Ramayana, Rama, Sita and Lakshmana meet Bharadvaja at his asrama at the start of their fourteen year exile, the sage asks them to stay with him through the exile, but they insist on going deeper into the forest to Chitrakuta. He reappears at various times in the epic, and described in Ayodhya Kanda as the son of sage Atri, according to James Lochtefeld, the Bharadvaja in the Ramayana is different from the Vedic sage mentioned in Paninis Ashtadhyayi
14.
Gautama Maharishi
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Gautama Maharishi is one of the Saptarṣis (Seven Great Sages Ṛṣis of the current Manvantara. He was one of the Maharishis of Vedic times, known to have been the discoverer of Mantras -- Mantra-drashtā, the Rig Veda has several suktas that go with his name. The Vedic sage Gautama is credited with authoring many hymns in Mandala 1 and he was the son of Rahugana, belonging to the line of Angiras. The Devi Bhagavatam says that the river Godavari is so named because of its association with Gotama and he had two sons by name Vamadeva and Nodhas, both themselves discoverers of Mantras. There is a hymn called Bhadra in the Sama Veda which again is ascribed to Gotama Maharishi and his wife is Ahalya, herself the mind born daughter of Creator Brahma. The chief priest of King Janaka of Mithila, by name Shatananda, was the son of Gotama, Gotamas sixty-year-long penance is mentioned in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. The Narada purana describes the story of the 12-year famine during which Gotama fed all the Rishis, Gotama was one of the famous seven rishis termed Saptarshi. He was the progenitor of the Gautama gotra and he was the son of Rahugana. With Bharadvaja, Gotama shares a common ancestry as they are descended from Angirasa, and sometimes they are both bracketed together under the name Angirasa. The sons of Gotama are Vamadeva and Nodha, the 4th book of the Rigveda is that of the Vamadeva Gautama. The descendant of Lord Shiva as Trimbakeshvar, that constitutes the source of the Jyotirlinga nearby, the Brahmanda Purana mentions that one of the sub-branches of the Raanaayani branch of Sama Veda was initiated by this Gotama. Some famous disciples of Gotama were Praachina-yogya, Shaandilya, Gārgya, according to the Ramayana, Rishi Gotama once went to take bath in the river Ganges early morning. The king of the Devas, Indra, was fascinated with Gotamas wife, Indra came in the form of Gotama and made love to Ahalya. As he was escaping, he was caught by Rishi Gotama who was returning to the Ashrama from his bath, gautam cursed Ahalya and Indra both for this act. Ahalya was converted to stone, while Indra was cursed with one thousands of female genitalia, later, taking pity on both, Gotama converted both these curses. Indra curse was converted to thousands of eyes he came to be known as Sahasrāksha, as for Ahalya, Gotama granted her the boon that she would be liberated by the touch of the feet of Lord Rama. A Dharmasutra is known as Gautama Dharmasutra, but was not authored by Gautama Maharishi, akṣapāda Gotama is the 2nd century CE founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy, but is not Gotama Maharishi. Gautama Buddha is the name of the founder of Buddhism, collection of stories on Gotama Maharshi,1,2,3 Gotama Maharshi
15.
Jamadagni
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In Hindu mythology, Jamadagni is one of the Saptarishis in the seventh, current Manvantara. He is the father of Parashurama, the incarnation of Vishnu. He was a descendant of the sage Bhrigu, one of the Prajapatis created by Brahma, Jamadagni had five children with wife Renuka, the youngest of whom was Parashurama, an avatar of Lord Vishnu. Jamadagni was well versed in the scriptures and weaponry without formal instruction, Jamadagni is an avatar of Lord Shiva. A descendant of sage Bhrigu, Jamadagni literally meaning consuming fire, was born to sage Richika and Satyavati, growing up he studied hard and achieved erudition on the Vedas. He acquired the science of weapons without any formal instruction. His father, Richika had guided him though, the Aushanasa Dhanurveda which is now lost, is about a conversation between Jamadagni and Ushanas or Shukracharya on the exercises of warfare. He went to King Prasenjit, of solar dynasty or Suryavansha, subsequently, they were married, and the couple had five sons Vasu, Viswa Vasu, Brihudyanu, Brutwakanwa and Rambhadra, later known as Parshurama. Renuka was a wife and a power of her chastity that was manifest. Such was her chastity, that she used to water from the river in a pot made of unbaked clay every day. One day while at the river, a group of Gandharvas passed by in the sky above in a chariot, filled with desire for only a moment, the unbaked pot that she was carrying dissolved into the river. Afraid to go back to her husband, she waited at the river bank, meanwhile, Jamadagni noticed that his wife had not yet returned from the river. Through his yogic powers, he divined all that had taken place and was filled with rage, Jamadagni called his eldest son, told him what had happened and asked him to execute his mother. Horror-stricken, his son refused to perform this deed and he then asked all of his sons, and as they refused, he turned them one by one to stone. Finally only his youngest son, Parashurama, was left, ever-obedient and righteous, Parashurama beheaded his mother with an axe. Pleased, Jamadagni offered two boons to Parashurama, Parashurama asked that his mothers head be restored to life and his brothers to be turned from stone back to flesh. Impressed by his sons devotion and affection, Jamadagni granted the boons and his brothers and mother were reformed from stone without having the memory of experiencing death as an additional wish of Parashurama. The purpose of trial was to demonstrate the dharma of a son towards his father. Jamadagni was later visited by the Haihaya king Kartavirya Arjuna, who he served a feast using a cow called Kamadhenu
16.
Vasistha
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Vashistha is a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism. He is one of the Saptarishis of India, Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of Rigveda. Vashistha and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic verse 10.167.4, other Rigvedic mandalas and his ideas have been influential and he was called as the first sage of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara. Yoga Vasistha, Vashistha Samhita, as well as versions of the Agni Purana. He is the subject of many mythologies, such as him being in possession of the divine cow Kamadhenu and Nandini her child and he is famous in Hindu mythologies for his legendary conflicts with sage Visvamitra. Vashistha is also spelled as Vasiṣṭha Thai, Vasit, Tamil, வசிட்டர், Telugu, वसिष्ठ literally means most excellent, best or richest. In Rigvedic hymn 7.33.9, Vasistha is described as a scholar who moved across the Indus river to establish his school and he was married to Arundhati, and therefore he was also called Arundhati Nath, meaning the husband of Arundhati. Vashistha is believed to have lived on the banks of Ganga in modern-day Uttarakhand, later, this region is believed in the Indian tradition to be the abode of sage Vyasa along with Pandavas, the five brothers of Mahabharata. In Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. Vashistha is the author of the book of the Rigveda, one of its family books. These hymns declare two gods, Indra and Varuna, as equally great, in another hymn, particularly the Rigvedic verse 8.83. The seventh mandala of the Rigveda by Vashistha is a metaphorical treatise, Vashistha reappears as a character in Hindu texts, through its history, that explore conciliation between conflicting or opposing ideologies. According to Ellison Findly – a professor of Religion, Vashista hymns in the Rigveda are among the most intriguing in many ways and influential. Vashistha is a sage in the Hindu traditions, and like other revered sages, numerous treatises composed in ancient. Some treatises named after him or attributed to him include, Vasistha samhita is a medieval era Yoga text, there is an Agama as well with the same title. Vasistha dharmasutra, an ancient text, and one of the few Dharma-related treatises which has survived into the modern era and this Dharmasūtra forms an independent text and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing. Yoga Vasistha is a medieval era text that presents Vedanta
17.
Vishvamitra
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Brahmarshi Vishvamitra is one of the most venerated rishis or sages of ancient India. He is also credited as the author of most of Mandala 3 of the Rigveda, the Puranas mention that only 24 rishis since antiquity have understood the whole meaning of—and thus wielded the whole power of—Gayatri Mantra. Vishvamitra is supposed to be the first, and Yajnavalkya the last, the story of Vishvamitra is narrated in the Balakanda of Valmiki Ramayana. Mahabharata adds that Vishvamitras relationship with Menaka resulted in a daughter, Shakuntala, Vishvamitra was a king in ancient India, also called Kaushika. Vishwamitra was originally the Chandravanshi King of Kanyakubja and he was a valiant warrior and the great-grandson of a great king named Kusha. Valmiki Ramayana, prose 51 of Bala Kanda, starts with the story of Vishvamitra, There was a king named Kusha, one who is highly renowned by the name Gaadhi was the son of Kushanabha and Gaadhis son is this great-saint of great resplendence, Vishvamitra. Vishvamitra ruled the earth and this great-resplendent king ruled the kingdom for many thousands of years and his story also appears in various Puranas, however, with variations from Ramayana. Vishnu Purana and Harivamsha chapter 27 of Mahabharata narrates the birth of Vishvamitra, according to Vishnu Purana, Kushanabha married a damsel of Purukutsa dynasty and had a son by name Gaadhi, who had a daughter named Satyavati. Satyavati was married to an old Brahmin known as Ruchika who was foremost among the race of Bhrigu, Ruchika desired a son having the qualities of a Brahmin and so he gave Satyavati a sacrificial offering which he had prepared to achieve this objective. He also gave Satyavatis mother another charu to make her conceive a son with the character of a Kshatriya at her request, but Satyavatis mother privately asked Satyavati to exchange her charu with her. Vishwamitra is a Sanskrit word, meaning friend of the world, on one of his exploits, King Kaushika and his soldiers took rest in the hermitage of sage Vashista. The whole army was well-fed and taken care of by the sage, the king doubted the possibility and expressed his surprise to the sage as to how he was able to take care of the whole arrangements. Vashista replied, O king, this feast that you have partaken with your kinsmen, has provided by my calf Nandini. You must know that she is daughter of Indras cow Kamadhenu and she provides me with everything I need. Kaushika was surprised and he planned to attain the cow by all means and he expressed a desire to the sage for obtaining Nandini from him. Vashista politely refused to give the cow to king, Vashista was not be tempted by the offer of untold wealth that was made by Kaushika for the cow, which can readily yield all the riches in the world. The king grew exceedingly angry and he insulted Brahmarishi with harsh words and he also ordered his soldiers to seize the cow and drive it to his kingdom. Nandini was daughter of Kamadhenu and hence she forcefully protested against the soldiers, Vashishta saved the cow by destroying all of the kings army with his superhuman powers
18.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
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The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is one of the Principal Upanishads and one of the oldest Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism. A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the Brihadaranyaka Upanisad is tenth in the Muktikā or canon of 108 Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is estimated to have been composed about 700 BCE, excluding some parts estimated to have been composed after the Chandogya Upanishad. The Sanskrit language text is contained within the Shatapatha Brahmana, which is itself a part of the Shukla Yajur Veda, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad was in all likelihood composed in the earlier part of 1st millennium BCE. The exact year, and even the century of the Upanishad composition is unknown, scholars have offered different estimates ranging from 900 BCE to 600 BCE, all preceding Buddhism. According to a 1998 review by Olivelle, Brihadaranyaka is one of the oldest Upanishads, along with Jaiminiya Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishads. It was composed around 700 BCE, give or take a century or so, the chronology of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, like other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested. Patrick Olivelle states, in spite of claims made by some, in reality, the title Brihadaranyaka Upanishad literally means great wilderness or forest Upaniṣhad. It is credited to ancient sage Yajnavalkya, but likely refined by a number of ancient Vedic scholars, the Upanishad forms the last part, that is the fourteenth khanda of Satapatha Brahmana. It includes three sections, Madhu Kanda, Muni Kanda and Khila Kanda, thus, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has six adhyayas in total. There are two major recensions for the text - the Madhyandina and the Kanva recensions, the first and second chapters of the Upanishads Madhu Kanda consists of six brahmanams each, with varying number of hymns per brahmanam. The first chapter of the Upanishads Yajnavalkya Kanda consists of nine brahmanams, the Khila Kanda of the Upanishad has fifteen brahmanams in its first chapter, and five brahmanams in the second chapter. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad starts by stating one of many Vedic theories of creation of the universe, the world is more than matter and energy, asserts Brihadaranyaka, it is constituted also of Atman or Brahman as well as Knowledge. In the last brahmana of the first chapter, the Upanishad explains that the Atman inspires by being self-evident, through empowering forms, the Soul, states Brihadaranyaka, is the imperishable one that is invisible and concealed pervading all reality. It then asserts that this fact about dreams suggests that human mind has the power to perceive the world as it is. Mind is a means, prone to flaws, the struggle man faces, asserts Brihadaranyaka in brahmana 3, is in his attempt to realize the true reality behind perceived reality. That is Atman-Brahman, inherently and blissfully existent, yet unknowable because it has no qualities, no characteristics, it is neti, neti. Yajnavalkya states that one doesnt connect with and love forms, nor does one connect or love mind, rather one connects with the Self, all love is for the sake of ones Self, and the Oneness one realizes in the Self of the beloved. He then asserts that knowledge of the Soul, the Self, the Brahman is what makes one immortal
19.
Kashyapa
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Kashyapa is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. He was one of the seven ancient sages considered as Saptarishis in Rigveda, numerous Sanskrit texts and he is the most ancient rishi listed in the colophon verse in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and called a self-made scholar in the Atharvaveda. He was based in part of the Indian subcontinent. Kashyapa is an ancient name, referring to many different personalities in the ancient Hindu. Kaśyapa, alternatively kasiiapa, means turtle in Sanskrit, according to Michael Witzel, it is related to Sogdian kyšph, New Persian kašaf, kašp which mean tortoise, after which Kashaf Rūd or a river in Turkmenistan and Khorasan is named. According to Frits Staal, Kaśyapa means tortoise but it is a non-Indo-European word, Kashyapa is one of Saptarishi, the seven famed rishis considered to be author of many hymns and verses of the Rigveda. He and his family of students are, for example, the author of the verse of 10.137. He is mentioned in verse 2.2.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, along with Atri, Vashistha, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Bharadwaja and Gotama. Kashyapa is also mentioned as the earliest rishi in colophon verse 6.5.3 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Kashyapa is mentioned in other Vedas and numerous other Vedic texts. For example, in one of several cosmology-related hymns of Atharvaveda, Kashyapa is mentioned in the allegory-filled Book XIX and his name is very common in the Epic and Purana literature. In Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. Kashmir, the northern Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent got its name from Kashyapa Rishi, in ancient texts of Greece, linked to the expedition of Alexander the Great, this land has been called Kasperia, possibly a contraction of Kasyapamira. Kaspatyros may be same as Kaspa-pyrus or Kasyapa-pur in other texts, Kashyapa is revered in the Hindu tradition, and numerous legends and texts composed in medieval era are reverentially attributed to him in various Hindu traditions. The treatise is written as a tutorial between the medical sage Kashyapa and his student named Vriddhajivaka, and mostly related to caring for babies and diseases of children, Kashyapa Jnanakandah, or Kashyapas book of wisdom, is a 9th century text of the Vaishnavism tradition. Kasyapa dharmasutra, likely an ancient text, but now believed to be lost, the texts existence is inferred from quotes and citations by medieval Indian scholars. Kasyapa sangita, likely another ancient text, but now believed to be lost, a treatise on music, it is quoted by Shaivism and Advaita scholar Abhinavagupta, wherein he cites sage Kasyapa explanation on viniyoga of each rasa and bhava. Another Hindu music scholar named Hrdanyangama mentions Kashyapas contributions to the theory of alankara, kasyapasilpa, also called Amsumad agama, Kasypiya or Silpasastra of Kasyapa, is a Sanskrit treatise on architecture, iconography and the decorative arts, probably completed in the 11th century
20.
Brahma
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Brahma is the creator god in the Trimurti of Hinduism. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu, Vāgīśa, and the creator of the four Vedas, Brahma is identified with the Vedic god Prajapati, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha, he is more prominently mentioned in the post-Vedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha, Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is part of a Hindu Trinity, however, ancient Hindu texts mention other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma. While Brahma is often credited as the creator of the universe and various beings in it, other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with all deities, is viewed as a form of the otherwise formless Brahman. Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the members of the Trimurti, Vishnu. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a deity in India. Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Brahma temples are found outside India, such as in Thailand at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. The origins of Brahma are uncertain, in part because related words such as one for Ultimate Reality. The existence of a deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic text. The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle called Brahman. In Sanskrit grammar, the noun stem brahman forms two distinct nouns, one is a neuter noun bráhman, whose singular form is brahma. Contrasted to the noun is the masculine noun brahmán, whose nominative singular form is Brahma. This noun is used to refer to a person, and as the name of a deity Brahma it is the subject matter of the present article. One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, Brahma is discussed in verse 5,1 also called the Kutsayana Hymn first, and expounded in verse 5,2. In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn, the Upanishad asserts that ones Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. In verse 5,2 Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, the post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma. Brahma is a creator as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas
21.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
22.
Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
23.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
24.
Big Dipper
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The Big Dipper or Plough is an asterism consisting of the seven brightest stars of the constellation Ursa Major, six of them are of second magnitude and one, Megrez, of third magnitude. Four define a bowl or body and three define a handle or head and it is recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures. The North Star, the current northern pole star and the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper and this makes it useful in celestial navigation. The constellation of Ursa Major has been seen as a bear by many distinct civilizations and this may stem from a common oral tradition stretching back for thousands of years. Using statistical and phylogenetic tools, Julien dHuy reconstructs the following Palaeolithic state of the story, There is an animal that is a horned herbivore, the hunt proceeds to the sky. The animal is alive when it is transformed into a constellation-- It forms the Big Dipper. In Canada and the United States, the asterism is known as the Big Dipper because the stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a spoon or dipper. There are seven stars in the Dipper, proceeding from the handle to the bowl, Alkaid, Mizar, Alioth, Megrez, Phecda, Merak, a widespread Native American figuration had the bowl as a bear. Some groups considered the handle to be three cubs following their mother, while others pictured three hunters tracking the bear, the Anishinaabe or Ojibway First Nation know the Big Dipper as the Fisher Star after the small mammal known as the fisher. In both Ireland and the United Kingdom, this pattern is known as the Plough, the symbol of the Starry Plough has been used as a political symbol by Irish Republican and left wing movements. Another former name was the Great Wain, in northern England, it is occasionally still known as the Butchers Cleaver, and in the northeast, as Charlies Wagon. This derives from the earlier Charless Wain and Charles his Wain, a folk etymology holds that this derived from Charlemagne, but the name is common to all the Germanic languages and intended the churls wagon, in contrast with the womens wagon. An older Odins Wain may have preceded these Nordic designations, in German, it is known as the Great Wagon and, less often, the Great Bear. In Scandinavia, it is known by variations of Charless Wagon, in Dutch, its official name is the Great Bear, but it is popularly known as the Saucepan. In Italian, too, it is called the Great Wagon, in Finnish, the figure is known as the Salmon Net and widely used as a cultural symbol. The brown bear in Finnish actually became known as otava, Book XVIII of Homers Iliad mentions it as the Bear, which men also call the Wain. In Latin, these seven stars were known as the Seven Oxen, triōnēs is a hapax legomenon, occurring only in a single passage by Varro, where he glosses it as meaning plough oxen. The derivation is acceptable but the meaning, if Varro is right that it derives from terō, is surely threshing oxen, the seven stars wheel around the pole star like oxen on a threshing floor
25.
Marichi
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In another classification, Marichi is one of the ten Prajapatis, the ruler of people created by Brahma. In Jain scriptures, he is referred to as one of the reincarnations of the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira as son of the Bharata Chakravartin. Saptarishi, a Sanskrit dvigu meaning seven sages) are the seven rishis who are extolled at many places in the Vedas, the Vedic Samhitas never enumerate these rishis by name, though later Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas and Upanisads do so. While earlier texts do not mention Marichi as one of the seven, in some parts of India, people believe these are seven stars of the Big Dipper named Vashista, Marichi, Pulastya, Pulaha, Atri, Angiras and Kratu. There is another star slightly visible within it, known as Arundhati and he is considered one among the seven great sages, the saptharishis. Marichi, like some of the sages, followed the path of wordly duties denouncing total renounciation. He had lot of children, the notable being sage Kashyapa, dharmavrata was one of the many consorts of the sage. Once he was cursed by the sage to become a stone for no fault of her and she pleaded innoncence and proved it by immolating herself. Vishnu was pleased by her devotion, before the creation started, Brahma, the Hindu god of creation, needed a few people who can be held responsible for the creation of the remaining Universe. Therefore, he is believed to have created ten Prajapatis from his Manas, Marichi is one of the manasputras of Brahma. Marichi is then married to Kala and gave birth to Kashyap and he is believed to be formed out of the sustained enery of Hindu god Vishnu. He is believed to have officiated the penance of Brahma at Pushkar and he is also believed to have visited Bhishma during Mahabharatha, when he was lying on the arrow bed. Marichi is also quoted as the adviser of young Dhuruva to pursue austeririts and his name is featured in multiple Hindu scriptures like Brahmanda Purana and the Vedas. Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita says, Of the Ādityas I am Vishnu, of lights I am the radiant sun, of the Maruts I am Marici, and among the stars I am the moon. In Jain scriptures, Marichi was the son of Bharata Chakravartin who after many births was born as 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, in his life as Marichi, he became a Jain monk following Rishabhanatha, first tirthankara, but was unable to follow the hard rules of Digambara penance. So he took a robe, pedals and an umberalla and founded his own religion taking Kapila as his first disciple, Mahavira Dundas, Paul, The Jains, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26605-X
26.
Pulaha
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Rishi Pulaha or Pulaha is the son of Brahma, the cosmic creator, and also one of the Saptarshi, in the First Manvantara, with others being Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Kratu, Pulastya, and Vashishtha. In another classification, Pulaha one of the ten Prajapatis, the ruler of people created by Brahma, during his birth in the first Manvantara, Pulaha was married to Dakshas daughters, Kshama. Together they had three sons, Kardama, Kanakapeetha and Urvarivat, and a daughter named Peevari, according to Bhagavata Purana Pulaha Rishi was also married to Gati, a daughter of Kardama and Devahuthi. The two had three sons – Karmasreshtta, Vareeyaamsu and Sahishnu, Pulaha is believed to be the fifth son who sprang from Brahmas head. Brahma created saptharishis and ten prajapathi, from all human beings are believed to have been born. Pulaha learned the power of knowledge from sage Sanandana and in turn transmitted all knowledge to sage Gautama and he performed intense penance on the banks of river Alaknandha and was rewarded to be present in the court of Indra. King Bharata renounced all his kingdom and sought refuge in the hermitate of Pulaha, the sage is believed to be an ardent worshipper of Shiva. Pleased by the devotion of the sage, Shiva manifested in the form of Pulaheswar in Varanasi
27.
Angiras (sage)
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Angiras is a Vedic rishi of Hinduism. He is described in the Rigveda as a teacher of divine knowledge, in some texts, he is considered to be one of the seven great sages or saptarishis, but in others he is mentioned but not counted in the list of seven great sages. In some manuscripts of Atharvaveda, the text is attributed to Atharvangirasah, the student family of Angiras are called Angirasa, and they are credited to be the authors of some hymns in the first, second, fifth, eighth, ninth and tenth book of the Rigveda. Angiras is common name, and the mentions in ancient. In the Hindu Epics and Puranas, his legends and mythologies are highly inconsistent, many hymns of the Rigveda credit Angiras and his students as their authors. For example, Hymns 1.101 through 1.115 dedicated to Agni, Indra, Ribhus, Asvins, Dawn, Rudra, hymn 2.1 dedicated to Agni was originally authored by Angirasa Saunahotra. Hymns 5.35 and 5.36 dedicated to Indra were authored by Prabhuvasu Angirasa, Hymns 8.2 to Indra were authored by Priyamedha Angirasa. Hymns 9.97,9.108,9.112 to Soma were authored by Kutsa Angirasa, Uru Angirasa, Urdhvasadman Angirasa, Krtayasas Angirasa and Sisu Angirasa. Hymns in mandala 10, on Indra, Agni, Brihaspati, Wisdom, Surya, Vaisvanara, Horses, Dawn, ritual of Royal consecration, other than crediting authorship, the Vedic texts mention sage Angiras in various roles such as a fire priest or a singer. For example, the allegorical hymn 3.31 of the Rigveda calls him a singer, In the Vedic tradition linked to the Atharvaveda, sage Atharvan was more revered while sage Angiras was controversial. The auspicious practices, virtues and the pursuit of good for others were attributed to Atharvan, while the hostile sorcery, in Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. The name Angirasas is applied generically to several Puranic individuals, further, the Vedic sage Angiras appears in medieval Hindu texts with contradictory roles as well as many different versions of his birth, marriage and biography. In some, he is described to be the son of Brahma, depending on the legend, he has one, two or four wives. In one myth, his wife is stated to be Surūpa and his sons are Utathya, Samvartana, other accounts say that he married Smriti, the daughter of Daksha and later married Svadha. Yet other Puranic accounts state, he married Shubha and they had seven daughters named after aspects of fire, in some legends, sage Brihaspati is his son. According to one legend, Angirasa turned his senses inwards and meditated on Para-Brahman, the great Tejas he got by birth had multiplied infinitely by his penance. He attained many divine qualities, powers, and riches, but he was oblivious of all the worldly attainments and did not stop his penance
28.
Arundhati (Hinduism)
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Arundhati is the wife of the sage Vashistha, one of the seven sages who are identified with the Ursa Major. She is identified with the star and also with the star Alcor which forms a double star with Mizar in Ursa Major. Arundhati, though the wife of one of the seven seers, is accorded the status as the seven seers and is worshipped with them as such. In the Vedic and Puranic literature, she is regarded as the epitome of chastity, conjugal bliss, in post-Puranic epic poems in Sanskrit and Hindi, she has been described as “chaste and revered” and with a character that is “unblemished, inspiring and worthy of imitation”. Arundhatis birth and life are mentioned in various Hindu scriptures, the birth of Arundhati is found in the Shiva Purana and Bhagavata Purana. The instruction by Brahma to Arundhati is described in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramcharitmanas, the rivalry between Vishvamitra and Vashista which leads to the death of her hundred sons is described in the Balakanda of Valmikis Ramayana. The Mahabharata and several Brahmana works describe her sons, including Shakti, arundhatis meetings with Sita and Rama are mentioned in the Ramayana, Ramcharitmanas and Vinaya Patrika. Her role in pleading Shiva to marry Parvati is described in the canto of Kumarasambhava of Kalidasa. As per the Bhagavata Purana, Arundhati is the eighth among the nine daughters of Kardama and she is the grandmother of Parashara and the great-grandmother of Vyasa. The Shiva Purana describes her as being Sandhya, the daughter of Brahma. On instruction of Vashista, Sandhya pleased Shiva by penance in order to purify herself from passion and she was then born as Medhatithis daughter and married Vashista. Some other Puranas describe her as the daughter of Kashyapa and sister of Narada and Parvata, the Mahabharata describes Arundhati as an ascetic who used to give discourses to even the seven sages. The wife of Agni, Svaha, could assume the form of the wives of the other six seers amongst Saptarshi. The epic also narrates how once she pleased Shiva when it did not rain for 12 years and her chastity and service to husband is mentioned as unparalleled in the Mahabharata. As per the Valmiki Ramayana, she bore a hundred sons and she then bore a son named Shakti and later another one named Suyagya, who studied with Rama at Vashistas hermitage. Some sources say she had eight sons including Shakti and Chitraketu, in one of the rituals of a Hindu marriage, the groom shows the bride the double stars of Vashista and Arundhati as an ideal couple, symbolic of marital fulfilment and loyalty. The couples are asked to look up the constellation symbolizing conjugal love, on the second bright day of the lunar month of Chaitra, a fast in her honour is observed in certain regions of India by ladies whose husbands are alive. This fast is observed with the belief that the ladies observing it would not be widowed, since the Arundhati star is faintly visible, there is a belief that when someone is near death, they can not see the Arundhati star
29.
Parasurama
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Parashurama is the sixth avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism. He is the son of Renuka and one of the saptarishis and he lived during the last Treta and Dvapara Yugas and is one of the Chiranjivi of Hinduism. Parashurama, a Brahmin, received his famous axe after undertaking terrible penance to please Shiva, Parashurama is most known for ridding the world of kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty king Kartavirya Arjuna, not the famous one of Mahabharata, killed his father. As per the Mahabharata, Parashurama single-handedly successfully conquered the entire world, Parashurama conducted hundreds of Ashvamedhas and gave away the entire earth he conquered as alms to sage Kashyapa. He plays important roles in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to Bhishma, Parashurama and Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed the three ultimate weapons, the Brahmanda astra, Vaishnava astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a disciple of Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of warfare from Shiva and he then acquired celestial weapons from Shiva and the other gods on Shivas instructions. Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of warfare. The Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon, Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands of Konkan and Kerala. Parashurama is worshipped as mūlapuruṣa, or male ancestral founder by some Anavil, Dravidulu, Bhumihar, Tyagi, Chitpavan, along with the sages Vyasa, Kripa and Dronas son Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis in the Kaliyuga. Parashurama will also become one of the saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara, Parashurama is a mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor of Vishnus 10th avatar Kalki. The word Parashurama is derived from two words parashu meaning axe and rama, so literally, the word Parashurama means Rama with an axe. Though a Brahmin by birth, Parashurama expressed unusual interest in weapons, afterwards, Parashurama devoted himself in serving his parents and brothers, helping Jamadagni to run his hermitage. According to the Brahmanda Purana, when Parashurama was a teenager, Jamadagni permitted his son and Parashurama visited Richika in his hermitage. Richika and his wife welcomed him and Parashurama stayed with them for a few months, serving them, curious about his ancestors, Parashurama went to the hermitage of Richikas father Aurva and a few months later, he went to Aurvas father, Chyavana. Parashurama was devoted to them and they too gave him knowledge, many months later, Chyavana told Parashurama to meet his own father, Sage Bhrigu, the very progenitor of the Bhargava race himself. With Chyavanas instructions, Parashurama was able to enter Bhrigus hermitage, Parashurama lived with Bhrigu for many months and Bhrigu trained his descendant in performing harsh penances. Lord Shiva was pleased with this, and appeared before him, Parashurama expressed his desire to obtain celestial weapons and skills in warfare from the God. Shiva told him that he would grant the boon only when Parashurama proved himself to be a worthy soul, Shiva told Parashurama to undertake a Tirtha Yatra or holy pilgrimage. After years of penances, Shiva was pleased with Parashuramas devotion, Shiva ordered Parashurama to slay the Daityas and Danavas who were the enemies of the Devas, to which the latter agreed
30.
Kripa
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Not to be confused with Kripa, a female given name. Kripa, also known as Kripacharya or Krupacharya is an important character in the Mahābhārata and he was the son of Shardwana and Janapadi, born in a particularly extraordinary manner. He along with his sister Kripi were adopted by King Shantanu, later on Kripa became an acharya, teacher of the royal children, giving him the name Kripacharya. His twin sister Kripi married Drona, Kripa was among the Maharathis who fought on the Kauravass side against the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra war in the Hindu epic of the Mahabharata. Along with others, Kripa is considered to be foremost among the rishis in Kaliyuga, Kripa will also become one of the Saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara. Gautama Maharishi had a grandson called Shardwana, Shardwana was born with arrows, making clear he was a born archer. As he matured, he became such a great archer, and this threatened the gods, especially Indra. He then sent a beautiful Apsara, Janapadi, from heaven to distract the celibate saint, Shardwana was distracted by the sight of such a beautiful woman and lost some control, dropping his weapons and retreating into the forest to undergo more penance. His semen fell on some weeds by the wayside, dividing the weeds into two - from which a boy and a girl were born, the king of Hastinapura, Shantanu was crossing from there and saw the children by the wayside. One look at them was enough for him to realize that they were the children of a great Brahmin and he named them Kripa and Kripi, and decided to take them back with him to his palace. When Shardwan came to know of these children he came to the palace, revealed their identity and he also taught the children archery, the Vedas, and other Shashtras. The children grew up to experts in the art of warfare. Kripa was now assigned the task of teaching the princes all about warfare. On reaching adulthood, Kripa was the chief priest at the court of Hastinapura and his twin sister Kripi married Drona, the weapons master to the court - who, like her and her brother, had not been gestated in a womb, but outside the human body. He fought in the battle of Kurukshetra for the Kaurava side. He was one of the three remaining from the Kaurava side. Afterwards, he was appointed to be the teacher and preceptor of Parikshit, the grandson of Arjuna
31.
Ashwatthama
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Ashwatthama or Ashwatthaman or Drauni was the son of guru Drona and he is the grandson of the Brahmin sage Bharadwaja. Ashwatthama is a mighty Maharathi who fought on the Kaurava side against the Pandavas, Ashwatthama is considered as avatara of one of the eleven Rudras and one of the seven Chiranjivi. Along with his maternal uncle Kripa, Ashwatthama is believed to be a survivor of the Kurukshetra War. The rumours about his death led to the death of Drona by Prince Dhrishtadyumna, the final commander-in-chief of the Kauravas, Ashwatthama slaughters many in the Pandava camp in a sneak attack. According to The Mahabharata, Ashwatthama means the horse-voiced and it is so called because when he was born he cried like a horse. Ashwatthama was the son of Dronacharya and Kripi, Drona did many years of severe penance to please Lord Shiva in order to obtain a son who possesses the same valiance as Lord Shiva. Born a Chiranjivi, Ashwatthama was born with a gem in his forehead which gives him power over all living beings lower than humans, it protected him from hunger, thirst, after this incident and seeing the plight of Dronacharya, Kripacharya, invited Drona to Hastinapur. There, he came upon the attention of his co-disciple Bhishma, thus, Dronacharya became the guru of the Pandavas and of the Kauravas in Hastinapur. Ashwatthama was trained in the art of warfare along with them, Bhishma himself declared that it will be virtually impossible for anyone to kill or defeat Ashwatthama in war as he is the part incarnate of Lord Shiva and he because was born to become a Chiranjivi. Bhishma said when Ashwatthama becomes angry then it will be impossible to him as he becomes a second Shiva. No one can handle his wrath and fury, Bhishma told Duryodhana Ashwatthama is a notable figure in the war and engages in many battles, though not scoring any significant kills until after his fathers death. On the 10th day of the war, Bhishma falls, and he promises Duryodhana that he will capture Yudhishthira, but then he repeatedly fails to do so. Duryodhana taunts and insults him, which greatly angers Ashwatthama, causing friction between Ashwatthama and Duryodhana, Lord Krishna knew that it was not possible to defeat an armed Drona. So, Krishna suggested to Yudhishthira and the other Pandavas, if Drona were convinced that his son was killed on the battlefield, Krishna hatched a plan for Bhima to kill an elephant by the name Ashwatthama while claiming to Drona it was Dronas son who was dead. Ultimately, the works, and Drona undergoes meditation to search for Ashwatthamas soul. Dhristadyumna beheads the unarmed, unaware sage, enraged, Ashwatthama unleashed Narayanastra, a weapon gifted to him by his father, on the Pandava army. Only Drona, Ashwatthama, and Lord Krishna possessed the knowledge of this weapon, Krishna tells the Pandavas and their warriors to drop their weapons and lie down on the ground, so that they all surrender completely to the power of this weapon. When targeted, Bhima refuses to surrender thinking that it as a cowardly act, the Narayana weapon, intensified by resistance, concentrates its shower on him, and he gets steadily exhausted and severely injured
32.
Vyasa
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Vyasa, literally Compiler) is a central and revered figure in most Hindu traditions. He is also sometimes called Veda Vyāsa, or Krishna Dvaipāyana and he is generally considered the author of the Mahabharata, as well as a character in it, and the scribe of both the Vedas and Puranas. Vyasa is also considered to be one of the seven Chiranjivins, according to the Vishnu Purana, Veda Vyasa is a title applied to the compilers of the Vedas who are avatars of Vishnu,28 people with this title have appeared so far. The festival of Guru Purnima is dedicated to him and it is also known as Vyasa Purnima, for it is the day believed to be both his birthday and the day he divided the Vedas. Vyasa appears for the first time as the compiler of, and an important character in, the Mahabharata. It is said that he was the expansion of the god Vishnu who came in Dwaparayuga to make all the Vedic knowledge available in form which was available in spoken form at that time. He was the son of Satyavati, daughter of the fisherman Dusharaj, there are two different views regarding his birthplace. One of the views suggests that he was born in the Tanahun district in western Nepal, in Vyas municipality of Gandaki zone of Tanahun district, another view suggests that he was born on an island in the Yamuna River near Kalpi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Vyasa was dark-complexioned and hence may be called by the name Krishna, Dhritarashtra born of Ambika, and Pandu, born of Ambalika and Vidura born to a maid, were born from Vyasas powers. Vyasa is believed to have lived on the banks of Ganga in modern-day Uttarakhand, the place was also the abode of the sage Vashishta along with the Pandavas, the five brothers of the Mahabharata. According to the Mahabharatha, Maharishi Vyas and his disciples and the sage Viswamitra decided to settle down in a cool, in the quest for a peaceful abode, he came to the Dandaka forest and, pleased with serenity of the region, selected this place. Since Maharishi Vyasa spent considerable time in prayers, the place was then called Vasara, in his previous life, Vyasa was the Sage Apantaratamas, who was born when Lord Vishnu uttered the syllable Bhu. He was a devotee of Lord Vishnu, since birth, he already possessed the knowledge of the Vedas, the Dharmashastras and the Upanishads. At Vishnus behest, he was reborn as Vyasa, Sage Parashara was the father of Vyasa and the grandson of Sage Vashistha. Prior to Vyasas birth, Parashara had performed a penance to Lord Shiva. Shiva granted a boon that Parasharas son would be a Brahmarshi equal to Vashistha and she conceived and immediately gave birth to Vyasa. Vyasa turned into an adult and left, promising his mother that he would come to her when needed, Vyasa acquired his knowledge from the four Kumaras, Narada and Lord Brahma himself. Hence he was called Veda Vyasa, or Splitter of the Vedas, the word vyasa means split, differentiate, or describe
33.
Paramatma
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In Hindu theology, Paramatman or Paramātmā is the Absolute Atman or Supreme Soul or Spirit in the Vedanta and Yoga philosophies of India. Paramatman is the “Primordial Self” or the “Self Beyond” who is practically identical with the Absolute. Selflessness is the attribute of Paramatman, where all personality/individuality vanishes, the word stem paramātma is formed from two words, parama, meaning supreme or highest, and ātma, which means individual spirit or soul or self. The word “Atman” which literally means non-darkness or light, is Brahman the subtlest indestructible Divine existence, the word “Paramatman” refers to the Creator all. In Jainism, each atman or individual self is a potential Paramatman or God and it remains as atman only because of its binding karmic limitations, until such time as those limitations are removed. As Paramatman, the atman represents the point of spiritual evolution. Jainism honours the soul of man as its own eternally distinct savior. Since the Paramatman of Jainism is unable to create and govern the world, there is no place of God as a creator, Paramatman is seen as the only distinguishing permanence of life, as depicted in the philosophy of Anatta. The sage of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad IV.4, Paramatman goes out riding on the Jiva following consciousness and work, knowledge of former life or natural capacity. In the Prashna Upanishad IV.11 the word “Atman” cannot refer to Jiva because the Jiva cannot of its own accord throw off its body or understand avidya, therefore, it refers to Paramatman. The Jiva attains Moksha when he knows the Paramatman, the Asarira Prajnatman, to be thousand-headed, to be the governor of all. Thus, Paramatman is one of the aspects of Brahman and has all attributes of Brahman. Atman and Paramatman are one, some say they are distinct as well as one, they are one with reference to Shakti, the word, Paramatman, is not to be found in the Rig Veda but through allusion referring to Paramatman as Isha. This distinction is made all of its mantras which in the form of prayers are addressed to gods. Two birds, beautiful of wings, close companions, cling to one common tree, the self is the bird that sits immersed on the common tree, but because he is not lord he is bewildered and has sorrow. But when he sees that other who is the Lord and the beloved, he knows that all is His greatness, -Translation of Verses 1-3 of Third Mundaka Upanishad by Sri Aurobindo. Here at, Aurobindo makes the Spirit or Purusha as the Source of everything, including Brahman, thus, he does not have to say Brahman to be the source of inferior Brahman, and he also dismisses the sense of Reality revealed in imaginative and emotional build-up. The Dualistic School of Philosophy initiated by Anandatirtha draws its support from the passage as well as from the passage of Katha Upanishad I.3
34.
Manvantara
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Manvantara or Manuvantara or Manvanter, or age of a Manu, the Hindu progenitor of humanity, is an astronomical period of time measurement. Manvantara is a Sanskrit word, a compound of manu and antara, manu-antara or manvantara, literally meaning the duration of a Manu, each Manvantara is created and ruled by a specific Manu, who in turn is created by Brahma, the Creator himself. Fourteen Manus and their respective Manvantaras constitute one Kalpa, Aeon, or a ‘Day of Brahma’, according to the Hindu Time Cycles, fourteen times this period constitutes a Bráhma day, that is, a day of Brahmá, the term being the derivative form. The Brahma life span is 100 Brahma varshas, the following table will illustrate clearly the link to our years and Brahma years. Conversion of 1 day of Brahma into human years yields 8.58816 *109 years, according to Vedas, there are 504000 Manus manifested during the lifetime of one Brahmā,5040 Manus in one year of Brahma, and 420 Manus in one month of Brahma. Saptarshis, Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya, svayambhuve—in the Svayambhuva-manvantara, yajna—the avatara named Yajna, In the Svayambhuva-manvantara, the Avatar is named Yajna. The first Manu was Svayambhuva Manu and his two daughters, namely Akuti and Devahuti, gave birth to two sons, named Yajna and Kapila respectively. Svayambhuva Manu, along with his wife, Satarupa, went into the forest to practice austerities on the bank of the River Sunanda. At some point in time, Rakshasas and asuras attacked them, but Yajna, accompanied by his sons the Yamas, then Yajna personally took the post of Indra, the King of the heavenly planets. Urjastambha, Agni, Prańa, Danti, Rishabha, Nischara, in the Svarocisha-manvantara, avatara is named Vibhu. The second Manu, whose name was Svarocisha, was the son of Agni, in the age of this Manu, Rochana became Indra, the ruler of the heavenly planets, and there were many demigods, headed by Tushita. There were also many saintly persons, such as Urjastambha, among them was Vedasira, whose wife, Tushita, gave birth to Vibhu. Vibhu instructed eighty-eight thousand dridha-vratas, or saintly persons, on self-control, sons of Vashista, Kaukundihi, Kurundi, Dalaya, Śankha, Praváhita, Mita, and Sammita. In the Uttama-manvantara, He is named Satyasena, Uttama, the son of Priyavrata, was the third Manu. Among his sons were Pavana, Srinjaya and Yajnahotra, during the reign of this Manu, the sons of Vashista, headed by Pramada, became the seven saintly persons. The Satyas, Devasrutas and Bhadras became the demigods, and Sushanti became Indra, from the womb of Sunrita, the wife of Dharma, the Lord appeared as Satyasena, and He killed all the Yakshas and Rakshasas who were fighting with Satyajit. Jyotirdhama, Prithu, Kavya, Chaitra, Agni, Vanaka, in the Tapasa-manvantara, He is named Hari. He is named Tapasa because he was born during Tapassu Tapasa/Tamasa, the brother of the third Manu, was the fourth Manu, and he had ten sons, including Prithu, Khyati, Nara and Ketu
35.
Vayu
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Vāyu is a primary Hindu deity, the lord of the winds, the father of Bhima and the spiritual father of Hanuman. He is also known as Vāta, Pavana, and sometimes Prāṇa, the word for air or wind is one of the classical elements in Hinduism. The Sanskrit word Vāta literally means blown, Vāyu blower, hence, the primary referent of the word is the deity of Life, who is sometimes for clarity referred to as Mukhya-Vāyu or Mukhya Prāna. Sometimes the word vāyu, which is generally used in the sense of the physical air or wind, is used as a synonym for prāna. Vāta, a name for Vāyu, is the root of the Sanskrit and Hindi term for atmosphere. Pavan is also a fairly common Hindu name, Pavana played an important role in Anjanas begetting Hanuman as her child so Hanuman is also called Pavanaputra son of Pavana and Vāyuputra. In the Mahabharata, Bhima was the son and an incarnation of Vāyu and he utilised his huge power and skill with the mace for supporting Dharma. In the hymns, Vayu is described as having exceptional beauty and moving noisily in his shining coach, a white banner is his main attribute. Like the other deities, he is a fighter and destroyer, powerful. In the Upanishads, there are numerous statements and illustrations of the greatness of Vāyu, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states that the gods who control bodily functions once engaged in a contest to determine who among them is the greatest. When a deity such as that of vision would leave a mans body, one by one the deities all took their turns leaving the body, but the man continued to live on, though successively impaired in various ways. This caused the other deities to realize that they can only when empowered by Vayu. In another episode, Vāyu is said to be the only deity not afflicted by demons of sin who were on the attack, the Chandogya Upanishad states that one cannot know Brahman except by knowing Vāyu as the udgitha. Mukhya-Vāyu also incarnated as Madhvacharya to teach worthy souls to worship the Supreme God Vishnu, the first Avatar of Vayu is considered to be Hanuman. His exploits are elucidated in Ramayana, the second Avatar of Vayu is Bheema, one of the Pandavas appearing in the epic, Mahabharata. The Third Avatar is traditionally ascribed to Madhvacharya, a 13th Century Indian philosopher, in the Buddhism of the Far East, Vayu is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, who are found in or around Buddhist shrines. In Japan, he has been called Fu-ten and he joins these other eleven Devas of Buddhism, found in Japan and other parts of southeast Asia, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Vayu, Ishana, Kubera, Varuna Brahma, Prithvi, Surya, Chandra. List of wind deities Vayu-Vata - in his Zoroastrian context Maruts, attendants of Indra, rudra, the Vedic wind or storm God
36.
Rudra
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Rudra is a Rigvedic deity, associated with wind or storm, and the hunt. The name has been translated as the roarer, in the Rigveda, Rudra has been praised as the mightiest of the mighty. The Shri Rudram hymn from the Yajurveda is dedicated to Rudra, usage of the epithet came to exceed the original theonym by the post-Vedic period, and the name Rudra has been taken as a synonym for the god Shiva and the two names are used interchangeably. The etymology of the theonym Rudra is somewhat uncertain and it is usually derived from the root rud- which means to cry, howl. According to this etymology, the name Rudra has been translated as the roarer. An alternative etymology suggested by Prof. Pischel derives Rudra as the red one, the brilliant one from a lost root rud-, to be red or to be ruddy or respectively, according to Grassman, to shine. Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, i. e. of rudra nature, R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as the terrible in his glossary for the Shiva Sahasranama. The commentator Sāyaṇa suggests six possible derivations for rudra, however, another reference states that Sayana suggested ten derivations. The adjective shivam in the sense of propitious or kind is applied to the name Rudra in RV10.92.9, Rudra is called the archer and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages, the names Dhanvin and Bāṇahasta also refer to archery. In other contexts the word rudra can simply mean the number eleven, the word rudraksha, or eye of Rudra, is used as a name both for the berry of the Rudraksha tree, and a name for a string of the prayer beads made from those seeds. The earliest mentions of Rudra occur in the Rigveda, where three entire hymns are devoted to him, there are about seventy-five references to Rudra in the Rigveda overall. In the Rigveda Rudras role as a god is apparent in references to him as ghora. He is fierce like a wild beast. Chakravarti sums up the perception of Rudra by saying, Rudra is thus regarded with a kind of cringing fear, as a deity whose wrath is to be deprecated and whose favor curried. RV1.114 is an appeal to Rudra for mercy, where he is referred to as mighty Rudra, in RV7.46, Rudra is described as armed with a bow and fast-flying arrows. As quoted by R. G. Bhandarkar, the hymn says Rudra discharges brilliant shafts which run about the heaven and the earth, which may be a reference to lightning. Rudra was believed to cure diseases, and when people recovered from them or were free of them and he is asked not to afflict children with disease and to keep villages free of illness
37.
Garuda
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The Garuda is a large legendary bird, bird-like creature, or humanoid bird that appears in both Hindu and Buddhist mythology. Garuda is the mount of the Lord Vishnu, Garuda is the Hindu name for the constellation Aquila. The brahminy kite and phoenix are considered to be the contemporary representations of Garuda, Indonesia adopts a more stylistic approach to the Garudas depiction as its national symbol, where it depicts a Javanese eagle. In Hinduism, Garuda is a Hindu divinity, usually the mount of the Lord Vishnu, Garuda is depicted as having the golden body of a strong man with a white face, red wings, and an eagles beak and with a crown on his head. This ancient deity was said to be massive, large enough to block out the sun, Garuda is known as the eternal sworn enemy of the Nāga serpent race and known for feeding exclusively on snakes, such behavior may have referred to the actual short-toed eagle of India. The image of Garuda is often used as the charm or amulet to protect the bearer from attack and its poison, since the king of birds is an implacable enemy. Garudi Vidya is the mantra against snake poison to remove all kinds of evil and his stature in Hindu religion can be gauged by the fact that a dependent Upanishad, the Garudopanishad, and a Purana, the Garuda Purana, is devoted to him. Various names have been attributed to Garuda - Chirada, Gaganeshvara, Kamayusha, Kashyapi, Khageshvara, Nagantaka, Sitanana, Sudhahara, Suparna, Tarkshya, Vainateya, Vishnuratha and others. The Vedas provide the earliest reference of Garuda, though by the name of Śyena, the Puranas, which came into existence much later, mention Garuda as doing the same thing, which indicates that Śyena and Garuda are the same. One of the faces of Śrī Pañcamukha Hanuman is Mahavira Garuda and this face points towards the west. Worship of Garuda is believed to remove the effects of poisons from ones body, in Tamil Vaishnavism Garuda and Hanuman are known as Periya Thiruvadi and Siriya Thiruvadi respectively. Garuda wears the serpent Adisesha on his left wrist and the serpent Gulika on his right wrist, the serpent Vasuki forms his sacred thread. The cobra Takshaka forms his belt on his hip, the snake Karkotaka is worn as his necklace. The snakes Padma and Mahapadma are his ear rings, the snake Shankachuda adorns his divine hair. He is flanked by his two wives ‘Rudra’ and ‘Sukeerthi’ or and these are all invoked in Vedanta Desikas Garuda Panchashath and Garuda Dandaka compositions. Garuda flanked with his consorts Rudra and Sukirthi can be worshipped in an ancient Soumya Keshava temple in Bindiganavile in Karnataka state of India. Garuda Vyuha is worshiped in Tantra for Abhichara and to protect against Abhichara, however, the interesting thing is that Garuda is the Sankarshna form of the lord who during creation primarily possesses the knowledge aspect of the lord. The important point is that Garuda represents the five vayus within us, prana, apana, vyana, udana, samana through his five forms Satya, Suparna, Garuda, Tarkshya, Vihageshwara
38.
Shesha
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In Hinduism, Shesha, also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king of all nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to all the planets of the universe on his hoods. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as endless-Shesha or Adishesha first Shesha and it is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place, when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two forms or avatars, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, Balarama, brother of Krishna. Shesha in Sanskrit texts, especially relating to mathematical calculation. But in Sanskrit it also means 6 shesham as the sheshanaga has been depicted to have many heads, Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled in space, or on the ocean of bliss, to form the bed on which Vishnu lies. Sometimes he is shown as five-headed or seven-headed, but more commonly as a many thousand-headed serpent and his name means that which remains, from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because when the world is destroyed at the end of the kalpa, Shesha remains as he is. In the Bhagavadgita of Chapter 10, verse 29, Shri Krishna while describing 75 of his common manifestations, declares, anantaś ca asmi nāgānāṁ, Of the nagas, as per the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to sage Kashyap and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata and Takshaka were born, in order, a lot of Sheshas brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa’s son through Vinatha, Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took to austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara and his penances were so severe that his flesh, skin and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of his Sheshas will, asked Shesha to request a boon, Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha, to go beneath the unstable earth, Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilized her with his hood. He is known to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence, Shesha is also depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of Maha Vishnu. Since he is known as Adishesha and because he is Anantashesha or simply Ananta and he is said to live since before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates 11 rudras from him to destroy the universe for a new one to be created and he expands himself as garbhodakshayi-vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma
39.
Indra
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Indra is a Vedic deity in Hinduism, a guardian deity in Buddhism, and the king of first heaven called Saudharmakalpa in Jainism. His mythologies and powers are similar, though not identical to those of the Indo-European deities such as Zeus, Jupiter, Perun, Thor, in the Vedas, Indra is the king of Svarga and the Devas. He is the god of lightning, thunder, storms, rains, Indra is the most referred to deity in the Rigveda. He is celebrated for his powers, and the one who kills the great symbolic evil named Vritra who obstructs human prosperity, Indra destroys Vritra and his deceiving forces, and thereby brings rains and the sunshine as the friend of mankind. In Buddhism, Indra has been a popular deity, referred by many names and he is featured in Buddhism somewhat differently than Hinduism, such as being shown as less war oriented and one paying homage to the Buddha. Indra rules over the much sought Devas realm of rebirth within the Samsara doctrine of Buddhist traditions, however, like the Hindu texts, Indra also is a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts, shown as a god that suffers rebirth and redeath. In the Jainism traditions, like Buddhism and Hinduism, Indra is the king of gods, Indras iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt known as Vajra, riding on a white elephant known as Airavata. In Buddhist iconography the elephant sometimes features three heads, while Jaina icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads, sometimes a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks. Indras heavenly home is on or near Mount Meru, the etymological roots of Indra are unclear, has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th-century, one with many proposals. The significant proposals have been, root ind-u, or rain drop, based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain, root ind, or equipped with great power. Root idh or kindle, and ina or strong, root indha, or igniter, for his ability to bring light and power that ignites the vital forces of life. This is based on Shatapatha Brahmana, root idam-dra, or It seeing which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self-sufficient metaphysical Brahman. This is based on Aitareya Upanishad, roots in ancient Indo-European, Indo-Aryan deities. Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to the European Aynar, Abaza, Ubykh, colarusso suggests a Pontic origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo-Aryan roots and a Circassian etymology. Indra is also called Śakra frequently in the Vedas and in Buddhism, Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions, notably Śakra, Vṛṣan, Vṛtrahan, Meghavāhana, Devarāja, Devendra, Surendra, Svargapati, Vajrapāṇī and Vāsava. Indra is of ancient but unclear origin, the similarities between Indra of Hindu mythologies and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant states Max Muller. Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo-European *trigw-welumos smasher of the enclosure, brave and heroic Innara or Inra, which sounds like Indra, is mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian-speaking people of Hittite region. Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern Asia minor and this tablet mentions a treaty, but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as Mi-it-ra, U-ru-w-na, In-da-ra and Na-sa-at-ti-ia
40.
Vishnu Purana
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The Vishnu Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus, the manuscripts of Vishnu Purana have survived into the modern era in many versions. More than any other major Purana, the Vishnu Purana presents its contents in Pancalaksana format – Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamśa, Manvañtara, the Vishnu Purana is among the shorter Purana texts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, the Purana, states Wilson, is pantheistic and the ideas in it, like other Puranas, are premised on the Vedic beliefs and ideas. Vishnu Purana, like all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa, the actual author and date of its composition are unknown and contested. Estimates range of its range from 1st millennium BCE to early 2nd-millennium CE. The text was composed and rewritten in layers over a period of time. The Padma Purana categorizes Vishnu Purana as a Sattva Purana, the composition date of Vishnu Purana is unknown and contested, with estimates widely disagreeing. Rajendra Chandra Hazra, 275-325 CE Ramachandra Dikshitar, 700-300 BCE, Roy, Rocher states that the date of the Visnu Purana is as contested as that of any other Purana. Vishnu Purana like all Puranas has a complicated chronology, each titled work consists of material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a date of composition. It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf. Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era, the extant text comprises six aṃśas and 126 adhyāyas. The first part has 22 chapters, the part consists 16 chapters, the third part comprises 18 chapters. The fifth and the parts are the longest and the shortest part of the text. The textual tradition claims that the original Vishnu Purana had 23,000 verses, the text is composed in metric verses or sloka, wherein each verse has exactly 32 syllables, of which 16 syllables in the verse may be free style per ancient literary standards. The Vishnu Purana is an exception in that it presents its contents in Vishnu worship-related Pancalaksana format – Sarga, Pratisarga, Vamśa, Manvañtara, and Vamśānucaritam. Vishnu Purana opens as a conversation between sage Maitreya and his guru, Parashara, with the asking, what is the nature of this universe
41.
Logarithmic scale
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A logarithmic scale is a nonlinear scale used when there is a large range of quantities. Common uses include the strength, sound loudness, light intensity. It is based on orders of magnitude, rather than a linear scale. In particular our sense of hearing perceives equal ratios of frequencies as equal differences in pitch, the top left graph is linear in the X and Y axis, and the Y-axis ranges from 0 to 10. A base-10 log scale is used for the Y axis of the left graph. The top right graph uses a scale for just the X axis. A slide rule has logarithmic scales, and nomograms often employ logarithmic scales, the geometric mean of two numbers is midway between the numbers. Before the advent of graphics, logarithmic graph paper was a commonly used scientific tool. If both the vertical and horizontal axes of a plot are scaled logarithmically, the plot is referred to as a log–log plot, if only the ordinate or abscissa is scaled logarithmically, the plot is referred to as a semi-logarithmic plot. Bit Byte Decade John Napier Level Logarithm Logarithmic mean Preferred number Dehaene, Stanislas, Izard, Véronique, Spelke, Elizabeth, Pica, distinct intuitions of the number scale in Western and Amazonian indigene cultures. American Association for the Advancement of Science, why using logarithmic scale to display share prices
