1.
Politics of Saudi Arabia
–
The politics of Saudi Arabia takes place in the context of an absolute monarchy with some Islamic lines, where the King is both the head of state and government. Decisions are, to an extent, made on the basis of consultation among the senior princes of the royal family. The Quran is declared to be the constitution of the country, the Allegiance Council responsible to determine the new King and the new Crown Prince. All citizens of age have a right to attend, meet. Government is dominated by the vast royal family, the Al Saud, the members of the family are the principal political actors allowed by the government. Political participation outside of the family is limited. There has been pressure for some time to broaden and increase the participation, in recent years, there has been a rise in Islamist activism, which has also resulted in Islamist terrorism. However, in recent years, the Saudi state has been working to control of these areas. Saudi Arabia is a monarchy, although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia. The Quran and the Sunnah are declared to be the countrys constitution, there is no legally binding written constitution and the Quran and the Sunna remain subject to interpretation. This is carried out by the ulema, the Saudi religious establishment, the government of Saudi Arabia is led by the monarch, King Salman, who acceded to the throne on 23 January 2015. Government is dominated by the royal family, the Basic Law specifies that the king must be chosen from among the sons of the first king, Abdul Aziz Al Saud, and their male descendants subject to the subsequent approval of religious leaders. The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions and royal decrees form the basis of the countrys legislation. There is also a 150-member Consultative Assembly, appointed by the King, the government budget itself is not fully disclosed to the public. Although, in theory, the country is a monarchy, in practice major policy decisions are made outside these formal governmental structures. Decisions are made by establishing a consensus within the royal family, in addition, the views of important members of Saudi society, including the ulema, leading tribal sheikhs, and heads of prominent commercial families are considered. As an absolute monarchy, the personality and capabilities of the reigning monarch influence the politics, King Saud was considered incompetent and extravagant and his reign led to an economic and political crisis that resulted in his forced abdication. King Faisal was a modernist who favored economic, technological and governmental progress but was politically and religiously conservative
2.
Mohammad bin Salman
–
Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud is the deputy crown prince of Saudi Arabia and the youngest minister of defense in the world. Mohammad is also chief of the House of Saud royal court and he has been described as the power behind the throne of his father, King Salman. Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud was born on 31 August 1985 in Jeddah and he is the son of King Salman from his third spouse, Fahda bint Falah bin Sultan Al Hithalayn. He is their eldest son and is brother of Turki bin Salman, former chairman of the Saudi Research. Prince Mohammad holds a degree in law from King Saud University. After graduating college, Mohammad bin Salman spent several years in the sector before becoming the personal aide of his father. He worked as a consultant for the Experts Commission, working for the Saudi Cabinet, on 15 December 2009, Mohammad bin Salman entered politics as a special advisor to his father when the latter was the governor of Riyadh Province. In June 2012, the Crown Prince, Nayef bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, died and he soon began remaking the court in his own image. On 2 March 2013, the chief of the Crown Prince court Prince Saud bin Nayef was appointed governor of the Eastern Province and Prince Mohammad succeeded him in the post and he was also given the rank of minister. On 25 April 2014 Prince Mohammad was appointed state minister, on 23 January 2015, King Abdullah died, Salman took the throne and Prince Mohammad was appointed minister of defense. He was also named as the general of the Royal Court on the same date. In addition he retained his post as the minister of the state, during the campaign Prince bin Salman went on vacation in the Maldives, where United States Secretary of Defense Ash Carter had trouble reaching him for days. According to the UN and human groups, direct war crimes were committed during the conflict. In April 2015 King Salman appointed one of his nephews, Mohammed bin Nayef. At the same time King Salman appointed his son Prince Mohammed as deputy crown prince. In late 2015, Prince bin Salman attended a meeting between King Salman and United States President Barack Obama, where the prince broke protocol to deliver a monologue criticizing U. S. foreign policy. After Prince bin Salman announced an anti-terrorist military alliance of Islamic countries in December 2015, on 4 January 2016, Prince Mohammad gave his first on-the-record interview, while talking to The Economist. On 10 January 2016, The Independent reported that the BND, portrayed Saudi defence minister and Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. as a political gambler who is destabilising the Arab world through proxy wars in Yemen and Syria
3.
Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia
–
The Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia is the second most important position in Saudi Arabia, second to the king, and is his designated successor. Currently, the Crown Prince assumes power with the approval of the Allegiance Commission after he is appointed by the king and this system was introduced to the country in the Abdullah Era. In the absence of the king, an order is issued to have the prince manage the affairs of the state until the kings return. The order changes the title temporarily from the Crown Prince. The last Crown prince of the Second Saudi State was Abdulaziz ibn Abdul Ramhan ibn Saud and his father abdicated the pretended throne to him in 1900, and began his famous wars of conquest of what would become the third Saudi state. When had taken enough land to become recognized as a genuine Emir, when Turki died during the flu pandemic of 1919, his only child was still in utero, and Abdulaziz designated his second son Saud to be heir and that further succession would be brother to brother. When the Unification of Saudi Arabia was complete in 1932, Abdulaziz had himself declared king, when the old king died in 1953, Saud became king and his brother Faisal, as planned was declared Crown Prince. The King and his heir began feuding over whether or not King Saud was competent or not, Feisal took the title Prime Minister for a while, and on occasion took over the government against the kings wishes. Saud fought back, and things came to a head in 1964, the next in Line, Prince Mohammed, was deemed unsuitable, and was de jure Crown Prince for a short time before he was deposed in favor of Prince Khalid in 1965. With Khalid not all interested in being king, his crown prince, Fahd. When King Fahd had a stroke in 1995, Crown Prince Abdullah became the formal Regent for the balance of the reign, as the nation became a gerontocracy in the 2000s and early 10s, three Crown Princes died of old age in rapid succession. In the meantime, more and more princes were passed over, in January 2015, Ibn Sauds last son, Muqrin, became Crown Prince, only to be ousted three months later in favor of his nephew, Mohammed bin Nayef. When King Faisal was murdered in 1975, King Khalid designated Prince Abdullah, as King Khalid became ill with old age, the question of who would succeed Abdullah as Second Deputy became more pressing. Prince Musaid, whose son had murdered King Faisal, long knew he was out and Prince Bandar demanded and got, Prince Sultan, despite opposition, was appointed when the old king died. Once a Princes place was cemented in the line of succession, Prince Sultan attempted a coup against Crown Prince Abdullah, who was regent for the ailing King Fahd, in 1995, and he remained in place until he became Crown Prince in 2005. Competition for the position became intense when Fahd, then Sultan died a few years later, the youngest brother of all, Muqrin, became second deputy in 2013, and received the honorific deputy crown prince a year later. With the internal politics of the House of Saud being clear as mud the seniority system came to an end when scores of grandsons were bypassed in favor of Muhammad bin Nayef, succession to the Saudi Arabian throne King of Saudi Arabia
4.
Saudi Arabia
–
Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four regions, Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the state has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners. The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power, in addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud. Although this is translated as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in English it literally means the Saudi Arab kingdom. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago
5.
Basic Law of Saudi Arabia
–
The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia is a constitution-like charter divided into nine chapters, consisting of 83 articles. The Basic Law is in accordance with the Salafi understanding of Sharia, following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the First Gulf War, King Fahd issued a royal decree that was published in official television and newspapers on 31 January 1992. The Decree stated the following, Royal Decree No, second, Act in accordance with all the systems, orders, and resolutions that are currently adopted, until they are amended pursuant to the Basic System of Governance. Third, The Basic System of Governance shall be published in the official journal, the Consultative Council also came to life about a year after in the light of the emerging conditions affecting the country after the war. Saudi cultural and religious views stigmatize any reference to Constitution other than the Quran, Article 1 of the Basic Law emphasize that Gods Book and the Sunna of his Prophet, are its constitution. Article 7 proclaims the rights of the monarch, next, per Article 8, justice, consultation, and equality shall be in accordance with Sharia. Article 9 states that all members of family in Saudi Arabia shall be reared on the basis of the Islamic faith. Article 18 guards the private property of citizens, Article 21 calls for an alms tax. Article 27 establishes a system of security, It has become feasible without expropriation and high taxes due to the large supplies of oil. Article 45 affirms that religious rulings must be in accordance with the Holy Quran, to this end, a panel of Islamic clergy and research group shall be established. According to Article 55, the king must rule according to the rulings of Islam, Article 56 states that the king is also the prime minister. Article 57 makes it clear that the cabinet and other lower-ranking officials must follow Islam. Those who deviate from this can be dismissed or punished, control bodies will be established to ensure good financial and administrative management of state assets. Article 82 makes it clear that a state of emergency during turmoil cannot violate Article 7. The Basic Law was drafted by an ad hoc committee of the interior ministry, in the eighteenth century Muhammad bin Saud and Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab integrated all the political and religious institutions into one governing body. The government of Saudi Arabia reserves numerous jobs for the clergy that range from preaching to judgeships, the oppression of women and the effacement of their selfhood is a flaw affecting most homes in Saudi Arabia
6.
House of Saud
–
The House of Saud is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. The family has thousands of members, the most influential member of the Royal family is the King of Saudi Arabia, currently King Salman. The succession to the Saudi Arabian throne was designed to pass from one son of the first king, Ibn Saud, to another. The next in line, Crown Prince Muhammad bin Nayef is also from the ruling House of Saud, while the monarchy is hereditary now, future Saudi kings will be chosen by a committee of Saudi princes, in line with a 2006 royal decree. The family is estimated to comprise 15,000 members, but the majority of the power, House of Saud is a translation of Al Saud. The latter is an Arabic dynastic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. Today, the surname Al Saud is carried by any descendant of Muhammad bin Saud or his three brothers Farhan, Thunayyan, and Mishari. Al Sauds other family branches like Saud al-Kabir, the Al Jiluwi, the Al Thunayan, the Al Mishari, members of the cadet branches hold high and influential positions in government though they are not in line of succession to Saudi throne. Many cadet members intermarry within the Al Saud to reestablish their lineage, the earliest recorded ancestor of the Al Saud was Mani ibn Rabiah Al-Muraydi who settled in Diriyah in 1446–1447 with his clan, the Mrudah. Although the Mrudah are believed to be descended from the Rabiah tribal confederation, Mani was invited by a relative named Ibn Dir. Ibn Dir was the ruler of a set of villages and estates that make up modern-day Riyadh, manis clan had been on a sojourn in east Arabia, near al-Qatif, from an unknown point in time. Ibn Dir handed Mani two estates called al-Mulaybeed and Ghusayba, Mani and his family settled and renamed the region al-Diriyah, after their benefactor Ibn Dir. The Mrudah became rulers of al-Diriyah, which prospered along the banks of Wadi Hanifa, as the clan grew larger, power struggles ensued, with one branch leaving for nearby Dhruma, while another branch left for the town of az-Zubayr in southern Iraq. The Al Migrin became the family among the Mrudah in Diriyah. The name of the clan comes from Sheikh Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin who died in 1725, the First Saudi State was founded in 1744. This period was marked by conquest of neighboring areas and by religious zeal, at its height, the First Saudi State included most of the territory of modern-day Saudi Arabia, and raids by Al Sauds allies and followers reached into Yemen, Oman, Syria, and Iraq. Islamic Scholars, particularly Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab and his descendants, are believed to have played a significant role in Saudi rule during this period, the Saudis and their allies referred to themselves during this period as the Muwahhidun or Ahl al-Tawhid. Later they were referred to as the Wahhabis, a group of particularly strict Sunni, leadership of the Al Saud during the time of their first state passed from father to son without incident
7.
King of Saudi Arabia
–
The King of Saudi Arabia is Saudi Arabias head of state and absolute monarch. He serves as the head of the Saudi monarchy — House of Saud, the King is called the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The title, which signifies Saudi Arabias jurisdiction over the mosques of Masjid al Haram in Mecca and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, King Abdulaziz began conquering todays Saudi Arabia in 1902, by restoring his family as emirs of Riyadh. He then proceeded to conquer first the Nejd and then the Hejaz and he progressed from Sultan of Nejd, to King of Hejaz and Nejd, and finally to King of Saudi Arabia in 1932. The kings since Ibn Sauds death have all been his sons, sons of Ibn Saud are considered to have primary claim on the throne of Saudi Arabia. This makes the Saudi monarchy quite distinct from Western monarchies, which feature large, clearly defined royal families. The current Crown Prince is the first grandson of Ibn Saud to be in the line of succession, Saudi Arabia is ruled by Islamic law and purports to be an Islamic state, but many Muslims see a hereditary monarchy as being a discouraged system of government in Islam. The King of Saudi Arabia is also considered the Head of the House of Saud, the Crown Prince is also the Deputy Prime Minister. The kings after Faisal have named a second Deputy Prime Minister as the subsequent heir after the Crown Prince. Crown Prince Muhammad bin Nayef, born 30 August 1959, son of Nayef bin Abdulaziz and Al Jawhara bint Abdulaziz bin Musaed bin Jiluwi Al Saud, Grandson of Ibn Saud and Hassa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. Deputy Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman, born 31 August 1985, son of King Salman, the Royal Standard consists of a green flag, with an Arabic inscription and a sword featured in white, and with the national emblem embroidered in gold in the lower right canton. The script on the flag is written in the Thuluth script, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne List of rulers of Saudi Arabia
8.
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
–
The title refers to the ruler taking the responsibility of guarding and maintaining the two holiest mosques in Islam, Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina. It is believed that the first person to use the title was Saladin, after defeating the Mamluks and gaining control of the two Muslim holy cities, Mecca and Medina in 1517, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I adopted the title. Rather than style himself the Ḥākimül-Ḥaremeyn, he accepted the more pious title Ḫādimül-Ḥaremeyn and this title was used by all subsequent Ottoman Caliph Sultans until Mehmed VI, the last. The first King of Saudi Arabia to assume the title was Fahd bin Abdul Aziz in 1986 and he replaced the term His Majesty with Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The reigning king, Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, took the title after the death of King Abdullah, his half brother
9.
Salman of Saudi Arabia
–
Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud is King of Saudi Arabia, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, and head of the House of Saud. He served as the Deputy Governor and then the Governor of Riyadh for 48 years from 1963 to 2011 and he was then appointed as Minister of Defence. He was also named the Crown Prince in 2012 following the death of his brother Nayef bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Salman was crowned as the new King of Saudi Arabia on 23 January 2015 following the death of his half-brother, King Abdullah. Salman was born on 31 December 1935, and is reported to be the 25th son of Ibn Saud, Salman and his six brothers make up what is referred to as the Sudairi Seven. He was raised in the Murabba Palace, Salman received his early education at the Princes School in the capital city of Riyadh, a school established by Ibn Saud specifically to provide education for his children. He studied religion and modern science, Salman was first appointed as deputy governor of Riyadh Province in 1954 when he was 19 years old and held the post until 1955. He was appointed governor of Riyadh Province on 4 February 1963 and his tenure lasted for forty-eight years from 1963 to 2011. As governor, he contributed to the development of Riyadh from a town into a major urban metropolis. He served as an important liaison to attract tourism, capital projects and he favored political and economic relationships with the West. During his governorship, Salman recruited advisors from King Saud University, during Salmans five decades as Riyadh governor, he became adept at managing the delicate balance of clerical, tribal, and princely interests that determine Saudi policy. In January 2011, he ordered the arrest of Riyadh beggars who try to take advantage of the generosity of people, all foreign beggars were deported and Saudi beggars were placed in a rehabilitation program by the Ministry of Social Affairs. Salman also undertook several tours during his reign. In 1974, he visited Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar to strengthen Saudi Arabias relationship with the nations, during his visit to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1991, he inaugurated a gallery. In 1996, he was received in the Élysée Palace in Paris by the then-French president Jacques Chirac, the same year he toured Bosnia and Herzegovina to give donations to the Muslim citizens of the country. Being a part of an Asian tour in 1998, Salman visited Pakistan, Japan, Brunei, under Salman, Riyadh became one of the richest cities in the Middle East and an important place for trade and commerce. There were also infrastructural advances including schools, universities and sports stadiums, about the province, he said Every village or town in the Riyadh Region is dear to me, and holds a special place in my heart. I witnessed every step taken by the city of Riyadh, Prince Salman was also named as a member of the National Security Council on the same day. It is speculated that his placement in the line of succession occurred due to his qualities
10.
Vacant
–
A closely related meaning is the number of units in such a building that are rented, leased, or otherwise in use. Lack of occupancy, in sense, is a vacancy. It is possible to have multiple occupancies within one building, for example, a high-rise building can have retail stores occupying the lower levels, while the upper levels are residential. Different occupancies within a building are separated by a barrier with a defined fire-resistance rating. It is common for a penetration to have a fire protection rating lower than the wall fire–resistance rating in which it is installed, for example, a two-hour fire separation normally requires fire doors rated at 90 minutes. For some high challenge occupancies, the requirements for an occupancy separation are more stringent than for other fire barriers. In this case, a separation with a two-hour fire-resistance rating may not be able to de-rate its closures, such fire doors. For example, a two-hour rated high challenge fire wall requires two-hour rated fire doors, firestops in occupancy separations are also more likely to require an equal fire protection rating. In this manner, occupancy separations are treated similarly to fire walls which are stable in case of a fire. In this sense, there are two occupancies in many homes, the garage and the living space of the home. Because automobile gasoline is flammable, a separation is often required between the two should there be a vehicle fire. Water heaters and central heating are often placed in space as well for their use of natural gas, propane. This also helps to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning, occupancy can also refer to the number of units in use, such as hotel rooms, apartment flats, or offices. When a motel is at full occupancy, it is practice to turn on a NO VACANCY neon sign. Completely vacant buildings can also attract crime, occupancy can also refer to the number of persons using an undivided space, such as a meeting room, ballroom, auditorium, or stadium. As with building codes, fire protection authorities often set a limit on the number of people that can occupy a space at one time. These limits are established primarily to allow all occupants safe passage through exits, an occupancy sensor is a device that can tell if someone is in a room, and is often used in home automation and security systems. These are typically more advanced than motion sensors, which can detect motion
11.
Allegiance Council
–
It was formed on 7 December 2007 by King Abdullah. At the time of its formation, the Councils intended function was to appoint a Crown Prince once a new King succeeds to the throne. Due to increasing uncertainty of succession beyond Prince Sultan, King Abdullah issued the Allegiance Institution Law in 2006, the Council gave additional voice to members of the Al Saud when a new King selects his Crown Prince. The role of the Council was intended to take effect once late Prince Sultan succeeded to the throne. However, in 2009, when he was ill with cancer, late Prince Nayef was appointed Second Deputy Prime Minister. This led to uncertainty over the role of the Council, the appointment of late Prince Nayef was openly questioned by Prince Talal. The Council supposedly undertook its duties for the first time when Prince Sultan died in October 2011, one week after his death, King Abdullah announced that the Council had selected Prince Nayef as the new Crown Prince. However, the Council just swore allegiance to Nayef as Crown Prince, whether or not it actually voted the selection remained unclear. Similar apparent dysfunctionality of the council was also observed in regard to the appointment of Prince Salman as Crown Prince in June 2012, Prince Talal stated that the princes on the Council were not consulted on the succession of Prince Salman and that the Council became ineffective. Under the Allegiance Institution Law, the King nominates up to three candidates for the position of Crown Prince, the Allegiance Council then selects one of them as Crown Prince. If the Council rejects all of the Kings nominees, it may nominate its own candidate, the Crown Prince will be then decided by a vote among the Council, The Council also preempts the possibility of the King becoming incapacitated. In the event the King permanently loses his ability to exercise his powers, if both the King and the Crown Prince become permanently incapacitated, the Council will form a five-member Transitory Ruling Council to temporarily assume administration of the Kingdom. The Council will also select a new King within seven days, despite this, the Sudairis are said to have influence over more than half the council members. After almost a year with the post of second deputy Prime Minister vacant, Prince Muqrin was formally designated by royal decree in 2013. This meant that he was next in line, bypassing several senior princes. The poll, which is considered a vote, was 75% Yes. At the end of April 2015, barely three months into his reign, King Salman dismissed Prince Muqrin from his post as Crown Prince, Prince Muhammad was automatically promoted and Prince Mohammed bin Salman was declared Deputy Crown Prince. The Council met the day to ratify the decision, which it did 28 to 4
12.
Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne
–
The order of succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia is determined by, and within, the House of Saud. A deputy crown prince was first selected in 2014, the current ruler of Saudi Arabia is King Salman, who succeeded King Abdullah on his death on 23 January 2015. On the same day, Prince Muqrin became Crown Prince only to be replaced three months later by Muhammad bin Nayef at the order of Salman, the appointment of grandsons to line of succession is to be based on merit. The Allegiance Council was created in 2006 to facilitate the transfer of power. The House of Saud controlled vast parts of the Arabian peninsula for two and a half centuries, the dynasty collapsed twice in the 1800s due to discord over succession. In 1890s, the Al Sauds were completely supplanted by the Al Rashid, the kingdom began to fight to restore itself through Emir Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman, known to the world as Ibn Saud, and his capture of Riyadh in 1902. After much tumult, Saudi Arabia became a kingdom in 1932, as Ibn Saud conquered Arabia, he formed alliances by polygamous marriages to members of its biggest tribes. This strengthened his power within the Al Sauds and expanded his legitimacy in Arabia, not to mention nearly a hundred children, the possibility of a baby as heir to a kingdom that was patently unstable, as the Emirate of Najed was in 1920, completely unacceptable. The Emir decided to leave the open, leaving hope for one of his brothers or his second son Saud to eventually take over what would become a mighty kingdom. In the late 1920s and early 30s, Ibn Sauds brother Muhammad bin Abdul-Rahman began to argue with him as to who would be next in line, his son Khalid, in 1933, the king made his choice, and Prince Saud was declared Crown Prince. Late in life, King ibn Saud declared that he wished that the Saudi succession would be via agnatic seniority and that Sauds heir presumptive would be his next, and more capable son, Faisal. There were rumors around this time that a son, Muhammad, was plotting to take the throne from his brothers when the time came. When the old king died in 1953, Saud became king, for the eleven years of his reign, the question of who was to succeed King Saud was considered a done deal. This was unacceptable to the rest of the Royal Clan, and at Faisals request, despite problems that led to his nickname The Father of the Two Evils, Prince Mohammed was an intelligent and dynamic personality, leaving the possibility of another royal feud. During one of the times Feisal had taken over the government, he had appointed his half brother Khalid as Deputy Prime Minister in 1962, bypassing Muhammed. One of the reasons that Muhammed initially demured from standing down, was his distrust of the so-called Sudairi Seven, the eldest of the group, Prince Fahd, was Feisals top choice. He was given the position of second deputy Prime Minister and at the time, royal sources let it be known that Prince Abdullah, head of the National Guard. Between the two, they would reign for 33 years, as King Khalids health began rapidly decline, the problem of succession came back into the fore
13.
Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia
–
The Saudi Council of Ministers is the Cabinet of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It is led by the King who is Prime Minister, the Council consists of the Prime Minister, the Crown Prince, who is First Deputy Prime Minister, and Cabinet ministers. Since 2015, there are 23 ministers with portfolio and seven ministers of state, all members of the Council are appointed by royal decree. The Council of Ministers was established by King Abdulaziz Al Saud in 1953 and it is responsible for drafting and overseeing the implementation of the internal, external, financial, economic, educational and defense policies, and general affairs of the state. Legislation must be ratified by decree and be found to be fully compatible with the kingdoms interpretation of Sharia law. It meets every Monday and is chaired by the King in his capacity as Prime Minister or one of his deputies, the present law governing the form and function of the Council of Ministers was issued by King Fahd in 1993/1414 AH. In the early hours of April 29th 2015, King Salman issued 25 royal decrees which included a cabinet reshuffle. This included the removal of Crown Prince Muqrin from his post, on 29 January 2015, King Salman bin Abdulaziz ordered major changes to his government including a cabinet shuffle. Politics of Saudi Arabia Statements of the Council of Ministers Ministry of Foreign Affairs Law of the Council of Ministers Ministry of Social Affairs Saudi Arabia
14.
Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia
–
The Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia, also known as Majlis Ash-Shura or Shura Council, is the formal advisory body of Saudi Arabia, which is an absolute monarchy. The Consultative Assembly has limited powers in government, including the power to propose laws to the King and cabinet, but it cannot pass or enforce laws and it has 150 members, all of whom are appointed by the King. The Consultative Assembly is headed by a Speaker, the current speaker is Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh, in line with a tradition that kept the post in that family. The Assembly is based in the Al Yamamah Palace, Riyadh, the Consultative Assembly is permitted to propose draft laws and forward them to the King, but only the King has the power to pass or enforce them. The Assembly does, however, have the power to interpret laws and it can also advise the King on policies he submits to it, along with international treaties and economic plans. The Assembly is also authorized to review the annual budget. The first Majlis al Shura was founded by King Abdulaziz on 13 January 1926 and it was chaired by his son, Prince Faisal. However, the complete institutionalization of the assembly was finalized in 1932, later, it was expanded to include twenty-five members at the beginning of King Sauds reign. However, its functions were transferred to the Ministers Cabinet due to pressures of the royal family members. On the other hand, Majlis al Shura was not officially dissolved and remained ineffective until King Fahd revived it in 2000, the first term council had a speaker and 60 members. The membership was increased by 30 in each of the following terms, thus, the number of members increased to 150 members plus the speaker in the fourth term council. Having been expanded in 1997 and 2001, the council achieved a place in the International Parliamentary Union by the end of 2003, the fourth term council held 845 sessions and issued 1174 declarations during its second year. In September 2011, just a few days before the 2011 municipal elections, in January 2013, King Abdullah issued two royal decrees, granting women thirty seats on the council, and stating that women must always hold at least a fifth of the seats on the council. According to the decrees, the council members must be committed to Islamic Shariah disciplines without any violations. The decrees also said that the council members would be entering the council building from special gates, sit in seats reserved for women. Earlier, officials said that a screen would separate genders and a communications network would allow men and women to communicate. Women first joined the council in 2013, occupying thirty seats, there are two Saudi royal women among these thirty female members of the assembly, Sara bint Faisal Al Saud and Moudi bint Khalid Al Saud. Sheikh Mohammed bin Ibrahim bin Jubair, who was a respected Hanbali jurist and former Minister of Justice, was appointed as the president of the first Council term and he remained the president until his death in 2002, and was replaced by Saleh bin Abdullah bin Homaid
15.
Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh
–
Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh is the chairman of the Majlis ash-Shura of Saudi Arabia since 2009. He was the minister of Justice from February 1992 to February 2009, abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh is a member of a noted family of Saudi religious scholars, the Al ash-Sheikh. He was born in Diriyah in 1948 and was educated by his father and he also studied the interpretation of the Quran and jurisprudence principles with the late Sheikh Abdulrazaq Afifi. He attended the Shariah College in Riyadh and graduated with a degree in Sharia in 1975. He then studied Sharia at Al-Azhar University in Cairo and returned to Saudi Arabia to obtain a degree in 1987. He earned his PhD degree in Fiqh from Imam Mohammed bin Saudi University in 1987, after obtaining his doctorate, Al ash-Sheikh became a lecturer and professor in the Sharia College of Imam Muhammed bin Saud Islamic University until his appointment as minister of justice. He replaced Muhammad Al Jubair as minister, on the instructions of the King, he drew up the judiary law of 2007. These reforms envisaged the creation of specialized courts to operate in parallel with the sharia courts. In effect, the reform may allow certain cases to be judged without reference to Sharia, another important aspect of the reform was the creation of a Supreme Court. The laws covering the reforms were passed in October 2007. He was replaced by Muhammad bin Abdul Karim Issa as justice minister on 14 February 2009 and it was reported that King Abdullahs objective in the re-shuffle was to replace conservative incumbents with younger, more progressive candidates. It was also reported that he was one of the conservatives in the cabinet replaced, later, he was appointed chairman of the Majlis ash Shura in 2009. He is a member of Council of Senior Ulema and the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs
16.
National Security Council (Saudi Arabia)
–
The Saudi National Security Council was the body in charge of coordinating Saudi Arabias national security, intelligence and foreign policy strategy. It was established in 2005 by King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the first secretary general of the SNSC was Prince Bandar bin Sultan, the former Saudi Ambassador to the United States. The assistant secretary general of the SNSC was Prince Salman bin Sultan until 6 August 2013, the council was abolished by King Salman on 29 January 2015. The National Security Council was formed on 16 October 2005 by the newly crowned King Abdullah in response to major shifts in the Middle East region. The occupation of Iraq made the region a center for reconstruction, globalization and reorganization with the entry of the United States as a major player. In addition to its influence in the Arabian Peninsula, Saudi Arabia is one of the leading actors in the Islamic world and has a central role in global energy policy. It had the power to declare war and investigate security agencies if they were involved in acts that threaten national security. Despite the formation of the Council, as with other Saudi government institutions, the SNSC was chaired by the King, with the Crown Prince as deputy chairman. Its affairs are coordinated by a permanent Secretary General, late Prince Nayef, then interior minister, served as the deputy head of the SNSC. King Salman dissolved the NSC on 29 January 2015
17.
Legal system of Saudi Arabia
–
The legal system of Saudi Arabia is based on Sharia, Islamic law derived from the Quran and the Sunnah of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The sources of Sharia also include Islamic scholarly consensus developed after Muhammads death and its interpretation by judges in Saudi Arabia is influenced by the medieval texts of the literalist Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence. Uniquely in the Muslim world, Sharia has been adopted by Saudi Arabia in an uncodified form and this, and the lack of judicial precedent, has resulted in considerable uncertainty in the scope and content of the countrys laws. The government therefore announced its intention to codify Sharia in 2010, Sharia has also been supplemented by regulations issued by royal decree covering modern issues such as intellectual property and corporate law. In the areas of land and energy law the extensive proprietorial rights of the Saudi state constitute a significant feature. The current Saudi court system was created by King Abdul Aziz, who founded the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932 and it comprises general and summary Sharia courts, with some administrative tribunals to deal with disputes on specific modern regulations. Trials in Saudi Arabia are bench trials, courts in Saudi Arabia observe few formalities and the countrys first criminal procedure code, issued in 2001, has been largely ignored. King Abdullah, in 2007, introduced a number of significant judicial reforms, Criminal law punishments in Saudi Arabia include public beheading, hanging, stoning, amputation and lashing. Serious criminal offences include not only internationally recognized crimes such as murder, rape, theft and robbery, in addition to the regular police force, Saudi Arabia has a secret police, the Mabahith, and religious police, the Mutawa. The latter enforces Islamic social and moral norms, the Albert Shanker Institute and Freedom House have also reported that Saudi Arabias practices diverge from the concept of the rule of law. Sharia, the source of law in modern Saudi Arabia, was developed gradually by Muslim judges. In the rural areas, urf continued to be predominant for some time, by the 11th century, the Muslim world had developed four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, each with its own interpretations of Sharia, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi and Hanafi. In Arabia, a preference for the Hanbali school was advocated by the Wahhabi movement, Wahhabism, a strict form of Sunni Islam, was supported by the Saudi royal family and is now dominant in Saudi Arabia. From the 18th century, the Hanbali school therefore predominated in Nejd and central Arabia, in the more cosmopolitan Hejaz, in the west of the peninsula, both the Hanafi and Shafi schools were followed. In Nejd, there was a system of single judges for each of the major towns. The judge was appointed by the governor, with whom he worked closely to dispose of cases. In the Hejaz, there was a sophisticated system, with courts comprising panels of judges. In 1925, Abdul Aziz Al Saud of Nejd conquered the Hejaz, in 1927, the king introduced a new court system to the Hejaz comprising general and summary courts and ordered that Hanbali fiqh should be used
18.
Quran
–
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
19.
Judiciary of Saudi Arabia
–
The judiciary of Saudi Arabia is a branch of the government of Saudi Arabia that interprets and applies the laws of Saudi Arabia. The legal system is based on the Islamic code of Sharia, with its judges, there are also non-Sharia government tribunals which handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the King of Saudi Arabia and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence, the Sharia courts have general jurisdiction over most civil and criminal cases. At present, there are two types of courts of first instance, general courts and summary courts dealing with lesser cases, cases are adjudicated by single judges, except criminal cases if the potential sentence is death, amputation or stoning when there is a panel of three judges. There are also two courts for the Shia minority in the Eastern Province dealing with family and religious matters, appellate courts sit in Mecca and Riyadh and review decisions for compliance with Sharia. There are also non-Sharia courts covering specialized areas of law, including the Board of Grievances, the Specialized Criminal Court, created in 2008, and these administrative tribunals, referred to as committees, deal with specific issues regulated by royal decrees, such as labor and commercial law. The Grand Mufti is the most senior member of the establishment as well as being the highest religious authority in the country. The judiciary proper is composed of about 700 judges, the capabilities and reactionary nature of the judges have been criticized. The main complaint reportedly made by Saudis privately is that judges, who have wide discretion in interpreting the Sharia, have no knowledge, and are often contemptuous, of the modern world. Reported examples of judges attitudes include rulings banning such things as the children’s game Pokémon, telephones that play recorded music, Saudi judges come from a narrow recruitment pool. By one estimate, 80% are from Al-Qassim province, the conservative religious heartland of Saudi Arabia in the center of the country, senior judges will only allow like-minded graduates of select religious institutes to join the judiciary and will remove judges that stray away from rigidly conservative judgments. The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for being slow, arcane, lacking in some of the safeguards of justice, in 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees with the aim of reforming the judiciary and creating a new court system. New specialist first instance courts will be established comprising general, criminal, personal status, commercial, the Sharia courts will therefore lose their general jurisdiction to hear all cases and the work load of the governments administrative tribunals will be transferred to the new courts. Another important change is the establishment of courts for each province. It has been claimed that the reforms will establish a system for codifying Sharia, in 2008, the Specialized Criminal Court was created. The court tries suspected terrorists and human rights activists, the court convicted 16 of the human rights activists to sentences of 5–30 years on 22 November 2011. In 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the personnel at the most senior level by bringing in a younger generation. For example, as well as appointing a new Minister of Justice, the outgoing chairman was known to oppose the codification of Sharia
20.
Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia
–
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in Saudi Arabia, and is based on Shariah. The wide range of crimes which can result in the death penalty, in 2011, the Saudi government reported 26 executions in the country. Amnesty International counted a minimum of 79 in 2013, in 2015, the number of beheadings reached a two decade high of at least 157 and 47 were executed on 2 January 2016. S. and China. Saudi Arabia is one of the last four countries that carry out public executions. Saudi Arabia has a justice system based on a hardline. The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all carried out by public beheading, the last reported execution for sorcery took place in August 2014. There were no reports of stoning between 2007 and 2010, but between 1981 and 1992 there were four cases of execution by stoning reported, crucifixion of the beheaded body is sometimes ordered. In 2003, Muhammad Saad al-Beshi, whom the BBC described as Saudi Arabias leading executioner and he described his first execution in 1998, The criminal was tied and blindfolded. With one stroke of the sword I severed his head and it rolled metres away. People are amazed how fast can separate the head from the body. He also said that before an execution he visits the family to seek forgiveness for the criminal. Once an execution goes ahead, his conversation with the prisoner is to tell him or her to recite the Muslim declaration of belief. When they get to the square, their strength drains away. Then I read the order, and at a signal I cut the prisoners head off. As of 2003, executions have not been announced in advance and they can take place any day of the week, and they often generate large crowds. Photography and video of the executions is also forbidden, although there have been cases of photographed and videoed executions in the spite of the law against them. The Saudi judiciary can impose the death penalty according to three categories of criminal offence in Sharia law, Hudud, Fixed Quranic punishments for specific crimes, Hudud crimes which can result in the death penalty include apostasy, adultery, and sodomy. Families of someone murdered can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya, or blood money, a trend has developed of exorbitant blood-money demands, a recent report mentions a sum of $11 million demanded in exchange for clemency. Tazir, A general category, including crimes defined by regulations, some of which can be punished by death
21.
Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia
–
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is an Islamic theocratic monarchy in which Sunni Islam is the official state religion based on firm Sharia law and non-Muslims are not allowed to hold Saudi citizenship. Children born to Muslim fathers are by law deemed Muslim, and conversion from Islam to another religion is considered apostasy, blasphemy against Sunni Islam is also punishable by death, but the more common penalty is a long prison sentence. There have been no confirmed reports of executions for apostasy or blasphemy in recent years. A Saudi court sentenced a Palestinian man, Ashraf Fayadh to death for apostasy on November 17,2015, for alleged blasphemous statements during a discussion group, the Government does not provide legal recognition or protection for freedom of religion, and it is severely restricted in practice. The Saudi Mutaween, or Committee for the Promotion of Virtue, Sharia applies to all people inside Saudi Arabia, regardless of religion. The country’s total land area is about 2,150,000 sq kilometers, the foreign population in the country, including many undocumented migrants, may exceed 12 million. Accurate religious demographics of citizens are difficult to obtain, a majority of Saudi citizens are Salafi Muslims, and the strict interpretation of Islam taught by the Salafi or Wahhabi sect is the only officially recognized religion. A minority of citizens are Shia Muslims, in 2006, they formed around 15% of the native population. They live mostly in the districts on the Persian Gulf, where they constitute approximately three-quarters of the native population. According to a Gallup poll, 19% of Saudis are not religious, Saudi Arabia is an Islamic theocracy and the Government has declared the Quran and the Sunnah of Muhammad to be the country’s Constitution. Freedom of religion is severely limited, under the law, children born to Muslim fathers are also Muslim, regardless of the country or the religious tradition in which they have been raised. The Government prohibits the practice of other religions but the government generally allows private practice of non-Muslim religions. The primary source of law in Saudi Arabia is based on Sharia, with Sharia courts basing their judgments largely on a derived from the Quran. Additionally, traditional law and custom remain significant. The only national holidays observed in Saudi Arabia are the two Eids, Eid Al-Fitr at the end of Ramadan and Eid Al-Adha at the conclusion of the Hajj and the Saudi national day. Islamic practice generally is limited to that of a school of the Sunni branch of Islam as interpreted by Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab, outside Saudi Arabia, this branch of Islam is often referred to as Wahhabi, a term the Saudis do not use. Practices contrary to this interpretation, such as celebration of Muhammads birthday, the spreading of Muslim teachings not in conformity with the officially accepted interpretation of Islam is prohibited. The Ministry pays the salaries of imams and others who work in the mosques, a governmental committee defines the qualifications of imams
22.
Human rights in Saudi Arabia
–
Human rights in Saudi Arabia are intended to be based on the Hanbali Islamic religious laws under absolute rule of the Saudi royal family. The very strict regime ruling the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is consistently ranking among the worst of the worst in Freedom Houses annual survey of political, Saudi Arabia is one of approximately thirty countries in the world with judicial corporal punishment. In Saudi Arabias case this includes amputations of hands and feet for robbery, in 2004, the United Nations Committee Against Torture criticized Saudi Arabia over the amputations and floggings it carries out under Sharia. The Saudi delegation responded defending legal traditions held since the inception of Islam 1,400 years ago, the courts continue to impose sentences of flogging as a principal or additional punishment for many offences. At least five defendants were sentenced to flogging of 1,000 to 2,500 lashes, flogging was carried out in prisons. In 2009, Mazen Abdul-Jawad was sentenced to 1000 lashes and 5 years in prison for bragging on a Saudi TV show about his sexual exploits. In 2014, Saudi blogger Raif Badawis sentence was increased to 1000 lashes and 10 years imprisonment after he was accused of apostasy in 2012, the lashes were due to take place over 20 weeks. The first round were administered on January 9,2015, the case has been internationally condemned and has put a considerable amount of pressure on the Saudi legal system. UK pensioner and cancer victim, Karl Andree aged 74 faces 360 lashes for home brewing alcohol and his family fears the punishment could kill him. In 2016, a Saudi man was sentenced to 2000 lashes,10 years in prison and the fine of 20,000 riyals for making tweets critical of Islam, Saudi Arabia engages in capital punishment, including public executions by beheading. Saudi Arabian police and immigration authorities routinely abuse people who are stopped or detained, earlier in November 2013, the authorities received criticism for the way they have planned and handled the crackdown on illegal workers. Saudi authorities – in some cases with the help of citizens – rounded up many of illegal workers, Saudi Arabia is a destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slave labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Some Saudi men have also used legally contracted “temporary marriages” in countries such as Mauritania, Yemen, Saudi women face discrimination in many aspects of their lives, such as the justice system. Although they make up 70% of those enrolled in universities, for reasons, women make up 5% of the workforce in Saudi Arabia. The treatment of women has been referred to as sex segregation, implementation of a government resolution supporting expanded employment opportunities for women met resistance from within the labor ministry, from the religious police, and from the male citizenry. Moreover, there is some type of segregation at homes. Womens rights are at the heart of calls for reform in Saudi Arabia – calls that are challenging the political status quo. Local and international womens groups are pushing governments to respond
23.
Women's rights in Saudi Arabia
–
Womens rights in Saudi Arabia are limited in comparison to many of its neighbors. The World Economic Forums 2015 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 134th out of 145 countries for gender parity, All women, regardless of age, are required to have a male guardian. Saudi women constitute 13% of the native workforce as of 2015. However, womens status has changed in recent decades, Women were previously forbidden from voting or being elected to political office, but in 2011 King Abdullah let women vote 2015 local elections, as well as be appointed to the Consultative Assembly. More university graduates in Saudi Arabia are Saudi women than men, the average age at first marriage among Saudi females in the kingdom is 25 years. Among the factors that define rights for women in Saudi are government laws, the Hanbali and Wahhabi interpretation of Sunni Islam, Gender roles in Saudi society come from Sharia. Sharia law has derivatives from the Quran and hadith, in Saudi culture, the Sharia is interpreted according to a strict Sunni form known as the way of the Salaf or Wahhabism. The law is mostly unwritten, leaving judges with significant discretionary power which they exercise in favor of tribal traditions. The variation of interpretation often leads to controversy, for example, Sheikh Ahmad Qassim Al-Ghamdi, chief of the Mecca regions mutaween, has said prohibiting ikhtilat has no basis in Sharia. Meanwhile, Sheikh Abdul Rahman al-Barrak, another prominent cleric, issued a fatwa that proponents of ikhtilat should be killed and its the culture, not the religion, is a Saudi saying. At least according to customs of the Arabian peninsula also play a part in womens place in Saudi society. The peninsula is the home of patriarchal, nomadic tribes, in which separation of women and men. Many Saudis do not see Islam as the main impediment to womens rights, according to one female journalist, “If the Quran does not address the subject, then the clerics will err on the side of caution and make it haram. The driving ban for women is the best example. ”Another believes that “if all women were given the rights the Quran guarantees us, and not be supplanted by tribal customs, then the issue of whether Saudi women have equal rights would be reduced. ”Asmaa Al-Muhhamad, editor for Al Arabiya, points out that women in all other Muslim nations, including those in the Gulf area, have far more political power than Saudi women. The 2013 Global Gender Gap Report ranked several Muslim nations, such as Kyrgyzstan, Gambia, Saudis often invoke the life of Prophet Muhammad, to prove that Islam allows strong women. His first wife, Khadijah, was a businesswoman who employed him. Another wife, Aisha commanded an army at the Battle of Bassorah and is the source of many hadiths, Muhammad ended female infanticide and established the first rights for women in Arab culture. He reportedly told Muslim men, You have rights over your women, enforcement and custom vary by region
24.
Elections in Saudi Arabia
–
Elections in Saudi Arabia have been historically rare. Municipal elections were held in 2005 and were planned for 2009, after two years delay, they were held in 2011. In September 2011, King Abdullah granted women the right to vote, elections for other municipalities were held between 1954 and 1962 during the reign of King Saud, an experiment that ended under the centralization of King Faisal. In 2005, elections for half the municipal councillors were held, in February 2009 it was announced that municipal elections scheduled for 2009 would be postponed indefinitely for evaluation. A government spokesperson said that they were postponed to consider suffrage for women in the next elections, the municipal elections were eventually scheduled for and took place in 2011, but universal suffrage was delayed until the scheduled 2015 vote. Saudi Arabias Consultative Assembly, with 150 appointed members, can propose laws, no political parties are allowed in Saudi Arabia. Arab Spring Electoral calendar Electoral system
25.
Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2005
–
Municipal elections for 178 municipalities were held in Saudi Arabia between 10 February and 21 April 2005. Male citizens over the age of 21 voted for half of the members of their municipal councils, prince Mansour bin Turki bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud expressed the hope that women would be able to vote in the 2009 elections. In March 2011, the elections were announced for 23 April 2011. On 10 February 2005, the first round of the elections was realized in the Riyadh region and Islamists won the majority, a total of 646 candidates were on the list. Those who were not chosen accused the Saudi religious establishment for using the backing of to get votes, the winners, on the other hand, denied all these allegations. In Jeddah, the most liberal Saudi city, all the seven winning candidates were supported by the prominent conservative religious scholars among 530 candidates. Five of the six winners in Buraydah, the capital of the very conservative Qaseem province, Islamists won all the seats in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina as well. In the eastern regions, several non-Islamist candidates were elected on 3 March 2005, shiites swept the board in the town of Qatif and won five out of six seats in Al Hasa
26.
Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2011
–
Municipal elections in Saudi Arabian towns and cities, initially planned for 31 October 2009, were held on 29 September 2011. Women were not allowed to participate in the elections, women campaigned for the right to participate in the official elections and planned to create parallel municipal councils. Municipal elections were planned to be held on 31 October 2009 in Saudi Arabia. The elections were not held in 2009, governmental authorities stated that the delay was caused by the need to expand the electorate and study the possibility of allowing women to vote. On 22–23 March 2011, officials of the Ministry of Municipal and Rural affairs announced that the elections would be held on 22 September 2011, half of the local council seats were to be decided in the election and the other half were to be appointed. Voter registration took place from 23 April to 19 May or 28 July, candidate registration took place from 28 May to 2 June. The period of campaigning was to be decided after candidate registration had closed. The municipal councils were to be created in October, following the election, in late March, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural affairs stated that women would not vote in the 2011 elections because of the kingdoms social customs. Al-Fassi stated that creating their own municipal councils or participating in real elections were both legal under Saudi law and electoral commission head al-Dahmash agreed with her. Saudi Arabian women organised through the Baladi and Saudi Womens Revolution to campaign for womens participation in the election, from 23–25 April, women in Jeddah, Riyadh and Dammam tried to register as electors. The Gulf News said that public opinion. Supporting womens participation in the process followed local newspapers publication of photos of women waiting in queues to register for the election. Fawzia Al Hani, chair of the Baladi Facebook campaign, said that Saudi Arabian law states that women have the right to vote and she cited Articles 3 and 24 of the Arab Charter on Human Rights, which refer to general and election-specific anti-discrimination, respectively. On 27 April 2011, the Grievances Board accepted to hear her case at a later date, the Boards final decision was that Badawis case was premature. According to the United States Department of State, Badawi was the first person to file a lawsuit for womens suffrage in Saudi Arabia, Badawi also applied to the Municipal Elections Appeal Committee to reverse the refusal of her registration. Her application was refused on the grounds that appeals against registration refusals must take place three days of the refusal. In an annual speech on 25 September 2011 before the Shura Council, King Abdullah stated that Saudi women would be able to run, the elections covered 1056 seats in the councils of 285 municipalities around Saudi Arabia. List of cities and towns in Saudi Arabia Womens suffrage Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs womens suffrage Baladi campaign
27.
Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2015
–
Elections were held in Saudi Arabia on 12 December 2015 for municipal councils, which have limited decision-making powers on local issues such as rubbish collection and street maintenance. The previous two elections, in 2005 and 2011, were for half the seats and were open to male candidates. The 2015 election was for two thirds of the seats, on 284 municipal councils, with both male and female candidates and voters. This was the first election in Saudi Arabia in which women were allowed to vote, the first in which they were allowed to run for office, half the seats in municipal councils in Saudi Arabia were chosen in men-only elections in 2005 and 2011. The municipal councils reportedly have little power in Saudi Arabia, an absolute monarchy, Saudi Arabian women campaigned for the right to participate in the 2011 elections, organising through the Baladi and Saudi Womens Revolution campaigns for womens right to participate. Several women tried to register as electors in Jeddah, Riyadh, a few days before the 2011 election took place, King Abdullah announced that women would be able to participate as voters and candidates in the 2015 election. In the 2015 municipal elections, two-thirds of the seats were elected positions. Voter registration started on 16 August 2015 in Medina and Mecca, two women voters registered in Medina and Mecca on 16 August. Hatoon al-Fassi of the Baladi campaign said that Baladi had intended to organise training sessions for voter education but was blocked by the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, about 131,000 women and about 1.35 million men registered to vote. There were 5,938 men registered as candidates, there were 978 women registered as candidates, however, many were barred from registering by the authorities. No reasons were given, however, it was noted that a number of them were advocates for the expansion of rights in the Kingdom. Haifa al-Hababi,36 years old as of August 2015, was a candidate, the government has given us this tool and I intend to use it. As women in Saudi Arabia are not permitted to address men who are not related to them, at mens campaign meetings, they had to either speak from behind a partition, or have a man read their speech on their behalf. Many women also stated they could not afford the high cost of running an election campaign, the turnout for the election was reported as 47%, split down as 82% of the 132,000 female voters registered and 44% of the 1. 35m male voters registered. In results released to the Associated Press on 13 December,20 female candidates were elected to the approximately 2,100 municipal council seats being contested. Salma bint Hizab al-Oteibi became the first elected politician in Saudi Arabia as a result of the election. List of cities and towns in Saudi Arabia Timeline of womens suffrage Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs womens suffrage Baladi campaign
28.
Regions of Saudi Arabia
–
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions. Each region is divided into governorates and the capital, which has the status of municipality headed by mayors. The governorates are subdivided into subgovernorates. Around 1980, the Northern Province was created from the Western and Central
29.
Governorates of Saudi Arabia
–
Governorates are the second level of regional administration within Saudi Arabia. Each of Saudi Arabias 13 regions is sub-divided into governorates, governorates are further sub-divided into sub-governorates, though some sub-governorates report directly to the provincial capital rather than to one of the governorates. Regional capitals themselves are not included within any governorate but are governed by municipalities. Governorates in Saudi Arabia can be either Category A or Category B, depending on population size
30.
Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia
–
Saudi Arabian stated policy is focused on co-operation with the oil-exporting Gulf States, the unity of the Arab world, Islamic strength and solidarity, and support for the United Nations. Saudi Arabia contributes large amounts of development aid to Muslim countries, from 1986 to 2006, the country donated £49 billion in aid. Islam is the religion of Saudi. The major exception to this occurred during the 1973 oil crisis when Saudi Arabia, with the other Arab oil states, Saudi Arabia is a founding member of several multinational organizations, including OPEC, the United Nations, the Arab League. It is also a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. The country plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the effect has been to purify and unify Islamic faith, according to supporters, and to erode regional Islamic cultures, according to others. Saudi Arabia and its oil policy are thought to have contributed to the downfall of Soviet Communism in the late 1980s, Saudi helped to finance not just the Afghan Mujahideen but non-Muslims anti-communists. Following King Fahds stroke in 1995, Abdullah, then Crown Prince, a marked change in U. S. -Saudi relations occurred, as Abdullah sought to put distance between his policies and the unpopular pro-Western policies of King Fahd. Abdullah took an independent line from the US and concentrated on improving regional relations. Several long-standing border disputes were resolved, including significantly reshaping the border with Yemen, the new approach resulted in increasingly strained relations with the US. Despite this, the U. S. and Saudi Arabia were still close nevertheless, in 1998, Abdullah paid a state visit to the U. S. and met with then President, Bill Clinton. In 2003, Abdullahs new policy was reflected in the Saudi governments refusal to support or to participate in the U. S. -led invasion of Iraq, some US critics saw this as an attempt by the royal family to placate the kingdoms Islamist radicals. That same year Saudi and U. S. government officials agreed to withdraw all U. S. military forces from Saudi soil. Since ascending to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah has followed a more activist foreign policy and has continued to push-back on US policies which are unpopular in Saudi Arabia. However, increasingly, in common with the US, fear, in 2010, the whistle blowing website Wikileaks disclosed various confidential documents revealing that King Abdullah urged the U. S. to attack Iran in order to cut off the head of the snake. As announced at the 2009 Arab League summit, Saudi Arabia is intending to participate in the Arab Customs Union to be established in 2015, Saudi Arabia-Iran relations have been strained throughout history due to the differences between Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. Although Saudi Arabia and Iran are Muslim majority nations, their relationship is fraught with tension, suspicion, various attempts have been made to improve the relationship, though none have had lasting success. Both Saudi Arabia and Iran have aspirations for Islamic leadership and both the countries possess a different vision of regional order
31.
Arabic
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
32.
Oil reserves in Saudi Arabia
–
The proven oil reserves in Saudi Arabia are the second largest in the world, estimated to be 268 billion barrels, including 2.5 Gbbl in the Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone. They are predominantly found in the Eastern Province and these reserves were the largest in the world until Venezuela announced they had increased their proven reserves to 297 Gbbl in January 2011. In 2000, the US Geological Survey estimated that remaining undiscovered oil reserves in Saudi Arabia had an average of 90 Gbbl. Saudi Arabia has traditionally been regarded as the world’s most important swing producer of oil, when acting as such, the Saudi government would increase or decrease oil production to maintain a more stable price. Saudi Arabia produced 10.3 million barrels per day in 1980,10.6 Mbbl/d in 2006, Saudi Arabia maintains the world’s largest crude oil production capacity, estimated to be approx. 11 Mbbl/d at mid-year 2008 and announced plans to increase capacity to 12.5 Mbbl/d by 2009 Cumulative production through the end of 2009 was 119.4 billion bbl. Using the stated number of 267 Gbbl, past production amounts to 40% of the stated remaining proved reserves, in the summer of 2008, Saudi Arabia announced an increase in planned production of 500,000 barrels per day. However, in 2008, some believed that Saudi oil production had already peaked or would do so in the near future. In April 2015, the Saudi oil minister Ali Al-Naimi said that Saudi Arabia produced 10.3 million barrels per day in March that year, the previous peak was in August 2013 at 10.2 million barrels per day. This has caused some to question the current state of their oil fields.10 million barrels per day. Overall, in the nine years since his 2004 prediction, Saudi crude oil and lease condensate production has averaged 9.20 million barrels per day, history of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia Energy in Saudi Arabia Map of oil and gas infrastructure in Saudi Arabia
33.
Economy of Saudi Arabia
–
Saudi Arabia has an oil-based economy with strong government control over major economic activities. The Saudi economy is the largest in the Arab world, Saudi Arabia possesses 18% of the worlds proven petroleum reserves, ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum, and played a leading role in OPEC for many years. The petroleum sector accounts for almost all of Saudi government revenues, most workers, particularly in the private sector, are foreigners. Saudi oil reserves are the second largest in the world, and Saudi Arabia is the leading oil exporter. Proven reserves, according to figures provided by the Saudi government, are estimated to be 260 billion barrels, Petroleum in Saudi Arabia is not only plentiful but under pressure and close to the earths surface. This makes it far cheaper and thus far more profitable to extract petroleum in Saudi Arabia than in other places. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 92. 5% of Saudi budget revenues, 97% of export earnings, another 40% of GDP comes from the private sector. An estimated 7.5 million foreigners work legally in Saudi Arabia, playing a role in the Saudi economy, for example, in the oil. The government has encouraged private sector growth for years to lessen the kingdoms dependence on oil. In recent decades the government has begun to permit private sector and foreign investor participation in such as power generation and telecom. During much of the 2000s, high oil prices enabled the government to post budget surpluses, boost spending on job training and education, infrastructure development, and government salaries. More than 95% of all Saudi oil is produced on behalf of the Saudi Government by the parastatal giant Saudi Aramco, at every level in every sphere of activity, Saudis maneuver through life manipulating individual privileges, favors, obligations, and connections. The gross domestic product of Saudi Arabia fluctuates dramatically according to the price of oil, Market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and other sources, with figures in millions of Saudi Arabian Riyals. For purchasing power parity comparisons, the U. S. dollar is exchanged at 3.75 Saudi Arabian Riyals only, mean wages were $14.74 per man-hour in 2009. Population from FAO aqaustat, UN World Population Prospects, The 2010 Revision As of August 2009 it was reported that Saudi Arabia is the strongest Arab economy, Saudi Arabia was a subsistence economy until the 1930s. During the 1973 oil crisis Saudi began to rapidly and peaked around 1980. In the mid 1980s the oil dropped from a high of US$40 per barrel to around US$5. From 2002 to mid-2008 oil prices recovered, allowing the government to post budget surpluses, Saudi Arabia was an economy based on subsistence agriculture by a population that was largely nomadic and very poor until the discovery of oil in the 1930s
34.
Education in Saudi Arabia
–
When Saudi Arabia formally became a nation in 1932, education was largely limited to instruction for a select few in Islamic schools. Today, public primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. Saudi education is noted for its religious content, at the university level, nearly two-thirds of graduates earn degrees in Islamic subjects. The highest authority that supervises education in Saudi Arabia is the Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963. According to the World Bank database, public spending on education is 6.8 percent of GDP, Education spending as a percentage of overall spending tripled from 1970 to 2000, and neither economic growth nor the price of oil had much impact on this trend. However, attendance of kindergartens is not a prerequisite for enrollment of first grade of primary education, some private nurseries have been established with technical and financial aid from the government. According to government data,100,714 children are in education in 2007. The gross enrollment percentage was 10. 8%, for boys 11.1 percent, primary education in Saudi Arabia lasts six years, and children at the age of 6 enter the first grade of primary education. All national primary schools are day schools and are not co-educational, in order to move on to intermediate education, children must pass the examination at the end of Grade 6 of primary school and obtain the Elementary Education Certificate. According to government data,2,442,482 students are in education in 2007. According to UNESCO, the gross enrollment ratio for boys is 99.9 percent, gross enrollment ratio for girls is 96.3 percent, Intermediate education in Saudi Arabia lasts three years. According to government data,1,144,548 students are in education in 2007. According to gross enrollment the total rate is 95.9 percent in 2007, secondary education in Saudi Arabia lasts three years and this is the final stage of general education. After the intermediate education, students have the opportunity for both general and specialized secondary education, technical secondary institute which provide technical and vocational education and training programs lasts three years in the fields of industry, commerce and agriculture. According to government data,1,013,074 students are in education in 2007. The establishment of the King Saud University in 1957 is a point of the modern higher education system in Saudi Arabia. This was also the first university in all the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, there are 24 government universities in Saudi Arabia, established in a short span of time. Among them, Taibah University, Qassim University and Taif University were established under the Seventh Development Plan, the universities consists of colleges and departments that offer diplomas, and bachelors, masters and PhD degrees in various scientific and humanities specializations
35.
Tourism in Saudi Arabia
–
Although most tourism in Saudi Arabia still largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the World Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, potential tourist areas include the Hijaz and Sarawat Mountains, Red Sea diving and a number of ancient ruins. In December 2013, Saudi Arabia announced its intention to begin issuing tourist visas for the first time in its history, council of Ministers entrusted the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities with visa issuing on the basis of certain regulations approved by the Ministries of Interior and Foreign Affairs. A must for visitors to the region, the focuses on the countrys history, culture. Al Ahsa Museum Diriyah is a town in Saudi Arabia located on the outskirts of Riyadh. Diriyah was the home of the Saudi royal family and served as the capital of the first Saudi dynasty from 1744 to 1818. Today, the town is the seat of the Diriyah Governorate, which includes the villages of Uyayna, Jubayla, and Al-Ammariyyah, among others. Madain Saleh is a archaeological site located in the Al-Ula sector. A majority of the date from the Nabatean kingdom. The site constitutes the kingdoms southernmost and largest settlement after Petra, Tourism in Saudi Arabia still largely involves religious pilgrimages. Mecca receives over three million pilgrims a year during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah in Hajj, and around two million during the month of Ramadan in Umrah, during the rest of the year, Mecca receives around four million for Umrah. The Hajj, or pilgrimage to the city, is one of the five pillars of Islam, however, non-Muslims are not allowed to enter. All visitors to Saudi Arabia require a sponsor, which is usually arranged months in advance, visas are only issued for business, relatives of Saudis, transit to a third country, and Muslim pilgrims, general tourism is not allowed. Women may not travel alone, and women and children require permission of the head of household to enter. Though crime is lower than many countries around the world, the U. S. State Department warns travelers of a risk of attacks on Westerners. Hajj and Umrah permits only allow visitors access to areas near. Passports are confiscated upon arrival, and visitors are issued ID cards and wristbands, visa policy of Saudi Arabia Official tourism website Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities Travelers Information by the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Washington, D. C. Official restaurant directory and dining guide of Saudi Arabia
36.
Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia
–
The Royal Saudi Arabian Armed Forces consists of the Saudi Arabian Army, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, and the Royal Saudi Strategic Missile Force. In addition the Saudi Arabian National Guard, which is one of the three branches of the Joint Forces of the Kingdom. The national guard is under the control of the Ministry of National Guard, instead of the Ministry of Defence, the Saudi Arabian Royal Guard. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has one of the defence forces in the Middle East. The kingdom spends 25% of its budget, or about $88 billion, on its military, in terms of manpower, Saudi Arabia has about 688,000 active personnel in its military, with 300,000 army troops. Saudi Arabia also has more than 200,000 men in its national guard and 25,000 tribal levies, the navy has about 60,000 members, air defense forces and strategic rocket forces about 40,000 soldiers. In addition to the air forces with more than 63,000 active employees, also there is an intelligence service. The Saudi Arabian National Guard is not a reserve but a fully operational force, and originated out of Abdul Azizs tribal military-religious force. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being effectively Abdullahs private army since the 1960s and, crown Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz was Saudi Arabias Minister of Defence and Aviation from 1962 to 2011. The vice minister, Abdulrahman bin Abdulaziz, was his full brother and his oldest son, Khalid bin Sultan, was appointed assistant minister in 2001 and was in office until April 2013. In 1987, members of the air force, army, and navy are mainly recruits from groups of people without a strong identity from the Nejd tribal system, spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$67 billion in 2013. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top five nations in the world in government spending for its military and its modern, high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the worlds most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the United States, France, and Britain. According to SIPRI, in 2010–14 Saudi Arabia became the second largest arms importer. Major imports in 2010–14 included 45 combat aircraft from the UK,38 combat helicopters from the USA,4 tanker aircraft from Spain and over 600 armoured vehicles from Canada. Saudi Arabia has a long list of outstanding orders for arms, including 27 more combat aircraft from the UK,154 combat aircraft from the USA, the United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military. In comparison, the Israel Defense Forces received $53.6 billion in U. S. military grants between 1949 and 2007. On 20 October 2010, U. S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history—an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represented an improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces
37.
Initial public offering
–
Through this process, a privately held company transforms into a public company. Initial public offerings are used by companies to raise the expansion of capital, possibly to monetize the investments of early private investors. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors, after the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. The IPO process is known as going public. Details of the offering are disclosed to potential purchasers in the form of a lengthy document known as a prospectus. Most companies undertake an IPO with the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter, underwriters provide several services, including help with correctly assessing the value of shares and establishing a public market for shares. Alternative methods such as the dutch auction have also been explored, in terms of size and public participation, the two most notable examples of this method is the Google IPO and Snapchats parent company Snap Inc. China has recently emerged as a major IPO market, with several of the largest IPOs taking place in that country, the earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the case of the publicani during the Roman Republic. Like modern joint-stock companies, the publicani were legal bodies independent of their members whose ownership was divided into shares, there is evidence that these shares were sold to public investors and traded in a type of over-the-counter market in the Forum, near the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The shares fluctuated in value, encouraging the activity of speculators, mere evidence remains of the prices for which partes were sold, the nature of initial public offerings, or a description of stock market behavior. Publicanis lost favor with the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire, the first modern IPO occurred in March 1602 when the Dutch East India Company offered shares of the company to the public in order to raise capital. All the shares were tradable, and the shareholders received receipts for the purchase, a share certificate documenting payment and ownership such as we know today was not issued but ownership was instead entered in the companys share register. In the United States, the first IPO was the offering of Bank of North America around 1783. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the market to price. After the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, for early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. This type of offering is not dilutive, since no new shares are being created, once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares in a number of different ways, one of which is the follow-on offering
38.
Saudi Aramco
–
Saudi Aramco, officially the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, most popularly known just as Aramco, is a Saudi Arabian national petroleum and natural gas company based in Dhahran. Saudi Aramcos value has been estimated at anywhere between US$1.25 trillion and US$10 trillion, making it the worlds most valuable company, Saudi Aramco has both the worlds largest proven crude oil reserves, at more than 260 billion barrels, and largest daily oil production. Saudi Aramco owns, operates and develops all energy resources based in Saudi Arabia, according to a 2015 Forbes report, Aramco is said to be the worlds largest oil and gas company. Headquartered in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Saudi Aramco operates the worlds largest single hydrocarbon network, the Master Gas System. Its 2013 crude oil production total was 3.4 billion barrels, Saudi Aramco operates the Ghawar Field, the worlds largest onshore oil field, and the Safaniya Field, the worlds largest offshore oil field. Saudi Aramcos origins trace to the oil shortages of World War I, the US Republican administration had popular support for an Open Door policy, which Herbert Hoover, secretary of commerce, initiated in 1921. Standard Oil of California was among those US companies seeking new sources of oil from abroad, through its subsidiary company, the Bahrain Petroleum Co. SoCal struck oil in Bahrain in May 1932 and this event heightened interest in the oil prospects of the Arabian mainland. On 29 May 1933, the Saudi Arabian government granted a concession to SoCal in preference to a bid from the Iraq Petroleum Co. The concession allowed SoCal to explore for oil in Saudi Arabia, SoCal assigned this concession to a wholly owned subsidiary, California-Arabian Standard Oil. In 1936, with the company having had no success at locating oil, after four years of fruitless exploration, the first success came with the seventh drill site in Dhahran in 1938, a well referred to as Dammam No.7. This well immediately produced over 1,500 barrels per day, on 31 January 1944, the company name was changed from California-Arabian Standard Oil Co. to Arabian American Oil Co. In 1948, Standard Oil of New Jersey purchased 30% and Socony Vacuum purchased 10% of the company, with SoCal and Texaco retaining 30% each. The newcomers were also shareholders in the Iraq Petroleum Co. and had to get the restrictions of the Red Line Agreement lifted in order to be free to enter into this arrangement. In 1950, King Abdulaziz threatened to nationalize his countrys oil facilities, a similar process had taken place with American oil companies in Venezuela a few years earlier. The American government granted US Aramco member companies a tax known as the golden gimmick equivalent to the profits given to King Abdulaziz. In the wake of the new arrangement, the headquarters were moved from New York to Dhahran. In 1951, the company discovered the Safaniya Oil Field, the worlds largest offshore field, in 1957, the discovery of smaller connected oil fields confirmed the Ghawar Field as the worlds largest onshore field
39.
Red Sea
–
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
40.
Hejaz
–
The Hejaz, also Al-Hijaz, is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. The region is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihamah in the west and it is also known as the Western Province. It is bordered on the west by the Red Sea, on the north by Jordan, on the east by the Najd and its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. As the site of Islams holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the Arab, historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia. The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz, hejazi Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of diverse origins. The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the Arabian Peninsula, people of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula, thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd. One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Al-Hijaz, the Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wadi Al-Rummah and Wadi Al-Batin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the system was active in 8000 BCE. The northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, Saudi Arabias first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hjir. The name Al-Hijr occurs in the Qur’an, and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. Despite their rather Polytheistic nature, a member of folk was a Monotheistic preacher called Salih. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada’in Saleh, it came under the influence of people, such as the Nabataeans. Later, it would lie in a used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca. According to Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrahim brought his son Isma‘il and wife Hajar here and it was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Medinans who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca. Given that he had followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area. They involved both Meccan companions, such as Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and Sad ibn Abi Waqqas, the Hijaz fell under Muhammads influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire
41.
Bikini
–
A bikini is usually a womens abbreviated two-piece swimsuit with a bra top for the chest and underwear cut below the navel. The basic design is simple, two triangles of fabric on top cover the breasts and two triangles of fabric on the bottom cover the groin in front and the buttocks in back. The size of a bottom can range from full pelvic coverage to a revealing thong or G-string design. The name for the design was coined in 1946 by Parisian engineer Louis Réard. He named the swimsuit after Bikini Atoll, where testing on the bomb was taking place. Fashion designer Jacques Heim, also from Paris, re-released a similar design earlier that same year, due to its controversial and revealing design, the bikini was slow to be adopted. In many countries it was banned from beaches and public places, the bikini design became common in most Western countries by the mid-1960s as beachwear, swimwear and underwear. By the late 20th century it had become common as sportswear in sports such as beach volleyball, variations of the term are used to describe stylistic variations for promotional purposes and industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, and skirtini. A mans brief swimsuit may also be referred to as a bikini, similarly, a variety of mens and womens underwear types are described as bikini underwear. The bikini has gradually grown to wide acceptance in Western society. By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a US$811 million business annually, while the two-piece swimsuit as a design existed in classical antiquity, the modern design first attracted public notice in Paris on July 5,1946. Four days earlier, the United States had initiated its first peace-time nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads, Réard hoped his swimsuits revealing style would create an explosive commercial and cultural reaction similar to the explosion at Bikini Atoll. Later swimsuit designs like the tankini and trikini further cemented this false assumption, although bikini was originally a registered trademark of Réard, it has since become genericized. A mans brief swimsuit may also be referred to as a bikini, similarly, a variety of mens and womens underwear types are described as bikini underwear. The two-piece swimsuit can be traced back to the Greco-Roman world, the mosaic, found in the Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale, features ten maidens who have been anachronistically dubbed the Bikini Girls. Other Roman archaeological finds depict the goddess Venus in a similar garment, in Pompeii, depictions of Venus wearing a bikini were discovered in the Casa della Venere, in the tablinum of the House of Julia Felix, and in an atrium garden of Via DellAbbondanza. Swimming or bathing outdoors was discouraged in the Christian West, so there was little demand or need for swimming or bathing costumes until the 18th century. The bathing gown of the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise-type gown made of wool or flannel that retained coverage, in 1913, designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two-piece swimwear
