1.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
2.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
3.
Vector graphics
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Vector graphics is the use of polygons to represent images in computer graphics. Vector graphics are based on vectors, which lead through locations called control points or nodes, one of the first uses of vector graphic displays was the US SAGE air defense system. Vector graphics systems were retired from U. S. en route air traffic control in 1999. Vector graphics were used on the TX-2 at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory by computer graphics pioneer Ivan Sutherland to run his program Sketchpad in 1963. Subsequent vector graphics systems, most of which iterated through dynamically modifiable stored lists of drawing instructions, include the IBM2250, Imlac PDS-1, storage scope displays, such as the Tektronix 4014, could display vector images but not modify them without first erasing the display. In computer typography, modern outline fonts describe printable characters by cubic or quadratic mathematical curves with control points, nevertheless, bitmap fonts are still in use. Processing outline character data in sophisticated fashion to create satisfactory bitmaps for rendering is called hinting, although the term implies suggestion, the process is deterministic, and done by executable code, essentially a special-purpose computer language. While automatic hinting is possible, results can be inferior to that done by experts, although a typical plot might easily require a few thousand paper motions, back and forth, the paper doesnt slip. In a tiny roll-fed plotter made by Alps in Japan, teeth on thin sprockets indented the paper near its edges on the first pass, some Hewlett-Packard pen plotters had two-axis pen carriers and stationery paper. However, the moving-paper H-P plotters had grit wheels which, on the first pass, indented the paper surface, present-day vector graphic files such as engineering drawings are typically printed as bitmaps, after vector-to-raster conversion. The term vector graphics is used today in the context of two-dimensional computer graphics. It is one of several modes an artist can use to create an image on a raster display, Vector graphics can be uploaded to online databases for other designers to download and manipulate, speeding up the creative process. Other modes include text, multimedia, and 3D rendering, virtually all modern 3D rendering is done using extensions of 2D vector graphics techniques. Plotters used in technical drawing still draw vectors directly to paper, the World Wide Web Consortium standard for vector graphics is Scalable Vector Graphics. The standard is complex and has been slow to be established at least in part owing to commercial interests. Many web browsers now have support for rendering SVG data. In recent years, SVG has become a significant format that is independent of the resolution of the rendering device. SVG files are essentially printable text that describes both straight and curved paths, as well as other attributes, wikipedia prefers SVG for images such as simple maps, line illustrations, coats of arms, and flags, which generally are not like photographs or other continuous-tone images
4.
XML
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In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
5.
International standard
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International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
6.
Two-dimensional space
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In physics and mathematics, two-dimensional space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe. The two dimensions are commonly called length and width, both directions lie in the same plane. A sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n =2, the set of all locations is called two-dimensional space or bi-dimensional space. Each reference line is called an axis or just axis of the system. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. The idea of system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat. Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and these commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes work. Later, the plane was thought of as a field, where any two points could be multiplied and, except for 0, divided and this was known as the complex plane. The complex plane is called the Argand plane because it is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert Argand, although they were first described by Norwegian-Danish land surveyor, Argand diagrams are frequently used to plot the positions of the poles and zeroes of a function in the complex plane. In mathematics, analytic geometry describes every point in space by means of two coordinates. Two perpendicular coordinate axes are given which cross each other at the origin and they are usually labeled x and y. Another widely used system is the polar coordinate system, which specifies a point in terms of its distance from the origin. In two dimensions, there are infinitely many polytopes, the polygons, the first few regular ones are shown below, The Schläfli symbol represents a regular p-gon. The regular henagon and regular digon can be considered degenerate regular polygons and they can exist nondegenerately in non-Euclidean spaces like on a 2-sphere or a 2-torus. There exist infinitely many non-convex regular polytopes in two dimensions, whose Schläfli symbols consist of rational numbers and they are called star polygons and share the same vertex arrangements of the convex regular polygons
7.
Data compression
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In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy, no information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information, the process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called coding in opposition to channel coding. Compression is useful because it reduces resources required to store and transmit data, computational resources are consumed in the compression process and, usually, in the reversal of the process. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off, Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy, for example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels, instead of coding red pixel, red pixel. The data may be encoded as 279 red pixels and this is a basic example of run-length encoding, there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage, DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip, and PNG, LZW is used in GIF images. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data, for most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded, current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsofts CAB format, the best modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as a form of statistical modelling. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string, sequitur and Re-Pair are practical grammar compression algorithms for which software is publicly available. In a further refinement of the use of probabilistic modelling. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols
8.
Text editor
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A text editor is a type of program used for editing plain text files. Such programs are known as notepad software, following the Microsoft Notepad. Text editors are provided with operating systems and software development packages, there are important differences between plain text files created by a text editor and document files created by word processors such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect. A plain text file uses a character encoding such as UTF-8 or ASCII to represent numbers, letters, the only non-printing characters in the file that can be used to format the text are newline, tab, and formfeed. Plain text files are displayed using a monospace font so horizontal alignment. Although they are viewed with formatting, documents using markup languages are stored in plain text files that contain a combination of human-readable text. For example, web pages are plain text with HTML tags to achieve formatting when rendered by a web browser, many web pages also contain embedded JavaScript that is interpreted by the browser. When both formats are available, the user must select with care, saving a plain text file in a word-processor format adds formatting information that can make the text unreadable by a program that expects plain text. Conversely, saving a document as plain text removes any formatting information. Before text editors existed, computer text was punched into cards with keypunch machines, physical boxes of these thin cardboard cards were then inserted into a card-reader. Magnetic tape and disk card-image files created from such card decks often had no characters at all. An alternative to cards was punched paper tape and it could be created by some teleprinters, which used special characters to indicate ends of records. The first text editors were line editors oriented to teleprinter- or typewriter-style terminals without displays, commands effected edits to a file at an imaginary insertion point called the cursor. Edits were verified by typing a command to print a small section of the file, in some line editors, the cursor could be moved by commands that specified the line number in the file, text strings for which to search, and eventually regular expressions. Line editors were major improvements over keypunching, some line editors could be used by keypunch, editing commands could be taken from a deck of cards and applied to a specified file. Some common line editors supported a mode in which change commands displayed the altered lines. When computer terminals with video screens became available, screen-based text editors became common, one of the earliest full-screen editors was O26, which was written for the operator console of the CDC6000 series computers in 1967. Another early full-screen editor was vi, written in the 1970s, it is still a standard editor on Unix and Linux operating systems
9.
Web browser
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A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
10.
Firefox
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Mozilla Firefox is a free and open-source web browser developed by the Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary the Mozilla Corporation. Firefox was created in 2002, under the name Phoenix by the Mozilla community members who wanted a standalone rather than the Mozilla Application Suite bundle. Even during its phase, Firefox proved to be popular with its testers and was praised for its speed, security. Firefox was released in November 2004, and was successful with 60 million downloads within nine months. Firefox is considered the successor of Netscape Navigator, as the Mozilla community was created by Netscape in 1998 before their acquisition by AOL. Firefox usage grew to a peak of 32% at the end of 2009, usage then declined in competition with Google Chrome. As of January 2016, Firefox has between 9% and 16% of worldwide usage as a browser, making it the second most popular web browser. Firefox is still the most popular browser in Cuba, Eritrea, and Germany, with 85. 93%,79. 39%. It is also the most popular browser in many other African countries. According to Mozilla, as of December 2014 there were half a billion Firefox users around the world, the Firefox project began as an experimental branch of the Mozilla project by Dave Hyatt, Joe Hewitt, and Blake Ross. They believed the requirements of Netscapes sponsorship and developer-driven feature creep compromised the utility of the Mozilla browser. To combat what they saw as the Mozilla Suites software bloat, they created a stand-alone browser, on April 3,2003, the Mozilla Organization announced that they planned to change their focus from the Mozilla Suite to Firefox and Thunderbird. The community-driven SeaMonkey was formed and eventually replaced the Mozilla Application Suite in 2005, the Firefox project has undergone several name changes. Phoenix was renamed due to issues with Phoenix Technologies, the replacement name, Firebird. In response, the Mozilla Foundation stated that the browser would always bear the name Mozilla Firebird to avoid confusion, after further pressure, on February 9,2004, Mozilla Firebird became Mozilla Firefox. The name Firefox was said to be derived from a nickname of the red panda, for the abbreviation of Firefox, Mozilla prefers Fx or fx, though it is often abbreviated as FF. The Firefox project went through many versions before the version 1.0 was released on November 9,2004, search, which is a front end of Microsoft search engine Bing, by default in most localizations. Firefox Hello is scheduled to be removed in September 2016, functions can be added through add-ons created by third-party developers
11.
Internet Explorer
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Internet Explorer is a discontinued series of graphical web browsers developed by Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, starting in 1995. It was first released as part of the add-on package Plus. for Windows 95 that year, later versions were available as free downloads, or in service packs, and included in the original equipment manufacturer service releases of Windows 95 and later versions of Windows. Internet Explorer was one of the most widely used web browsers and this came after Microsoft used bundling to win the first browser war against Netscape, which was the dominant browser in the 1990s. Estimates for Internet Explorers overall market share range from 5. 45% to 27. 38% or by StatCounters numbers ranked 3rd, just after Firefox, as of August 2016. Microsoft spent over US$100 million per year on Internet Explorer in the late 1990s, on March 17,2015, Microsoft announced that Microsoft Edge would replace Internet Explorer as the default browser on its Windows 10 devices. This effectively makes Internet Explorer 11 the last release, Internet Explorer will, however, remain on some versions of Windows 10 primarily for enterprise purposes. Starting January 12,2016, only Internet Explorer 11 is supported with more security than older versions, support varies based on the operating systems technical capabilities and its support lifecycle. The Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon, Mosaic, which was an early commercial web browser with formal ties to the pioneering National Center for Supercomputing Applications Mosaic browser. In late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a fee plus a percentage of Microsofts non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a similar to NCSA Mosaic, Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly. Microsoft was sued by Synet Inc. in 1996, over the trademark infringement, the first version of Internet Explorer, Microsoft Internet Explorer made its debut on August 16,1995. It was a version of Spyglass Mosaic, which Microsoft licensed from Spyglass Inc. like many other companies initiating browser development. It was installed as part of the Internet Jumpstart Kit in Microsoft Plus. for Windows 95, the Internet Explorer team began with about six people in early development. Internet Explorer 1.5 was released months later for Windows NT. By including it free of charge on their system, they did not have to pay royalties to Spyglass Inc, resulting in a lawsuit. Windows Internet Explorer 9 was released on March 14,2011, development for Internet Explorer 9 began shortly after the release of Internet Explorer 8. At MIX10, Microsoft showed and publicly released the first Platform Preview for Internet Explorer 9, ultimately, eight platform previews were released. The first public beta was released at an event in San Francisco
12.
Google Chrome
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Google Chrome is a freeware web browser developed by Google. It was first released in 2008, for Microsoft Windows, and was ported to Linux, macOS, iOS. Google Chrome is also the component of Chrome OS, where it serves as a platform for running web apps. Google releases the majority of Chromes source code as the Chromium open-source project, a notable component that is not open-source is the built-in Adobe Flash Player. Chrome used the WebKit layout engine until version 27, as of version 28, all Chrome ports except the iOS port use Blink, a fork of the WebKit engine. As of February 2017, StatCounter estimates that Google Chrome has a 62% worldwide usage share of web browsers as a desktop browser and it also has 52% market share across all platforms combined, because it is also the most popular browser for smartphones. Its success has led to Google expanding the Chrome brand name on other products such as Chromecast, Chromebook, Chromebit, Chromebox. Google CEO Eric Schmidt opposed the development of an independent web browser for six years and he stated that at the time, Google was a small company, and he did not want to go through bruising browser wars. Rumors of Google building a web browser first appeared in September 2004, online journals and U. S. newspapers stated at the time that Google was hiring former Microsoft web developers among others. It also came shortly after the final 1.0 release of Mozilla Firefox, the release announcement was originally scheduled for September 3,2008, and a comic by Scott McCloud was to be sent to journalists and bloggers explaining the features within the new browser. Google subsequently made the comic available on Google Books and mentioned it on their blog along with an explanation for the early release. The browser was first publicly released on September 2,2008 for Windows XP and later, with 43 supported languages, officially a beta version and this passage was inherited from the general Google terms of service. Google responded to this criticism immediately by stating that the language used was borrowed from other products, Chrome quickly gained about 1% usage share. After the initial surge, usage share dropped until it hit a low of 0. 69% in October 2008 and it then started rising again and by December 2008, Chrome again passed the 1% threshold. In early January 2009, CNET reported that Google planned to release versions of Chrome for OS X, in December 2009, Google released beta versions of Chrome for OS X and Linux. Google Chrome 5.0, announced on May 25,2010, was the first stable release to all three platforms. Chrome was one of the twelve browsers offered to European Economic Area users of Microsoft Windows in 2010, the V8 JavaScript virtual machine was considered a sufficiently important project to be split off and handled by a separate team in Denmark coordinated by Lars Bak at Aarhus. Chrome initially used the WebKit rendering engine to display web pages, in 2013, they forked the WebCore component to create their own layout engine Blink
13.
Opera (web browser)
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Opera is a web browser for Windows, macOS, and Linux operating systems. It is developed by Opera Software, on 4 November 2016 Operas consumer business, including the browser, was acquired by a Chinese group of investors under the name Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I Limited Partnership. It uses the Blink layout engine, an earlier version using the Presto layout engine is still available, and runs on FreeBSD systems. According to Opera Software, the browser had more than 350 million users worldwide in the 4th quarter of 2014, total Opera mobile users reached 291 million in June 2015. According to SlashGeek, Opera has originated features later adopted by other web browsers, including Speed Dial, pop-up blocking, browser sessions, private browsing, Opera began in 1994 as a research project at Telenor, the largest Norwegian telecommunications company. In 1995, it branched out into a company named Opera Software ASA. Opera was first released publicly in 1996 with version 2.0, in an attempt to capitalize on the emerging market for Internet-connected handheld devices, a project to port Opera to mobile device platforms was started in 1998. Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new core that facilitated creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms. Up to this point, Opera was trialware and had to be purchased after the period ended. Version 5.0 saw the end of this requirement, instead, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying advertisements to users who had not paid for it. Later versions of Opera gave the user the choice of seeing banner ads or targeted text advertisements from Google, with version 8.5 the advertisements were removed entirely and primary financial support for the browser came through revenue from Google. This feature was improved and expanded in version 9.5, when GeoTrust was replaced with Netcraft. Also in 2006, Opera Software ASA released Internet Channel and Nintendo DS Browser for Nintendos DS, a new JavaScript engine called Carakan, after the Javanese alphabet, was introduced with version 10.50. According to Opera Software, Carakan makes Opera 10.50 more than seven times faster in SunSpider than Opera 10.10, on 16 December 2010, Opera 11 was released, featuring extensions, tab stacking, visual mouse gestures, and changes to the address bar. Opera 12 was released on 14 June 2012, on 12 February 2013, Opera Software announced that it would drop its own Presto layout engine in favour of WebKit as implemented by Googles Chrome browser, using code from the Chromium project. Opera Software also planned to contribute code to WebKit, on 28 May 2013, a beta release of Opera 15 was made available, the first version based on the Chromium project. Many distinctive features of the versions were dropped, and Opera Mail was separated into a standalone application derived from Opera 12. In July 2016, the Opera browser was sold to Qihoo for $600 million, on 4 November 2016 Golden Brick Capital completed the acquisition
14.
Safari (web browser)
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Safari is a web browser developed by Apple based on the WebKit engine. First released in 2003 with Mac OS X Panther, a version has been included in iOS devices since the introduction of the iPhone in 2007. It is the browser on Apple devices. A Windows version, now discontinued, was available from 2007 to 2012, until 1997, Apple Macintosh computers were shipped with the Netscape Navigator and Cyberdog web browsers only. Internet Explorer for Mac was later included as the web browser for Mac OS8.1 and onwards. Microsoft ultimately released a Mac OS X edition of Internet Explorer for Mac, on January 7,2003, at Macworld San Francisco, Steve Jobs announced that Apple had developed their own web browser, called Safari. It was based on Apples internal fork of the KHTML rendering engine, Apple released the first beta version for OS X that day. A number of official and unofficial beta versions followed, until version 1.0 was released on June 23,2003. 1.0.3, released on August 13,2004 was the last version to support Mac OS X v10.2, while 1.3.2, however,10.3 received security updates through 2007. On April 27,2005, he announced that his development version of Safari now passed the test, Safari 2.0 was released on April 29,2005, as the only web browser included with Mac OS X v10.4. This version was touted by Apple as possessing a 1. 8x speed boost over version 1.2.4, Apple eventually released version 2.0.2 of Safari, which included the modifications required to pass Acid2, on October 31,2005. In June 2005, after criticism from KHTML developers over lack of access to change logs, Apple moved the development source code. WebKit itself was released as open source. The source code for non-renderer aspects of the browser, such as its GUI elements, the final stable version of Safari 2, Safari 2.0.4, was released on January 10,2006 for Mac OS X. It was only available as part of Mac OS X Update 10.4.4 and this version addresses layout and CPU usage issues, among others. Safari 2.0.4 was the last version to be released exclusively on Mac OS X until version 6 in 2012, on January 9,2007, at Macworld SF, Jobs announced Apples iPhone, which would use a mobile version of the Safari browser. On June 11,2007, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Jobs announced Safari 3 for Mac OS X v10.5, Windows XP, and Windows Vista. During the announcement, he ran a benchmark based on the iBench browser test suite comparing the most popular Windows browsers, hence claiming that Safari was the fastest browser
15.
Microsoft Edge
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Microsoft Edge is a web browser developed by Microsoft and included in Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile and Xbox One, replacing Internet Explorer as the default web browser on all device classes. Microsoft says that it is designed to be a web browser with a layout engine built around web standards. It has new features, including integration with Cortana, annotation tools, Edge does not support ActiveX or Browser Helper Objects of Internet Explorer. Browser extension support was developed and added in preview builds in March 2016, Microsoft Edge extensions are distributed via Windows Store. Microsoft Edge is the web browser on Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile. The browser includes an integrated Adobe Flash Player, a PDF reader, Edge does not support legacy technologies such as ActiveX and Browser Helper Objects, and will instead use an extension system. Users can make annotations to web pages that can be stored to and shared with OneDrive and it also integrates with the Reading List function and provides a Reading Mode that strips unnecessary formatting from pages to improve their legibility. Preliminary support for extensions was added in March 2016, with build 14291. Microsoft indicated that the delay in allowing extensions and the number was due to security concerns. EdgeHTML is a layout engine developed for Edge. The rendering engine was first released as an option in Internet Explorer 11 as part of the Windows 10 Preview 9926 build. EdgeHTML is meant to be compatible with the WebKit layout engine used by Safari, Chrome. Microsoft has stated that any Edge-WebKit differences are bugs that we’re interested in fixing, other benchmarks focusing on the performance of the WebGL API found EdgeHTML to perform much better than Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox. Edge originally lacked support for open standards such as WebM and Opus. With a score of 473/555 Edge 15 performed comparably with regard to HTML5 standards as Firefox 48 did, which scored 474/555, in December 2014, writing for ZDNet, technology writer Mary Jo Foley reported that Microsoft was developing a new web browser codenamed Spartan for Windows 10. She said that Spartan would be treated as a new product separate from Internet Explorer, Microsoft officially unveiled Spartan during a Windows 10-focused keynote on January 21,2015. It was described as a product from Internet Explorer, its final name was not announced. Spartan was first made available as the default browser of Windows 10 Technical Preview build 10049
16.
Bitmap
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In computing, a bitmap is a mapping from some domain to bits, that is, values which are zero or one. It is also called a bit array or bitmap index, in computer graphics, when the domain is a rectangle a bitmap gives a way to store a binary image, that is, an image in which each pixel is either black or white. The more general term refers to a map of pixels. Often bitmap is used for this as well, in some contexts, the term bitmap implies one bit per pixel, while pixmap is used for images with multiple bits per pixel. A bitmap is a type of organization or image file format used to store digital images. The term bitmap comes from the computer programming terminology, meaning just a map of bits, now, along with pixmap, it commonly refers to the similar concept of a spatially mapped array of pixels. Raster images in general may be referred to as bitmaps or pixmaps, whether synthetic or photographic, besides BMP, other file formats that store literal bitmaps include InterLeaved Bitmap, Portable Bitmap, X Bitmap, and Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap. Similarly, most other file formats, such as JPEG, TIFF, PNG, and GIF, also store bitmap images. In typical uncompressed bitmaps, image pixels are stored with a color depth of 1,4,8,16,24,32,48. Pixels of 8 bits and fewer can represent either grayscale or indexed color. An alpha channel may be stored in a bitmap, where it is similar to a grayscale bitmap, or in a fourth channel that, for example. The bits representing the bitmap pixels may be packed or unpacked, depending on the color depth, a pixel in the picture will occupy at least n/8 bytes, where n is the bit depth. In the formula above, header size and color palette size, due to effects of row padding to align each row start to a storage unit boundary such as a word, additional bytes may be needed. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, here, device independent refers to the format, or storage arrangement, and should not be confused with device-independent color. The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, numerous other uncompressed bitmap file formats are in use, though most not widely
17.
Rendering (computer graphics)
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Rendering or image synthesis is the process of generating an image from a 2D or 3D model by means of computer programs. Also, the results of such a model can be called a rendering, a scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure, it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed. The term rendering may be by analogy with a rendering of a scene. A GPU is a device able to assist a CPU in performing complex rendering calculations. If a scene is to look realistic and predictable under virtual lighting. The rendering equation doesnt account for all lighting phenomena, but is a lighting model for computer-generated imagery. Rendering is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in an editing program to produce final video output. Rendering is one of the major sub-topics of 3D computer graphics, in the graphics pipeline, it is the last major step, giving the final appearance to the models and animation. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s, it has become a distinct subject. Rendering has uses in architecture, video games, simulators, movie or TV visual effects, as a product, a wide variety of renderers are available. Some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, on the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program, based on a selective mixture of disciplines related to, light physics, visual perception, mathematics, and software development. In the case of 3D graphics, rendering may be slowly, as in pre-rendering. When the pre-image is complete, rendering is used, which adds in bitmap textures or procedural textures, lights, bump mapping, the result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees. For movie animations, several images must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort, most 3D image editing programs can do this. A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features, Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together, Tracing every particle of light in a scene is nearly always completely impractical and would take a stupendous amount of time. Even tracing a portion large enough to produce an image takes an amount of time if the sampling is not intelligently restricted
18.
Alpha compositing
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In computer graphics, alpha compositing is the process of combining an image with a background to create the appearance of partial or full transparency. It is often useful to render image elements in separate passes, for example, compositing is used extensively when combining computer-rendered image elements with live footage. In order to combine these image elements correctly, it is necessary to keep an associated matte for each element. To store matte information, the concept of a channel was introduced by Alvy Ray Smith in the late 1970s. In a 2D image element, which stores a color for each pixel, additional data is stored in the alpha channel with a value between 0 and 1. A value of 0 means that the pixel does not have any information and is transparent. A value of 1 means that the pixel is opaque because the geometry completely overlapped the pixel, if an alpha channel is used in an image, there are two common representations that are available, straight alpha, and premultiplied alpha. With straight alpha, the RGB components represent the color of the object or pixel, with premultiplied alpha, the RGB components represent the color of the object or pixel, adjusted for its opacity by multiplication. A more obvious advantage of this is that, in certain situations, however, the most significant advantages of using premultiplied alpha are for correctness and simplicity rather than performance, premultiplied alpha allows correct filtering and blending. In addition, premultiplied alpha allows regions of alpha blending. Assuming that the color is expressed using straight RGBA tuples. If the color were fully green, its RGBA would be, however, if this pixel uses premultiplied alpha, all of the RGB values are multiplied by 0.5 and then the alpha is appended to the end to yield. In this case, the 0.5 value for the G channel actually indicates 100% green intensity, for this reason, knowing whether a file uses straight or premultiplied alpha is essential to correctly process or composite it. Premultiplied alpha has some advantages over normal alpha blending because premultiplied alpha blending is associative. Moreover, premultiplied alpha has a representation for transparent pixels. Ordinary interpolation without premultiplied alpha leads to RGB information leaking out of fully transparent regions, when interpolating or filtering images with abrupt borders between transparent and opaque regions, this can result in borders of colors that were not visible in the original image. Errors also occur in areas of semitransparancy because the RGB components are not correctly weighted, with the existence of an alpha channel, it is possible to express compositing image operations using a compositing algebra. For example, given two image elements A and B, the most common compositing operation is to combine the images such that A appears in the foreground and this can be expressed as A over B
19.
Animation
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Animation is the process of making the illusion of motion and the illusion of change by means of the rapid display of a sequence of images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon, animators are artists who specialize in the creation of animation. Animation can be recorded with either analogue media, a book, motion picture film, video tape, digital media, including formats with animated GIF, Flash animation. To display animation, a camera, computer, or projector are used along with new technologies that are produced. Animation creation methods include the traditional animation creation method and those involving stop motion animation of two and three-dimensional objects, paper cutouts, puppets and clay figures, Images are displayed in a rapid succession, usually 24,25,30, or 60 frames per second. Computer animation processes generating animated images with the general term computer-generated imagery, 3D animation uses computer graphics, while 2D animation is used for stylistic, low bandwidth and faster real-time renderings. An earthen goblet discovered at the site of the 5, 200-year-old Shahr-e Sūkhté in southeastern Iran, the artifact bears five sequential images depicting a Persian Desert Ibex jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree. They may, of course, refer to Chinese shadow puppets, in the 19th century, the phenakistoscope, zoetrope and praxinoscope were introduced. A thaumatrope is a toy with a small disk with different pictures on each side. The phenakistoscope was invented simultaneously by Belgian Joseph Plateau and Austrian Simon von Stampfer in 1831, the phenakistoscope consists of a disk with a series of images, drawn on radi evenly space around the center of the disk. John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the kineograph, the first animated projection was created in France, by Charles-Émile Reynaud, who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888, on 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip, in 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. Stuart Blackton, who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation, in Europe, the French artist, Émile Cohl, created the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation creation methods - the 1908 Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects. There were also sections of live action in which the hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, the author of the first puppet-animated film was the Russian-born director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as Ladislas Starevich
20.
Document Object Model
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The objects can be manipulated programmatically and any visible changes occurring as a result may then be reflected in the display of the document. Principal standardization of DOM was handled by the W3C, which last developed a recommendation in 2004, WHATWG took over development of the standard, publishing it as a living document. The W3C now publishes stable snapshots of the WHATWG standard, JavaScript was released by Netscape Communications in 1995 within Netscape Navigator 2.0. Netscapes competitor, Microsoft, released Internet Explorer 3.0 the following year with a port of JavaScript called JScript, JavaScript and JScript let web developers create web pages with client-side interactivity. The limited facilities for detecting user-generated events and modifying the HTML document in the first generation of these eventually became known as DOM Level 0 or Legacy DOM. No independent standard was developed for DOM Level 0, but it was described in the specification of HTML4. Legacy DOM was limited in the kinds of elements that could be accessed, form, link and image elements could be referenced with a hierarchical name that began with the root document object. A hierarchical name could make use of either the names or the index of the traversed elements. For example, an input element could be accessed as either document. formName. inputName or document. forms. elements. The Legacy DOM enabled client-side form validation and the popular rollover effect, DHTML required extensions to the rudimentary document object that was available in the Legacy DOM implementations. These versions of the DOM became known as the Intermediate DOM, after the standardization of ECMAScript, the W3C DOM Working Group began drafting a standard DOM specification. The completed specification, known as DOM Level 1, was recommended by W3C in late 1998, by 2005, large parts of W3C DOM were well-supported by common ECMAScript-enabled browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer version 6, Opera, Safari and Gecko-based browsers. The W3C DOM Working Group published its recommendation and subsequently disbanded in 2004. Development efforts migrated to the WHATWG which continues to maintain a living standard, in 2009, the Web Applications group reorganized DOM activities at the W3C. In 2013, due to a lack of progress and the release of HTML5. Meanwhile, in 2015 the Web Applications group was disbanded and DOM stewardship passed to the Web Platform group, beginning with the publication of DOM Level 4 in 2015, the W3C creates new recommendations based on snapshots of the WHATWG standard. DOM Level 1 provided a model for an entire HTML or XML document. DOM Level 2 was published in late 2000 and it introduced the getElementById function as well as an event model and support for XML namespaces and CSS
21.
Cascading Style Sheets
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Cascading Style Sheets is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language. It can also display the web page differently depending on the size or viewing device. Readers can also specify a different style sheet, such as a CSS file stored on their own computer, to override the one the author specified. Changes to the design of a document can be applied quickly and easily, by editing a few lines in the CSS file they use. The CSS specification describes a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element, in this so-called cascade, priorities are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable. The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium, Internet media type text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC2318. The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents, CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties. A style sheet consists of a list of rules, each rule or rule-set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block. In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags, Selectors may apply to, all elements of a specific type, e. g. Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any elements, an ID may only be applied to a single element. Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree. One example of a widely used pseudo-class is, hover, which identifies content only when the points to the visible element. It is appended to a selector as in a, hover or #elementid, a pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as, link or, visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as, first-line or, first-letter. Selectors may be combined in ways to achieve great specificity and flexibility. Multiple selectors may be joined in a spaced list to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, the order of the selectors is important. For example, div. myClass applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, the following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it. A declaration block consists of a list of declarations in braces, each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon, and a value. If there are multiple declarations in a block, a semi-colon must be inserted to separate each declaration, properties are specified in the CSS standard
22.
JavaScript
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JavaScript is a high-level, dynamic, untyped, and interpreted programming language. It has been standardized in the ECMAScript language specification, JavaScript is prototype-based with first-class functions, making it a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. JavaScript was influenced by programming languages such as Self and Scheme, JavaScript is also used in environments that are not Web-based, such as PDF documents, site-specific browsers, and desktop widgets. Newer and faster JavaScript virtual machines and platforms built upon them have increased the popularity of JavaScript for server-side Web applications. On the client side, developers have traditionally implemented JavaScript as an interpreted language, programmers also use JavaScript in video-game development, in crafting desktop and mobile applications, and in server-side network programming with run-time environments such as Node. js. In 1994, a company called Mosaic Communications was founded in Mountain View, California, however, it intentionally shared no code with NCSA Mosaic. The internal codename for the browser was Mozilla, which stood for Mosaic killer. The first version of the Web browser, Mosaic Netscape 0.9, was released in late 1994, within four months it had already taken three-quarters of the browser market and became the main browser for Internet in the 1990s. To avoid trademark problems with the NCSA, the browser was subsequently renamed Netscape Navigator in the same year. Netscape Communications realized that the Web needed to more dynamic. In 1995, the company recruited Brendan Eich with the goal of embedding the Scheme programming language into its Netscape Navigator, to defend the idea of JavaScript against competing proposals, the company needed a prototype. Eich wrote one in 10 days, in May 1995, there is a common misconception that JavaScript was influenced by an earlier Web page scripting language developed by Nombas named C--. Brendan Eich, however, had never heard of C-- before he created LiveScript, Nombas did pitch their embedded Web page scripting to Netscape, though Web page scripting was not a new concept, as shown by the ViolaWWW Web browser. Nombas later switched to offering JavaScript instead of C-- in their ScriptEase product and was part of the TC39 group that standardized ECMAScript, in December 1995, soon after releasing JavaScript for browsers, Netscape introduced an implementation of the language for server-side scripting with Netscape Enterprise Server. Since the mid-2000s, additional server-side JavaScript implementations have been introduced, Microsoft script technologies including VBScript and JScript were released in 1996. JScript, an implementation of Netscapes JavaScript, was part of Internet Explorer 3. JScript was also available for server-side scripting in Internet Information Server, JavaScript began to acquire a reputation for being one of the roadblocks to a cross-platform and standards-driven Web. Some developers took on the task of trying to make their sites work in both major browsers, but many could not afford the time
23.
Internationalization and localization
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In computing, internationalization and localization are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional differences and technical requirements of a target market. Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can potentially be adapted to various languages, localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by adding locale-specific components and translating text. Localization uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization, the terms are frequently abbreviated to the numeronyms i18n and L10n for localization, due to the length of the words. Some companies, like IBM and Sun Microsystems, use the term globalization, g11n, Microsoft defines Internationalization as a combination of World-Readiness and localization. World-Readiness is a task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures. Hewlett-Packard and HP-UX created the system called NLS to produce localizable software, translation is typically the most time-consuming component of language localization. These differences may need to be taken account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated, the Common Locale Data Repository by Unicode provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, OS X and Debian, and by major internet companies or projects such as Google. Examples of such include, Different scripts in different writing systems use different characters - a different set of letters, syllograms, logograms. Modern system use the Unicode standard to represent many different languages with a character encoding. Writing direction is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, complex text layout, for languages where characters change shape depending on context. Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others, other grammar rules might also vary, e. g. genitive. Keyboard shortcuts can only use of buttons actually on the keyboard layout which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language, other areas often follow one of these. Specific third-party services, such as maps, weather reports, or payment service providers, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers. Time zones vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a time zone. For internationalization, UTC is often used internally and then converted into a time zone for display purposes
24.
Accessibility
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Accessibility refers to the design of products, devices, services, or environments for people who experience disabilities. The concept of design and practice of accessible development ensures both direct access and indirect access meaning compatibility with a persons assistive technology. Accessibility can be viewed as the ability to access and benefit from some system or entity and this is about making things accessible to all people. Article 9 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities commits signatories to provide for full accessibility in their countries. Accessible facilities therefore extend to such as Braille signage, elevators, audio signals at pedestrian crossings, walkway contours, website design. Government mandates including Section 508, WCAG, DDA are all enforcing practices to standardize accessibility testing engineering in product development, existing private businesses are required to increase the accessibility of their facilities when making any other renovations in proportion to the cost of the other renovations. The United States Access Board is A Federal Agency Committed to Accessible Design for People with Disabilities, the Job Accommodation Network discusses accommodations for people with disabilities in the workplace. Many states in the US have their own disability laws, in Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In South Africa the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 2000 has numerous provisions for accessibility, in the UK, the Equality Act 2010 has numerous provisions for accessibility. In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court, on 27 April 2011 gave an order to boost the inherent right of disabled persons to have unhindered access to public buildings. The Act refers to legislation regarding accessibility in e. g. ICT. In Canada, relevant federal legislation includes the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Employment Equity Act, legislation may also be enacted on a state, provincial or local level. In Ontario, Canada, the Ontarians with Disabilities Act of 2001 is meant to improve the identification, removal, the European Union, which has signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, also has adopted a European Disability Strategy for 2010-20. A European Accessibility Act was proposed in late 2012 and this Act would establish standards within member countries for accessible products, services, and public buildings. Assistive technology is the creation of a new device that assists a person in completing a task that would otherwise be impossible. Adaptive technology is the modification, or adaptation, of existing devices, methods, or the creation of new uses for existing devices, to enable a person to complete a task. Examples include the use of controls, and the autocomplete feature in computer word processing programs. Adaptations to wheelchair tires are another example, widening the tires enables wheelchair users to move over soft surfaces, such as snow on ski hills
25.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
26.
SVG animation
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Styling, Since 2008, the development of CSS Animations as a feature in WebKit has made possible stylesheet-driven implicit animation of SVG files from within the Document Object Model. Libraries have also written as a shim to give current SVG-enabled browsers SMIL support. This method is known as SVG+Time. Because SVG supports PNG and JPEG raster images, it can be used to such images as an alternative to APNG. SVG animation elements were developed in collaboration with the W3C Synchronized Multimedia Working Group, the SYMM Working Group, in collaboration with the SVG Working Group, has authored the SMIL Animation specification, which represents a general-purpose XML animation feature set. SVG incorporates the features defined in the SMIL Animation specification. The following code snippets demonstrate three techniques to create animated SVG on compatible browsers, the relevant parts are in bold green. AttributeName = <attributeName> Specifies the name of the target attribute, an XMLNS prefix may be used to indicate the XML namespace for the attribute. The prefix will be interpreted in the scope of the current animation element, attributeType = CSS | XML | auto Specifies the namespace in which the target attribute and its associated values are defined. CSS This specifies that the value of ‘attributeName’ is the name of a CSS property defined as animatable in this specification, XML This specifies that the value of ‘attributeName’ is the name of an XML attribute defined in the default XML namespace for the target element. The attribute must be defined as animatable in this specification. auto The default value is auto, the implementation should match the ‘attribute Name’ to an attribute for the target element. The implementation must first search through the list of CSS properties for a matching property name, note, MediaWiki automatically generates static, non-animated thumbnails of SVG images. Viewing the actual. svg image from each respective description page will show its animation in a compatible browser, there are several JavaScript libraries for working with SVG animation. An advantage to the use of libraries is that these libraries often solve incompatibility issues in browsers through abstraction
27.
Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language
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Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language is a World Wide Web Consortium recommended Extensible Markup Language markup language to describe multimedia presentations. It defines markup for timing, layout, animations, visual transitions, SMIL allows presenting media items such as text, images, video, audio, links to other SMIL presentations, and files from multiple web servers. SMIL markup is written in XML, and has similarities to HTML, as of 2008, the W3C Recommendation for SMIL is SMIL3.0. SMIL1.0 became a W3C Recommendation in June 1999, SMIL2.0 became a W3C Recommendation in August 2001. SMIL2.0 introduced a modular structure that facilitated integration of SMIL semantics into other XML-based languages. Basic animation and timing modules were integrated into Scalable Vector Graphics, the modular structure made it possible to define the standard SMIL language profile and the XHTML+SMIL language profile with common syntax and standard semantics. SMIL2.1 became a W3C Recommendation in December 2005, SMIL2.1 includes a small number of extensions based on practical experience gathered using SMIL in the Multimedia Messaging System on mobile phones. SMIL3.0 became a W3C Recommendation in December 2008 and it was first submitted as a W3C Working draft on December 21,2006. The last draft revision was released on October 6,2008, authoring and rendering tools for smilText and SMIL3. It features integration with IEEE-1394 for capture, limSee2 is an open source SMIL authoring tool, with support for SMIL1.0 and SMIL2.0. SMIL Scenario Creator by KDDI SMIRK presentation authoring tool for the production of accessible slide shows outputting to SMIL2.0, SMIL1.0, XHTML + SMIL, SMOX Pad and SMOX Editor, for advanced SMIL and HTML+Time development. SMG for a PDA, a BREW, a Phone and a PC by Smilmedia TAG Editor 2.0 - G2 release by Digital Renaissance, tagfree 2000 SMIL Editor Toolkit for MPEG-4 from IBM, creates MPEG-4 binary from content created in XMT-O. TransTool - open source transcription tool VeonStudio by Veon Validator, SMIL1.0, SMIL2.0, SMIL2.0 Basic, synchronized Multimedia Summer School at INRIA The Webnews demo, by CWI. Demos available from RealNetworks SMIL1.0 tutorial written in SMIL SMIL1, a SMIL document is similar in structure to an HTML document in that they are typically divided between an optional <head> section and a required <body> section. The <head> section contains layout and metadata information, the <body> section contains the timing information, and is generally composed of combinations of three main tags—sequential, parallel and exclusive. SMIL refers to objects by URLs, allowing them to be shared between presentations and stored on different servers for load balancing. The language can also associate different media objects with different bandwidth requirements, for playback scheduling, SMIL supports ISO-8601 wallclock date/time specification to define begin/end events for playlists. SMIL files take either a. smi or. smil file extension, however, SAMI files and Macintosh self mounting images also use. smi, which creates some ambiguity at first glance
28.
ECMAScript
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ECMAScript is a trademarked scripting-language specification standardized by the European Computer Manufacturers Association in ECMA-262 and ISO/IEC16262. It was created to standardize JavaScript, so as to multiple independent implementations. JavaScript has remained the best-known implementation of ECMAScript since the standard was first published, coders commonly use ECMAScript for client-side scripting on the World Wide Web, and it is increasingly being used for writing server applications and services using Node. js. The ECMAScript specification is a specification of a scripting language developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape, initially it was named Mocha, later LiveScript. In December 1995, Sun Microsystems and Netscape announced JavaScript in a press release, in March 1996, Netscape Navigator 2.0 was released, featuring support for JavaScript. Owing to the success of JavaScript as a client-side scripting language for Web pages, Microsoft developed a compatible dialect of the language. JScript added new date methods to alleviate the Year 2000 problem caused by the JavaScript methods that were based on the javaDate class, JScript was included in Internet Explorer 3.0, released in August 1996. Netscape delivered JavaScript to Ecma International for standardization and the work on the specification, ECMA-262, the first edition of ECMA-262 was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly in June 1997. Several editions of the standard have been published since then. The name ECMAScript was a compromise between the involved in standardizing the language, especially Netscape and Microsoft, whose disputes dominated the early standards sessions. Eich commented that ECMAScript was always a trade name that sounds as a skin disease. While both JavaScript and JScript aim to be compatible with ECMAScript, they provide additional features not described in the ECMA specifications. There are seven editions of ECMA-262 published, work on version 7 of the standard, was finalized in June 2016. In June 2004, Ecma International published ECMA-357 standard, defining an extension to ECMAScript, Ecma also defined a Compact Profile for ECMAScript – known as ES-CP, or ECMA327 – that was designed for resource-constrained devices, which was withdrawn in 2015. The proposed fourth edition of ECMA-262 would have been the first major update to ECMAScript since the edition was published in 1999. The specification was originally targeted for completion by October 2008, an overview of the language was released by the working group on October 23,2007. By August 2008, the ECMAScript 4th edition proposal had been scaled back into a project codenamed ECMAScript Harmony, the intent of these features was partly to better support programming in the large, and to allow sacrificing some of the scripts ability to be dynamic to improve performance. For example, Tamarin – the virtual machine for ActionScript developed, in addition to introducing new features, some ES3 bugs were proposed to be fixed in edition 4
29.
Event (computing)
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In computing, an event is an action or occurrence recognized by software that may be handled by the software. Computer events can be generated or triggered by the system, by the user or in other ways, typically, events are handled synchronously with the program flow, that is, the software may have one or more dedicated places where events are handled, frequently an event loop. A source of events includes the user, who may interact with the software by way of, for example, another source is a hardware device such as a timer. Software can also trigger its own set of events into the event loop, software that changes its behavior in response to events is said to be event-driven, often with the goal of being interactive. Event driven systems are used when there is some asynchronous external activity that needs to be handled by a program, for example. An event driven system typically runs an event loop, that keeps waiting for such activities, when one of these occurs, it collects data about the event and dispatches the event to the event handler software that will deal with it. A program can choose to ignore events, and there may be libraries to dispatch an event to multiple handlers that may be programmed to listen for a particular event. Events are typically used in interfaces, where actions in the outside world are handled by the program as a series of events. Programs written for many windowing environments consist predominantly of event handlers, events can also be used at instruction set level, where they complement interrupts. Compared to interrupts, events are handled synchronously, the program explicitly waits for an event to be serviced. A common variant in object-oriented programming is the event model. C# uses events as special delegates that can only be fired by the class that declares it and this allows for better abstraction, for example, In computer programming, an event handler is a callback subroutine that handles inputs received in a program. Each event is a piece of information from the underlying framework. GUI events include key presses, mouse movement, action selections, on a lower level, events can represent availability of new data for reading a file or network stream. Event handlers are a concept in event-driven programming. The events are created by the based on interpreting lower-level inputs. For example, mouse movements and clicks are interpreted as menu selections, the events initially originate from actions on the operating system level, such as interrupts generated by hardware devices, software interrupt instructions, or state changes in polling. On this level, interrupt handlers and signal handlers correspond to event handlers, created events are first processed by an event dispatcher within the framework
30.
Gzip
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Gzip is a file format and a software application used for file compression and decompression. The program was created by Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler as a free replacement for the compress program used in early Unix systems. Version 0.1 was first publicly released on 31 October 1992, Gzip is based on the DEFLATE algorithm, which is a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding. DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for LZW and other patent-encumbered data compression algorithms which, at the time, limited the usability of compress, although its file format also allows for multiple such streams to be concatenated, gzip is normally used to compress just single files. Compressed archives are created by assembling collections of files into a single tar archive. The final. tar. gz or. tgz file is called a tarball. Gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, various implementations of the program have been written. The most commonly known is the GNU Projects implementation using Lempel-Ziv coding, openBSDs version of gzip is actually the compress program, to which support for the gzip format was added in OpenBSD3.4. The g in this specific version stands for gratis and these implementations originally come from NetBSD, and supports decompression of bzip2 and the Unix pack format. The tar utility included in most Linux distributions can extract. tar. gz files by passing the z option, zlib is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight stream format in its API. The zlib stream format, DEFLATE, and the file format were standardized respectively as RFC1950, RFC1951. The gzip format is used in HTTP compression, a used to speed up the sending of HTML. It is one of the three formats for HTTP compression as specified in RFC2616. This RFC also specifies a zlib format, which is equal to the gzip format except that gzip adds eleven bytes of overhead in the form of headers and trailers. Still, the format is sometimes recommended over zlib because Microsoft Internet Explorer does not implement the standard correctly. Zlib DEFLATE is used internally by the Portable Network Graphics format, since the late 1990s, bzip2, a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement. It produces considerably smaller files, but at the cost of memory, comparison of file archivers Free file format List of archive formats List of Unix programs GNU Gzip home page Original gzip Home Page
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SVG Working Group
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The SVG Working Group is a working group created by the World Wide Web Consortium to address the need for an alternative to the PostScript document format. The PostScript format was unable to create scalable fonts and objects without creating files which were larger than a file which used unscalable fonts and objects. As a result of both missives, the W3C convened a group, and within six months, the group published a working draft of requirements for the Scalable Vector Graphics format. This format, unlike Postscript, is optimized for the Web and it is able to describe two-dimensional graphics and graphical applications via XML. Initial versions of the SVG specification have now been implemented by most modern browsers. The SVG Working Group continues to work on enhancements, which will be published as a comprehensive SVG2.0 specification, as of September 2014, the various modules of this new specification were expected to reach Candidate Recommendation status in 2015 or early 2016. Members of the SVG Working Group include representatives from the following organizations, official site SVG Charter SVG Roadmap SVG Brings Fast Vector Graphics to Web
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Chris Lilley (computer scientist)
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Chris Lilley was educated at Broxburn Academy in West Lothian, Scotland. He obtained a degree in Biochemistry at the University of Stirling, Scotland and then worked in Haematology and Blood transfusion at the hospital laboratories of Stirling. While at Manchester he was a member of the IETF Working Group on HTML, developing HTML2.0, in 1994 he was a consulting student on the Biocomputing course run by the GNAs Virtual School of Natural Sciences, where he obtained a postgraduate diploma in Bioinformatics. In 1993 he presented a paper at the Eurographics Workshop on Graphics, in 1994 he attended the First International World Wide Web conference, held at CERN in Switzerland. He presented a paper on Web Graphics at the Fourth International World Wide Web conference and he chaired a Working group developing Web Fonts, a technical activity which was later merged with CSS. He was co-editor of CSS2, published in 1998, in 1998 he was appointed as chair of the W3C Scalable Vector Graphics Working Group, a position he held for ten years, until January 2008. He also joined the XML Coordination Group at W3C, in December 2001 he joined the Technical Architecture Group of the W3C, a position he held for three years until February 2005. He was a co-author of the Architecture of the World Wide Web and he currently holds the position of Technical Director, Interaction Domain at W3C. He was an Associate of the Institute of Medical Laboratory Sciences and he was on the executive board of Eurographics UK Chapter 1995–1996 and the program committee of the International Unicode conference, 1998–2003. Anderson, A. Berjon, R. et al, Scalable Vector Graphics Tiny 1.2 Specification. W3C Candidate Recommendation,10 August 2006 Jacobs, Ian, Walsh, Norm Architecture of the World Wide Web, W3C Recommendation,15 December 2004 Lilley, C. In Proceedings of the 23rd International Unicode Conference, component Extension API requirements Version 1.0. W3C technical report,11 December 2001 Lilley, C, in Proceedings of the 18th International Unicode Conference. Internationalisation and Localisation with SVG in Proceedings of the 16th International Unicode Conference, rendering Multilingual Documents – CSS and XSL in Proceedings of the 13th International Unicode Conference. Bos, Bert, Lie, Håkon Wium, Lilley, Chris, Jacobs, Ian Cascading Style Sheets, W3C Recommendation,12 May 1998 Lilley, C. The Design of an International Web Font Extension for Cacading Style Sheets in Proceedings of the 11th International Unicode Conference, use of CGM as a Scalable Graphics Format. W3C technical report,18 June 1997 Lilley, C Not Just Decoration, World Wide Web Journal 1, pp. 291–307, Boston,1995. Lin F, Wyrwas K, Irwin J, Lilley C, Hewitt W T, Howard T L J, Geometry for Computer Graphics
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Scalable Vector Graphics
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Scalable Vector Graphics is an XML-based vector image format for two-dimensional graphics with support for interactivity and animation. The SVG specification is a standard developed by the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999. SVG images and their behaviors are defined in XML text files and this means that they can be searched, indexed, scripted, and compressed. As XML files, SVG images can be created and edited with any text editor, All major modern web browsers—including Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Microsoft Edge—have SVG rendering support. SVG has been in development within the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999, the early SVG Working Group decided not to develop any of the commercial submissions, but to create a new markup language that was informed by but not really based on any of them. SVG allows three types of objects, vector graphic shapes such as paths and outlines consisting of straight lines and curves, bitmap images. Graphical objects can be grouped, styled, transformed and composited into previously rendered objects, the feature set includes nested transformations, clipping paths, alpha masks, filter effects and template objects. SVG drawings can be interactive and can include animation, defined in the SVG XML elements or via scripting that accesses the SVG Document Object Model, SVG uses CSS for styling and JavaScript for scripting. Text, including internationalization and localization, appearing in plain text within the SVG DOM enhances the accessibility of SVG graphics, the SVG specification was updated to version 1.1 in 2011. There are two Mobile SVG Profiles, SVG Tiny and SVG Basic, meant for mobile devices with reduced computational, Scalable Vector Graphics 2 became a W3C Candidate Recommendation on 15 September 2016. SVG2 incorporates several new features in addition to those of SVG1.1, though the SVG Specification primarily focuses on vector graphics markup language, its design includes the basic capabilities of a page description language like Adobes PDF. It contains provisions for rich graphics, and is compatible with CSS for styling purposes, SVG has the information needed to place each glyph and image in a chosen location on a printed page. A print-specialized subset of SVG is currently a W3C Working Draft, SVG drawings can be dynamic and interactive. Time-based modifications to the elements can be described in SMIL, or can be programmed in a scripting language, the W3C explicitly recommends SMIL as the standard for animation in SVG. A rich set of event handlers such as onmouseover and onclick can be assigned to any SVG graphical object, SVG images, being XML, contain many repeated fragments of text, so they are well suited for lossless data compression algorithms. When an SVG image has been compressed with the industry standard gzip algorithm, it is referred to as an SVGZ image, conforming SVG1.1 viewers will display compressed images. An SVGZ file is typically 20 to 50 percent of the original size, W3C provides SVGZ files to test for conformance. SVG1.0 became a W3C Recommendation on 4 September 2001, SVG1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on 14 January 2003
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