1.
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
–
The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was one of the many European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas. The revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary grew into a war for independence from the Austrian Empire, Czar Nicholas I answered, and sent a 200,000 men strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces, after the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under brutal martial law. The anniversary of the Revolutions outbreak,15 March, is one of Hungarys three national holidays, the Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, even after the Austrian Empire was created in 1804. The administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire, Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the imperial government. The country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary - located in Pozsony and later in Pest -, ignác Martinovics worked as a secret agent for the new Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, until 1792. In another of his works, Catechism of People and Citizens, he argued that citizens tend to oppose any repression and he also became a Freemason, and was in favour of the adoption of a federal republic in Hungary. As a member of the Hungarian Jacobins, he was considered a forerunner of revolutionary thought by some. He was in charge of stirring up a revolt against the nobility among the Hungarian serfs, for these subversive acts, Francis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, dismissed Martinovics and his boss, Ferenc Gotthardi, the former chief of the secret police. He was executed, together with six other prominent Jacobins, in May 1795, the Diet of Hungary had not convened since 1811. The frequent diets held in the part of the reign occupied themselves with little else but war subsidies. In the latter years of Francis I. the dark shadow of Metternichs policy of stability fell across the kingdom, but beneath the surface a strong popular current was beginning to run in a contrary direction. Hungarian society, not unaffected by western Liberalism, but without any help from abroad, was preparing for the future emancipation. In 1825 Emperor Francis II convened the Diet in response to growing concerns amongst the Hungarian nobility about taxes and this – and the reaction to the reforms of Joseph II – started what is known as the Reform Period. But the Nobles still retained their privileges of paying no taxes, the influential Hungarian politician Count István Széchenyi recognized the need to bring the country the advances of the more developed West European countries, such as England. It was an attack upon the constitution which, to use the words of István Széchenyi. In 1823, when the powers were considering joint action to suppress the revolution in Spain. The county assemblies instantly protested against this act, and Francis I was obliged, at the diet of 1823
2.
Kingdom of Hungary
–
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from the Middle Ages into the twentieth century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom in about the year 1000, by the 12th century, the kingdom became a European middle power within the Western world. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács until 1918, from 1867 territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, the kingdom was nominally restored during the Regency of 1920–46, ending with the Soviet occupation in 1946. From 1102 it also included Croatia, being in union with it. Today, the feast day of the first king Stephen I is a holiday in Hungary. The Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie, Regnum Marianum, or simply Hungaria, were the used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. The German name Königreich Ungarn was used officially from 1784 to 1790, the Hungarian name was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The non-official Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarország, which is still the colloquial, in Austria-Hungary, the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, the Hungarians led by Árpád settled the Carpathian Basin in 895, established Principality of Hungary. The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, the principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the Árpád dynasty and he fought against Koppány and in 998, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians, Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Orthodox saint in 2000. After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles, in 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats, before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary. This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I, Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The second greatest Hungarian king, also from the dynasty, was Ladislaus I of Hungary. He was also canonized as a saint, however, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman
3.
Hungarian Defence Forces
–
Hungarian Defence Forces is the national defence force of Hungary. The President holds the title of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence jointly with Chief of staff administers the armed forces, including the Hungarian Ground Force, since 2007, the Hungarian Armed Forces is under a unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army, a subordinate Joint Forces Command is coordinating and commanding the HDF corps. In 2016, the forces had 31.080 personnel on active duty. In 2017, military spending will be $1.21 billion, about 0. 94% of the countrys GDP, in 2012, the government adopted a resolution in which it pledged to increase defence spending to 1. 4% of GDP by 2022. Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime, in a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to buy 14 JAS39 Gripen fighter aircraft for about 800 million EUR. Hungarian National Cyber Security Center is re-organized in 2016 in order to more efficient through cyber security. Hungary sent 300 strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, one soldier was killed in action because of a roadside bomb in Iraq. During the 18th and 19th century, Hungarian Hussars rose to international fame, in 1848–49 HDF achieved incredible successes against better-trained and equipped Austrian forces, despite the obvious advantage in numbers on the Austrian side. In 1872, the Ludovica Military Academy officially began training cadets, by 1873 HDF already had over 2,800 officers and 158,000 men organized into eighty-six battalions and fifty-eight squadrons. During World War I out of the eight million men mobilized by Austro Hungarian Empire, during the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was preoccupied with the regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the Trianon peace treaty at Versailles in 1920. Conscription was introduced on a basis in 1939. The peacetime strength of the Royal Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands, during World War II the Hungarian Second Army was near to total devastation on banks of the Don River in December 1942 in Battle for Stalingrad. As of 2016 Global Peace Index shows, Hungary is one of the worlds most peaceful countries, since 2007, the Hungarian Defence Force has been under a unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army, the military leadership is exercised by the Defence Staff of the Ministry of Defence. A subordinate Joint Force Command coordinates and commands the HDF corps, the Home Defence Pyrotechnician and Warship Battalion of the Hungarian Defence Forces based in Újpest Port, on the River Danube, Budapest. In the 2000s, the army bought new minesweepers, restored or retired the old ones, on national holidays warships come along the River Danube in Budapest
4.
Austrian Empire
–
The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
5.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
6.
Julius Jacob von Haynau
–
Julius Jacob von Haynau was an Austrian general who was prominent in suppressing insurrectionary movements in Italy and Hungary in 1848 and later. While a hugely effective military leader, he gained renown as an aggressive. His soldiers called him the Habsburg Tiger, those opponents who suffered from his brutality called him the Hyena of Brescia, born in Kassel, Julius Jacob von Haynau was the illegitimate son of Rosa Dorothea Ritter, and William I, the landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. He was born after his fathers return with his wife and family to Hesse-Kassel after 20 years in Denmark and his father acknowledged this natural son, providing for his education and entry into the military officer corps as a cadet. After several years of service in the Army, at nearly 22 years of age and she was the daughter of Field Marshal Lieutenant Weber. Her father was killed in action the year at the Battle of Aspern-Essling during the Napoleonic Wars. William and Thérèse had more than four decades of marriage together before her death in 1850 and she was survived by her husband and only daughter, Clotilde. In 1801, Haynau entered the Austrian army as an officer cadet at the age of 15. He gained extensive experience as a soldier during the Napoleonic Wars and he was wounded at Wagram in 1809, which the French won in one of their most important battles of the wars. Haynau later distinguished himself during the Austrian operations in Italy in 1813 and 1814, between 1815 and 1847, Haynau was promoted several times, reaching the rank of field marshal lieutenant. Haynau was said to have a violent temper, which led him into trouble with his superiors and his support for the monarchy led him to fiercely oppose the revolutionary movements of the mid-nineteenth century. When the revolutionary insurrections of 1848 broke out in Italy, Haynau was selected to command troops to suppress them and he fought with success in Italy. He became known in period for the severity with which he suppressed an uprising in Brescia. A mob in Brescia had massacred invalid Austrian soldiers in the hospital and his aggressive strategy may have partly been motivated by his wish to make Austria, rather than Russia, appear as the main victor of the war. For instance, he was said to have ordered women whipped who were suspected of sympathizing with the insurgents and he also ordered the execution by hanging of the 13 Hungarian rebel generals at Arad on 6 October 1849. Opponents called him the Hyena of Brescia and Hangman of Arad, in admiration, Austrian soldiers referred to him as the Habsburg Tiger. Upon the restoration of peace, Haynau was appointed to command in Hungary. His temper quickly led him into quarrels with the minister of war, in later years, he travelled abroad, including to western Europe and England
7.
Franz Schlik
–
Franz Joseph von Schlik of Bassano and Weisskirchen was an Count and general in the Austrian Empire. He was one of the most successful Austrian generals during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, in 1808, he enrolled in the imperial army and fought in the Napoleonic Wars. He lost sight in his eye in the Battle of Leipzig on 19 October 1813. In 1848, as a Lieutenant general, he became regent of Kraków in Poland, on 11 December Schlik defeated Sándor Pulszky in the Battle of Budamér and occupied Eperjes and Kassa. Schlik waited two weeks before resuming the attack, by this time, György Klapka had reorganized the Upper Tisza legion and because of this, the Hungarians won the Battle of Tarcal on January 22 and the Battle of Bodrogkeresztúr the next day. On January 31st in the Battle of Tokaj Schlik and Windish-Grätz attacked Klapkas positions, richard Guyons victory in the Battle of Branyiszkó created the possibility that Schlik would be surrounded, but Henryk Dembiński would not change his plans. Schliks forces escaped and joined Windish-Grätz, the combined force won the Battle of Kápolna on 26 –27 February. Schlik took part in the Spring Campaign as the leader of the 3rd legion and he lost the battle against András Gáspár, the leader of the 7th Hungarian legion in the Battle of Hatvan on 2 April. He took part in the Battle of Isaszeg on 6 April and on 26 April in the First Battle of Komárom and later retreated in the direction of the River Rába. In the Summer Campaign he took part as a leader of the 1st legion and so was in command at the Battle of Győr on 28 June, julius Jacob von Haynau moved the Austrian legions in three parallel lines against the Hungarians at Szeged. Schlik was the leader of the line that was advancing towards Makó, in September 1849 Schlik was promoted to cavalry general and he received the Order of the Iron Crown and the Military Order of Maria Theresa for his victories. From 1854 he was Galicia and Bukovina commanding general, on 24 June 1859 he was made the commander of the 2nd Austrian army, which he led in the Battle of Solferino. After the Treaty of Villafranca he resigned his commission
8.
Avram Iancu
–
Avram Iancu was a Transylvanian Romanian lawyer who played an important role in the local chapter of the Austrian Empire Revolutions of 1848–1849. He was especially active in the Țara Moților region and the Apuseni Mountains, the rallying of peasants around him, as well as the allegiance he paid to the Habsburg got him the moniker Crăișorul Munților. Avram Iancu was born in Vidra de Sus, Transylvania, then part of the Austrian Empire into a family of peasants that had been emancipated from serfdom and his father was Alisandru Iancu and his mother was Maria Gligor. He had one brother, Ion, who became a priest. Avram Iancus grandfather was Gheorghe Iancu, who had seven children, girls - Sântioana, Maria, Zamfira and Ana, boys - Alisandru, Avram, little is known today about Avram Iancus childhood. It is known, by tradition, that he had a typical moț character, joyful and witty and he played well the leaf, alphorn, flute. Avram Iancu attended primary school in his village, in the Târsa hamlet, after a while, he was sent by his parents at the school in Neagra village. Further, he attended the school from Câmpeni, Alba county and he graduated the Câmpeni school at age 13. After this, he went to school in Zlatna, where he studied in a Hungarian school, in the Latin language and his teachers were Iozephus Stanken, Gregorius Iakabus and Ludovicus Kovács. He studied humanities from 1841, in the Piarist College of Cluj, Avram Iancu became a law clerk in Târgu Mureș, and it was there that he learned about the events of March 1848 of Vienna and Pest. In the Apuseni mountains, he started rallying peasants in Câmpeni, the protests he organized were recognized as peaceful by the authorities, but nevertheless worried them. In Blaj both opted for the main, radical wing of the movement, centered on Alexandru Papiu Ilarian, the group opposed the Hungarian revolutionary option of uniting Transylvania and Hungary. It got into conflict with the minority wing around Greek-Catholic Bishop Ioan Lemeni, while the union was carried of on May 30,1848, the majority of Romanian activists looked towards Vienna and Emperor Ferdinand, sharing the cause of the Transylvanian Saxons. Things became heated after July 11, when Hungary declared its independence, austria started to open itself to the Romanian demands, while bloody conflicts ensued between the Hungarian nobles and their Romanian serfs. The last Assembly in Blaj saw the Habsburg governor, Anton Freiherr von Puchner, on September 27, the lynching of Austrian plenipotentiary Count Lemberg by a Pest crowd cut off any dialogue between the two centers. Yet they did not declare themselves hostile to the creation of Romanian administrative offices within Transylvania. The territory was organized in prefecturi, with Avram Iancu and Buteanu as two prefects in the Apuseni, Iancus prefecture, the Auraria Gemina, became the most important one as it took over from bordering areas that were never really fully organized. In the same month, the efforts were put to a halt
9.
Battle of Schwechat
–
This was the last battle of 1848 in the Transdanubian campaign. The Hungarian Army was under the command of János Móga and the Austrian Army was under the command of Alfred I, some days after the Battle of Pákozd János Móga and his Hungarian army pursued Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić. Neither could they retreat in the direction of the fortress of Komárom, because it switched allegiance to the Constitution of Hungary, on 4 October Jelačić arrived at Moson. He planned to wait for reinforcements and then attack the Hungarian Army, during Jelačić’s retreat there was major political upheaval. The Emperor had not heard of the Hungarian victory at the Battle of Pákozd, the Emperor thought it was time to attack the Constitution of Hungary in public. The Emperor refused to recognise the Batthyány Government and ordered the Hungarian Parliament be dissolved, furthermore, he appointed Jelačić as the civic and military regent of Hungary. Jelačićs main supporter, the Austrian Secretary of War Theodor Franz, Count Baillet von Latour, sent troops to him, however. This was a mistake, and he paid for the error with his life and those in Vienna sympathetic to the Hungarian cause started a rebellion on 6 October. The Emperor and his subjects escaped to Olmütz but Latour was lynched by rebels, after Jelačić heard of the rebellion, he left Hungary towards Vienna. On 10 October the Hungarian Army reached the Austrian border and stopped pursuing Jelačić, the delayed attack by the Hungarian army is controversial among those studying Hungarian military history. When the rebellion started in Vienna, everyone took for granted that the Hungarians would come to the rebels aid, had they done so, it could have changed the course of the revolution. More so, had they done so and won, the Habsburg Empire might have collapsed, the Hungarian army had good reason not cross the Austrian border. After the Battle of Pákozd, Jelačić’s army was stronger than ever, Jelačić sent the inexperienced Croatians back to Croatia under the command of Kuzman Todorović because he knew that troops were en route from Vienna. As a result, the Hungarian army had to fight the more experienced and this decision led to some infighting among the leaders of the Hungarian army. János Móga decided to follow the orders of the Hungarian National Defence Commission not to attack, but the members of the Commission varied in their views about crossing the Austrian border. The Left wanted to help the rebels in Vienna, but the Right objected to this idea, from the start Lajos Kossuth said that the Hungarians were not rebels, but were only protecting their own country. Later, he changed his mind, and on 18 October he visited the Hungarian army to tell them his views, the start of the battle was promising for the Hungarian army. The right flank, under the command of Richard Debaufre Guyon, but the battle was less easily won in the centre, the left flank arrived too late, so Guyons success changed the formation of the Hungarian line, it became one arm of a pincer movement
10.
Battle of Isaszeg (1849)
–
The Austrian forces were led by Field Marshal Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, whilst the Hungarians were led by General Artúr Görgei. It also decided the fate of Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz and he wrote on 3 March in his report sent to the imperial court in Olmütz, that, I smashed the rebel hordes, and I will be in a few days in Debrecen. At a meeting in Tiszafüred, they forced the Government Commissioner Bertalan Szemere to depose the Polish general and this so infuriated Lajos Kossuth, the President of the National Defense Committee, that he wanted to execute Görgei for rebellion. But Vetter became ill on 28 March, so two days Kossuth was forced to accept Görgei as temporary high commander of the Hungarian main forces. Those days and weeks of unrest, uncertainty and changes could have provided an excellent opportunity for Windisch-Grätz to cross the Tisza river and defeat the Hungarian army once and for all. They took half of Almásys soldiers prisoners, and Almásy reported to Windisch-Grätz that he had been attacked by a 6, 000-strong army. The Hungarian forces numbered some 47,500 soldiers and 198 cannons, organized in four army corps led by Generals György Klapka, Lajos Aulich, János Damjanich and András Gáspár. According to the plan, VII corps had to stay at Hatvan until 5 April, key to the plan was for the Austrians not to discover the Hungarian troop movements until they had completed their encirclement. On 2 April, the fighting began when the Hungarian VII corps under András Gáspár clashed with the III Austrian corps led by Franz Schlik at the Battle of Hatvan. Windisch-Grätz assumed that Schlik had come up against the main Hungarian army, although György Klapkas attack at Tápióbicske had revealed where the Hungarian troops really were Görgei decided to continue with the original plan. They, rather than fleeing, were closing in around Windisch-Grätzs headquarters at Gödöllő as he was planning an attack on the Hungarian forces the following morning. Two brigades of the II corps led by Lieutenant General Ladislas Wrbna were also sent to Vác, thus Windisch-Grätz had scattered his forces across a distance of 54 kilometers, making it impossible for them to effectively help each other in the event of a battle. Gáspár was ordered to move from the north and occupy Bag and Damjanicss III corps had to forward from Tápiószecső. Klapkas I corps also had to move towards Isaszeg, while one of his brigades had to take Pécel, Görgeis plan was for Gáspár to hold back the troops of the left wing of the Imperial army while the other three corps attacked them at Isaszeg. This would push them northwards from Pest, enabling the liberation of the Hungarian capital on the Eastern bank of the Danube. It also had only one unfinished bridge, to allow his troops to cross the Danube to Buda on the side should he need to retreat. Windisch-Grätz chose the lesser of two evils, on the morning of 6 April at 6 oclock, the Austrian troops retreated towards Gödöllő. Jelačić arrived to Isaszeg at 11 oclock and set his camp on the heights near the village, the Field Marshal ordered him to find out the enemy strength, and if he had enough forces, to enter into battle with them
11.
Siege of Buda (1849)
–
It was part of the Spring Campaign, fought between 4 and 21 May 1849 and ended with the Hungarian capture of the castle by assault on 21 May. The siege of Buda was also the shortest siege in the Hungarian Freedom War of 1848-1849, after the relief of Komárom from the imperial siege, and the retreat of the Habsburg forces to the Hungarian border, the Hungarian army had two choices where to continue its advance. However Görgei was quickly convinced by the supporters of the other choice, so he changed his mind and supported the second choice. The reason was that although the first choice seemed very attractive, furthermore, the Hungarian army was in shortage of ammunition. Besides the military arguments, in favor of the siege of Buda stood political ones too, and the capital city also included the Buda castle. After the Hungarian revolution had won, and the Batthyány Government had been formed, the castle was defended by foreign soldiers. Because he did not wanted to recognize the Hungarian authority, the commander of the garrison, Lieutenant General Karl Kress, at 11 of May 1848, also those foreign units stationed in the castle, who were against the Hungarian revolution, like the 23. Italian infantry regiment, who clashed in 11 June 1848 with the newly conscripted Hungarian soldiers, Italian infantry regiment after this conflict, following the order of the Hungarian War Ministry, was taken out of Hungary. The first thing Windisch-Grätz ordered, after entering in Buda was to occupy the castle, Windisch-Grätz named Lieutenant General Ladislas Wrbna as the commander of the Buda Military District, with other words the military commander of the imperial troops from the capitals. During April 1849 the main imperial troops led by Field Marshal Windisch-Grätz suffered one defeat after another, the Hungarian victory of Nagysalló on 19 April, had decisive results for the imperial occupation troops stationed in Hungary. It opened the way towards Komárom, bringing its relieving to just a couple of days distance and he also wrote that the spirit of the imperial troops is very low, and because of this they cannot fight another battle for a while, without suffering another defeat. So the next day he ordered the evacuation of Pest, leaving an important garrison in the fortress of Buda, on 24 April the last imperial soldiers left Pest and in the same morning 7th oclock seven hussars, from the II. Hungarian army corps, entered in the city, being welcomed by the cheers of the happy crowds formed by the citizens, who have been waiting for so long to be liberated. In the next day in Buda, Hentzi convoked two meetings with his officers, and decided that he defend the Castle of Buda until his last breath. The Castle of Buda, or with other name the Upper Town of Buda lies on a hill 167 meters above sea level, and 70 meters above the Danube, which flows under it. This so called Castle Hill has an irregular shape of a sharp triangle with its top towards South. Its length is 660 meters, in its northern, wider side with the Royal Palace is 156 meters height, from East, from across the Danube there are no heights near the Castle. The height of the surrounding the castle were not uniform
12.
Mocsa
–
Mocsa is a village in Komárom-Esztergom county, Hungary. During the Árpád Dynasty, the village was a property of the King, the Kings hunters and falconers lived in Mocsa. In 1291, Fennena of Kujavia, the first wife of Andrew III of Hungary, from this point on, the land was largely the property of the bishops. During the reign of Béla IV, Mocsa had about four hundred, the villages in the area were mostly razed to the ground during the Tatar invasions, but the survivors helped to repopulate Mocsa by grouping together. Through the centuries the village was attacked on more than one occasion and its survival is due to its location, a swampy, weedy, low-lying land that was unattractive to the invaders who preferred to travel over hilly lands that gave them a wide view of the places below. Mocsas location also provided plenty of hiding places for the people, in times of draught, the residents survived because of their close proximity to water. After the Battle of Mohács, the country suffered with years of taxation and occupation by the Ottoman Turks, many villages died out entirely, and their territories were connected to the surviving villages—Mocsa being one of the survivors. Nowadays Mocsa have a football team with the famous defender László Dobai Five hundred. Out of them sixty-one lost their lives, in World War II, there were seven hundred and forty soldiers from the village, two hundred and fifteen who were killed. Between March 18–26,1945, Mocsa was liberated by Soviet troops after a bloody battle, the left-over grenades, bombs, and landmines caused troubles for the village in the years to follow. Over twenty people suffered injuries from grenade and landmine explosions. Four people were killed in accidents, including a ten-year-old boy. Mocsas Roman Catholic church was built in 1756 in the Baroque style and it was burned down along with the village in 1903, but was restored the next year. The Protestant church was built in 1783 and it was irrecoverably damaged by cannon blasts during World War II, and so a new church had to be built in 1955
13.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
14.
Vienna Uprising
–
The Vienna Uprising or October Revolution of October 1848 was the last uprising in the Austrian Revolution of 1848. The incident escalated into violent street battles, blood was spilt in Saint Stephens Cathedral and Count Baillet von Latour, the commander of the Vienna garrison, Count Auersperg, was obliged to evacuate the city, but he entrenched himself in a strong position outside it. On 7 October, Emperor Ferdinand I fled with his court to Olmütz under the protection of Alfred I, two weeks later, the Austrian Parliament was moved to Kremsier. On 26 October, under the command of General Windisch-Grätz and Count Josip Jelačić, the Austrian and Croatian armies started a bombardment of Vienna, the defence was led by the Polish General Józef Bem. The gains of the March Revolution were largely lost, and Austria began a phase of both reactionary authoritarianism—neo-absolutism but also liberal reform
15.
Hungarian Declaration of Independence
–
The Hungarian Declaration of Independence declared the independence of Hungary from the Habsburg Monarchy during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The declaration was passed unanimously the following day, Kossuth issued the declaration himself, from the Protestant Great Church of Debrecen. The house of Habsburg has forfeited the throne, henry Walter De Puy. Kossuth and his generals, with a brief history of Hungary, select speeches of Kossuth, etc. — the full text of the Declaration of Independence, translated into English
16.
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
–
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, or Composition of 1867, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Compromise partially re-established the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from, and no longer subject to, under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Cisleithanian and Transleithanian regions were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers, the armed forces were combined with the Emperor-King as commander-in-chief. The names conventionally used for the two realms were derived from the river Leitha, or Lajta, a tributary of the Danube and the traditional border between Austrian and Magyar lands. The Leitha did not, however, form the border, nor was its whole course part of the border. Hungarian political leaders had two main goals, according to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, only three people contributed to the compromise, There were three of us who made the agreement, Deák, Andrássy and myself. In the Middle Ages Austria was a quasi-independent state within the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by the House of Habsburg, in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, Hungary was defeated and partially conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The young king Louis II of Hungary, who had no legitimate heir, the crown of Hungary was inherited by the Habsburgs. The Ottomans were subsequently out of Hungary in 1699. From 1526 to 1804, Austria and Hungary were in a union under the Habsburgs. In 1804, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, until the 1848 revolution, the workings of the overarching structure and the status of its component lands stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy that existed before 1804. Hungarys affairs continued to be administered by its own institutions as they had been previously, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The Holy Roman Empire was abolished in 1806, after the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, the independent customs system of Hungary was abolished, and Hungary became part of the unified imperial customs system on 1 October 1851. In the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Magyars came close to regaining independence, after the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under martial law. Prime Minister Félix von Schwarzenberg and his government, operating from November 1848, the centralist March Constitution of Austria introduced the so-called neo-absolutism in Habsburg ruled territories, and it provided absolute power for the monarch. A military dictatorship was created in Hungary, every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. German became the language of public administration
17.
Ferdinand I of Austria
–
He married Maria Anna of Savoy, the sixth child of Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia. He abdicated on 2 December 1848 and he was succeeded by his nephew, Franz Joseph. Following his abdication, he lived in Hradčany Palace, Prague, Ferdinand was the eldest son of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily. Possibly as a result of his parents genetic closeness, Ferdinand suffered from epilepsy, hydrocephalus, neurological problems, and he was educated by Baron Josef Kalasanz von Erberg, and his wife Josephine, née Gräfin von Attems. Though he was not declared incapacitated, a Regents Council steered the government, when Ferdinand married Princess Maria Anna of Savoy, the court physician considered it unlikely that he would be able to consummate the marriage. When he tried to consummate the marriage, he had five seizures and he is best remembered for his command to his cook, when told he could not have apricot dumplings because apricots were out of season, he said I am the Emperor, and I want dumplings. As the revolutionaries of 1848 were marching on the palace, he is supposed to have asked Metternich for an explanation, when Metternich answered that they were making a revolution, Ferdinand is supposed to have said But are they allowed to do that. He was convinced by Felix zu Schwarzenberg to abdicate in favour of his nephew, then I embraced him and kissed our new master, and then we went to our room. Afterwards I and my dear wife heard Holy Mass, after that I and my dear wife packed our bags. Ferdinand was the last King of Bohemia to be crowned as such, due to his sympathy with Bohemia he was given the Czech nickname Ferdinand V, the Good. In Austria, Ferdinand was similarly nicknamed Ferdinand der Gütige, and he is interred in tomb number 62 in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. Lord of Trieste, Cattaro and over the Windic March, charles II of Spain List of heirs to the Austrian throne Rulers of Germany family tree. He was related to every other ruler of Germany, ferdinands parents were double first cousins as they shared all four grandparents. Therefore, Ferdinand only had four great-grandparents, being descended from each of them twice, further back in his ancestry there is more pedigree collapse due to the close intermarriage between the Houses of Austria and Spain and other Catholic monarchies. 25–26 Ferdinand I In, Brockhaus Kleines Konversations-Lexikon,1, Leipzig,1911, p
18.
Franz Joseph I of Austria
–
Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and many others from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916. From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation, in December 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne at Olomouc as part of Ministerpräsident Felix zu Schwarzenbergs plan to end the Revolutions of 1848 in Hungary. This allowed Ferdinands nephew Franz Joseph to accede to the throne, largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign and he concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, the Bosnian crisis was a result of Franz Josephs annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin. On 28 June 1914, the assassination of his nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo resulted in Austria-Hungarys declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia and this activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I. Franz Joseph died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years and he was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles. His name in German was Franz Joseph I and I and his names in other languages were, Croatian and Bosnian, Franjo Josip I. Ukrainian, Фра́нц Йо́сиф I, Romanian, Francisc Iosif Slovene, serbian, Фрања Јосиф Franz Joseph was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl, and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria. Franzl came to idolise his grandfather, der Gute Kaiser Franz, at the age of thirteen, Franzl started a career as a colonel in the Austrian army. From that point onward, his fashion was dictated by army style, Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers, Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Archduke Karl Ludwig, and Archduke Ludwig Viktor, and a sister, Maria Anna, who died at the age of four. Instead, Franz was sent to the front in Italy, joining Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, by all accounts he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the Imperial Family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the setting of Innsbruck. Soon, the Archduke was called back from Italy, joining the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was at Innsbruck at this time that Franz Joseph first met his cousin Elisabeth, his bride, then a girl of ten. Following victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July, the court felt safe to return to Vienna, but within a few months Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September the court left again, this time for Olomouc in Moravia. By now, Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz, the military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young Archduke soon put on the throne. By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father, at this time he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name
19.
Eduard Clam-Gallas
–
Count Eduard Clam-Gallas was an Austrian General. He was the eldest son of Count Christian Christoph Clam-Gallas, patron of Beethoven, in 1823 Clam-Gallas joined the Army, at first as a Rittmeister of the 1st Cavalry Regiment in 1831, then Commander, Colonel and General in Prague. In 1848, called to Italy under the orders of General Joseph Radetzky, he commanded a brigade which distinguished itself at Santa Lucia, Vicenza and he was decorated with the Military Order of Maria Theresa and promoted to Field Marshal Lieutenant. In April 1849 he became commander of the Transylvanian Army Corps which needed to return to Turkey, at the beginning of July he was moving into Hungary to Hungarian, Brassó, to support Alexander von Lüders on the right flank. In this month there were a few battles between Lüders, Józef Bem and Sándor Gál, during the Transylvanian summer campaign, Clam-Gallas was defeated by Bem, but after that was able to defeat Sándor Gál and his Székels Army. After occupying Székely Land he joined Lüders and together they defeated Bem at Segesvár, in 1850, he was head of the I Army Corps of Bohemia in Vienna, and in the Second Italian War of Independence took part in the Battle of Magenta and the Battle of Solferino. This army corps was one of the first to be repelled, but this failure had no consequences for Clam-Gallas. In 1861 he was admitted to the Aulic Council before becoming, in 1865, in the course of the Austro-Prussian War, he suffered a humiliating defeat at Jičín, for which he was court-martialled, but he was acquitted because of his position in society. He spent his years in retirement in Frýdlant and Liberec in Bohemia. They had one son, Franz and two daughters, Eduardine and Clotilde, josef Kriehuber und die Wiener Gesellschaft seiner Zeit. Vienna, Walter Krieg Verlag. von Wurzbach, Constantin, cS1 maint, Uses editors parameter Kiszling, Rudolf. CS1 maint, Uses editors parameter Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, the summer campaign. In, The Hungarian revolution and the War of independence
Hungarian Revolutionary Army
Austrian Empire.svg){kind=small}
Russian Empire.jpg)
.svg){kind=small}
Leaders for Russia