1.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
2.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
3.
Resource Description Framework
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The Resource Description Framework is a family of World Wide Web Consortium specifications originally designed as a metadata data model. It is also used in knowledge management applications, RDF was adopted as a W3C recommendation in 1999. The RDF1.0 specification was published in 2004, the RDF1.1 specification in 2014, the RDF data model is similar to classical conceptual modeling approaches. It is based upon the idea of making statements about resources in the form of subject–predicate–object expressions, the subject denotes the resource, and the predicate denotes traits or aspects of the resource, and expresses a relationship between the subject and the object. For example, one way to represent the notion The sky has the blue in RDF is as the triple, a subject denoting the sky, a predicate denoting has the color. Therefore, RDF swaps object for subject in contrast to the approach of an entity–attribute–value model in object-oriented design, entity, attribute. RDF is a model with several serialization formats, so the particular encoding for resources or triples varies from format to format. RDFs simple data model and ability to model disparate, abstract concepts has led to its increasing use in knowledge management applications unrelated to Semantic Web activity. A collection of RDF statements intrinsically represents a labeled, directed multi-graph and this theoretically makes an RDF data model better suited to certain kinds of knowledge representation than other relational or ontological models. However, in practice, RDF data is persisted in relational database or native representations. As RDFS and OWL demonstrate, one can build additional ontology languages upon RDF, guha at Apple and Tim Bray at Netscape. The W3C published a specification of RDFs data model and an XML serialization as a recommendation in February 1999, secondly that RDF was an XML format, rather than RDF being a data model and only the RDF/XML serialisation being XML-based. RDF saw little take-up in this period, but there was significant work carried out in Bristol, around ILRT at Bristol University and HP Labs, RSS1.0 and FOAF became exemplar applications for RDF in this period.0, and The RDF Test Cases. Several common serialization formats are in use, including, Turtle, N-Triples, a very simple, easy-to-parse, line-based format that is not as compact as Turtle. N-Quads, a superset of N-Triples, for serializing multiple RDF graphs, n3 or Notation3, a non-standard serialization that is very similar to Turtle, but has some additional features, such as the ability to define inference rules. RDF/XML, an XML-based syntax that was the first standard format for serializing RDF, RDF/XML is sometimes misleadingly called simply RDF because it was introduced among the other W3C specifications defining RDF and it was historically the first W3C standard RDF serialization format. However, it is important to distinguish the RDF/XML format from the abstract RDF model itself, with a little effort, virtually any arbitrary XML may also be interpreted as RDF using GRDDL, Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects of Languages. RDF triples may be stored in a type of database called a triplestore, the subject of an RDF statement is either a uniform resource identifier or a blank node, both of which denote resources
4.
Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS FREng FRSA FBCS, also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the development of the Web. He is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation and is a researcher and holder of the founders chair at the MIT Computer Science. He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative, in 2011, he was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation. In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, in April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and he tweeted This is for everyone, which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee was born in London, England, United Kingdom, one of four born to Mary Lee Woods. His parents worked on the first commercially built computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, a keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with a model railway. He studied at The Queens College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976, after graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole, Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown, Dorset, Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva, he proposed a project based on the concept of hypertext, to demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE. After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Pooles Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth and he ran the companys technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a remote procedure call which gave him experience in computer networking. In 1984, he returned to CERN as a fellow and it then was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall. He used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web, for which he designed and his software also functioned as an editor, and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd. The first web site was built at CERN, despite this being an international organisation hosted by Switzerland, the office that Berners-Lee used was just across the border in France. It was put online on 6 August 1991 for the first time, It provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was and we can connect with each other instantly, all over the world. In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web
5.
Intelligent agent
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In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which observes through sensors and acts upon an environment using actuators and directs its activity towards achieving goals. Intelligent agents may also learn or use knowledge to achieve their goals and they may be very simple or very complex, a reflex machine such as a thermostat is an intelligent agent. Intelligent agents are often described schematically as a functional system similar to a computer program. Some definitions of intelligent agents emphasize their autonomy, and so prefer the term autonomous intelligent agents, still others considered goal-directed behavior as the essence of intelligence and so prefer a term borrowed from economics, rational agent. Intelligent agents are also related to software agents. In computer science, the intelligent agent may be used to refer to a software agent that has some intelligence, regardless if it is not a rational agent by Russell. For example, autonomous programs used for assistance or data mining are also called intelligent agents. Intelligent agents have been defined many different ways, the program agent, instead, maps every possible percept to an action. We use the term percept to refer to the agents perceptional inputs at any given instant, in the following figures an agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators. The agent function is based on the rule, if condition then action. This agent function only succeeds when the environment is fully observable, some reflex agents can also contain information on their current state which allows them to disregard conditions whose actuators are already triggered. Infinite loops are often unavoidable for simple reflex agents operating in partially observable environments, note, If the agent can randomize its actions, it may be possible to escape from infinite loops. A model-based agent can handle partially observable environments and its current state is stored inside the agent maintaining some kind of structure which describes the part of the world which cannot be seen. This knowledge about how the works is called a model of the world. A model-based reflex agent should maintain some sort of model that depends on the percept history. Percept history and impact of action on the environment can be determined by using internal model and it then chooses an action in the same way as reflex agent. Goal-based agents further expand on the capabilities of the model-based agents, goal information describes situations that are desirable. This allows the agent a way to choose among multiple possibilities, search and planning are the subfields of artificial intelligence devoted to finding action sequences that achieve the agents goals
6.
Scientific American
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Scientific American is an American popular science magazine. Many famous scientists, including Albert Einstein, have contributed articles in the past 170 years and it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States. Scientific American was founded by inventor and publisher Rufus M. Porter in 1845 as a weekly newspaper. Throughout its early years, much emphasis was placed on reports of what was going on at the U. S, current issues include a this date in history section, featuring excerpts from articles originally published 50,100, and 150 years earlier. Topics include humorous incidents, wrong-headed theories, and noteworthy advances in the history of science, Porter sold the publication to Alfred Ely Beach and Orson Desaix Munn a mere ten months after founding it. Until 1948, it remained owned by Munn & Company, under Munns grandson, Orson Desaix Munn III, it had evolved into something of a workbench publication, similar to the twentieth-century incarnation of Popular Science. In the years after World War II, the fell into decline. Thus the partners—publisher Gerard Piel, editor Dennis Flanagan, and general manager Donald H. Miller, Miller retired in 1979, Flanagan and Piel in 1984, when Gerard Piels son Jonathan became president and editor, circulation had grown fifteen-fold since 1948. In 1986, it was sold to the Holtzbrinck group of Germany, in the fall of 2008, Scientific American was put under the control of Nature Publishing Group, a division of Holtzbrinck. Donald Miller died in December 1998, Gerard Piel in September 2004, Mariette DiChristina is the current editor-in-chief, after John Rennie stepped down in June 2009. Scientific American published its first foreign edition in 1890, the Spanish-language La America Cientifica, a Russian edition V Mire Nauki was launched in the Soviet Union in 1983, and continues in the present-day Russian Federation. Kexue, a simplified Chinese edition launched in 1979, was the first Western magazine published in the Peoples Republic of China, founded in Chongqing, the simplified Chinese magazine was transferred to Beijing in 2001. Later in 2005, an edition, Global Science, was published instead of Kexue. A traditional Chinese edition, known as 科學人, was introduced to Taiwan in 2002, the Hungarian edition Tudomány existed between 1984 and 1992. In 1986, an Arabic edition, Oloom magazine, was published, in 2002, a Portuguese edition was launched in Brazil. From 1902 to 1911, Scientific American supervised the publication of the Encyclopedia Americana and it originally styled itself The Advocate of Industry and Enterprise and Journal of Mechanical and other Improvements. On the front page of the first issue was the engraving of Improved Rail-Road Cars, the masthead had a commentary as follows, Scientific American published every Thursday morning at No.11 Spruce Street, New York, No.16 State Street, Boston, and No. 2l Arcade Philadelphia, by Rufus Porter, five copies will be sent to one address six months for four dollars in advance
7.
James Hendler
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James Alexander Hendler is an artificial intelligence researcher at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, United States, and one of the originators of the Semantic Web. Hendler completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree at Brown University in 1986 with a thesis on automated planning and scheduling and he also has an MS in Cognitive Psychology from Southern Methodist University, a MSc from Brown University, and a BS from Yale University. Hendlers research interests are in the web and artificial intelligence. Hendler was the Director for Semantic Web and Agent Technology at the Maryland Information, on June 14,2006, James A. Hendler has appointments in Computer and Cognitive Sciences, and served as the Assistant Dean for Information Technology and Web Science from 2009 to 2012. In 2012 he became the Head of the Computer Science Department at RPI and in 2013 he became the Director of the RPI Institute for Data Exploration and Applications. Hendler helps lead the Tetherless World Constellation on increasing access to information at any time and he is also the Editor in Chief Emeritus of IEEE Intelligent Systems and is the first computer scientist to serve on the Board of Reviewing Editors for Science. He is a member of the US Air Force Science Advisory Board. Hendler served as an Internet Web Expert for the U. S. government, providing guidance to the Data. gov project, and in September 2013 he was appointed as the Open Data Advisor for NY State. In 2015, he was appointed a member of the US Homeland Security Science and Technology Advisory Committee and in 2016 appointed to the National Academies Board on Research Data and Information. Hendler was co-author, with Tim Berners-Lee and Ora Lassila, of the article The Semantic Web which appeared in Scientific American in 2001, social Machines, The coming collision of artificial intelligence, social networking and humanity w/Alice Mulvehill, Apress ISBN 978-1-4842-1157-1. Web Science, Understanding the Emergence of Macro-Level Features on the World Wide Webw/Kieron OHara, Noshir Contractor, Wendy Hall, Nigel Shadbolt, Semantic Web for the Working Ontologist Morgan Kaufmann ISBN 0-12-373556-4
8.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
9.
RDFa
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RDFa is a W3C Recommendation that adds a set of attribute-level extensions to HTML, XHTML and various XML-based document types for embedding rich metadata within Web documents. The RDF data-model mapping enables its use for embedding RDF subject-predicate-object expressions within XHTML documents and it also enables the extraction of RDF model triples by compliant user agents. The RDFa community runs a website to host tools, examples. RDFa was first proposed by Mark Birbeck in the form of a W3C note entitled XHTML and RDF, later that year the work became part of the sixth public Working Draft of XHTML2.0. Although it is assumed that RDFa was originally intended only for XHTML2. Indeed, one of the earliest documents bearing the RDF/A Syntax name has the sub-title A collection of attributes for layering RDF on XML languages, the document was written by Mark Birbeck and Steven Pemberton, and was made available for discussion on October 11,2004. In April 2007 the XHTML2 Working Group produced a module to support RDF annotation within the XHTML1 family, as an example, it included an extended version of XHTML1.1 dubbed XHTML+RDFa 1.0. Although described as not representing a direction in terms of a formal markup language from the W3C. October 2007 saw the first public Working Draft of a document entitled RDFa in XHTML, Syntax and this superseded and expanded upon the April draft, it contained rules for creating an RDFa parser, as well as guidelines for organizations wishing to make practical use of the technology. In October 2008 RDFa 1.0 reached recommendation status, RDFa 1.1 reached recommendation status in June 2012. It differs from RDFa 1.0 in that it no longer relies on the XML-specific namespace mechanism, therefore, it is possible to use RDFa 1.1 with non-XML document types such as HTML4 or HTML5. Details can be found in an appendix to HTML5, an additional RDFa 1.1 Primer document was last updated 17 March 2015. There are some main well-defined variants of the concepts, that are used as reference. RDFa was defined in 2008 with the RDFa in XHTML, Syntax and its first application was to be a module of XHTML. The HTML applications remained, a collection of attributes and processing rules for extending XHTML to support RDF expanded to HTML5, are now expressed in a specialized standard, the HTML+RDFa. The HTML+RDFa syntax of 2008 was also termed RDFa 1.0, so, in general this 2008s RDFa 1.0 is used with the old XHTML standards. Is the first generic RDFa standard, now the RDFa Core 1.1 is in the Third Edition, while it is not a complete solution for advanced data markup tasks, it does work for most day-to-day needs and can be learned by most Web authors in a day. In 2009 the W3C was positioned to retain RDFa Lite as unique, the position was confirmed with the publication of the HTML5 Recommendation in 2014
10.
Wikidata
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Wikidata is a collaboratively edited knowledge base operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is intended to provide a source of data which can be used by Wikimedia projects such as Wikipedia. This is similar to the way Wikimedia Commons provides storage for files and access to those files for all Wikimedia projects. Wikidata is powered by the software Wikibase, Wikidata is a document-oriented database, focused on items. Each item represents a topic and is identified by a number, prefixed with the letter Q—for example. This enables the basic information required to identify the topic the item covers to be translated without favouring any language, information is added to items by creating statements. Statements take the form of pairs, with each statement consisting of a property. The creation of the project was funded by donations from the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, at this time, only the first phase was available. Historically, a Wikipedia article would include a list of links, being links to articles on the same topic in other editions of Wikipedia. Initially, Wikidata was a repository of interlanguage links. No Wikipedia language editions were able to access Wikidata, so they needed to continue to maintain their own lists of interlanguage links, on 14 January 2013, the Hungarian Wikipedia became the first to enable the provision of interlanguage links via Wikidata. This functionality was extended to the Hebrew and Italian Wikipedias on 30 January, to the English Wikipedia on 13 February, on 23 September 2013, phase 1 went live on Wikimedia Commons. The first aspects of the second phase were deployed on 4 February 2013, the values were initially limited to two data types, with more data types to follow later. The first new type, string, was deployed on 6 March, the ability of the various language editions of Wikipedia to access data added to Wikidata as part of phase two was rolled out progressively between 27 March and 25 April 2013. On 16 September 2015, Wikidata began allowing so-called arbitrary access, for example, in the past the article about Berlin you could not access data about Germany, but with arbitrary access it could. On 27 April 2016 arbitrary access was activated on Wikimedia Commons, phase 3 will involve database querying and the creation of lists based on data stored on Wikidata. As of October 2016 two tools for querying Wikidata were available, AutoList and PetScan, additionally to a public SPARQL endpoint, there is concern that the project is being influenced by lobbying companies, PR professionals and search engine optimizers. As of December 2015, according to Wikimedia statistics, half of the information in Wikidata is unsourced, another 30% is labeled as having come from Wikipedia, but with no indication as to which article
11.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
12.
Linked data
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In computing, linked data is a method of publishing structured data so that it can be interlinked and become more useful through semantic queries. This enables data from different sources to be connected and queried, tim Berners-Lee, director of the World Wide Web Consortium, coined the term in a 2006 design note about the Semantic Web project. Tim Berners-Lee outlined four principles of linked data in his Linked Data note of 2006, paraphrased along the following lines, Use HTTP URIs so that these things can be looked up. Provide useful information about what a name identifies when its looked up, using standards such as RDF, SPARQL. Refer to other things using their HTTP URI-based names when publishing data on the Web, tim Berners-Lee gave a presentation on linked data at the TED2009 conference. In it, he restated the linked data principles as three extremely simple rules, All kinds of things, they have names now that start with HTTP. If I take one of these HTTP names and I look it up. I will get back some data in a format which is kind of useful data that somebody might like to know about that thing. When I get back that information its not just got somebodys height and weight, and when it has relationships, whenever it expresses a relationship then the other thing that its related to is given one of those names that starts with HTTP. Tim Berners-Lee gives the clearest definition of linked data in differentiation with linked data. Linked Open Data is Linked Data which is released under an open licence, large linked open data sets include DBpedia and Freebase. The term linked open data has been in use since at least February 2007, the mailing list was initially hosted by the SIMILE project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In October 2007, datasets consisted of two billion RDF triples, which were interlinked by over two million RDF links. By September 2011 this had grown to 31 billion RDF triples, a detailed statistical breakdown was published in 2014. There are a number of European Union projects involving linked data and these include the linked open data around the clock project, the PlanetData project, the DaPaaS project, and the Linked Open Data 2 project. Data linking is one of the goals of the EU Open Data Portal. DBpedia – a dataset containing extracted data from Wikipedia, it contains about 3
13.
Semantic network
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A semantic network, or frame network, is a network that represents semantic relations between concepts. This is often used as a form of knowledge representation and it is a directed or undirected graph consisting of vertices, which represent concepts, and edges, which represent semantic relations between concepts. Typical standardized semantic networks are expressed as semantic triples, Semantic Nets were first invented for computers by Richard H. Richens of the Cambridge Language Research Unit in 1956 as an interlingua for machine translation of natural languages. It later featured prominently in the work of Allan M, in the subsequent decades, the distinction between semantic networks and knowledge graphs was blurred. In 2012, Google gave their knowledge graph the name Knowledge Graph, a semantic network is used when one has knowledge that is best understood as a set of concepts that are related to one another. Most semantic networks are cognitively based and they also consist of arcs and nodes which can be organized into a taxonomic hierarchy. Semantic networks contributed ideas of spreading activation, inheritance, and nodes as proto-objects and you would use the assoc function with a key of canary to extract all the information about the canary type. An example of a network is WordNet, a lexical database of English. It groups English words into sets of synonyms called synsets, provides short, general definitions, some of the most common semantic relations defined are meronymy, holonymy, hyponymy, hypernymy, synonymy and antonymy. WordNet properties have been studied from a network theory perspective and compared to other semantic networks created from Rogets Thesaurus, from this perspective the three of them are a small world structure. It is also possible to represent logical descriptions using semantic networks such as the graphs of Charles Sanders Peirce or the related conceptual graphs of John F. Sowa. These have expressive power equal to or exceeding standard first-order predicate logic, unlike WordNet or other lexical or browsing networks, semantic networks using these representations can be used for reliable automated logical deduction. Some automated reasoners exploit the features of the networks during processing. Other examples of networks are Gellish models. Gellish English with its Gellish English dictionary, is a language that is defined as a network of relations between concepts and names of concepts. Gellish English is a subset of natural English, just as Gellish Dutch is a formal subset of Dutch. Other Gellish networks consist of models and information models that are expressed in the Gellish language. A Gellish network is a network of relations between things, each relation in the network is an expression of a fact that is classified by a relation type
14.
Elizabeth Loftus
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Elizabeth F. Loftus is an American cognitive psychologist and expert on human memory. She has conducted research on the malleability of human memory. Loftus has been recognized throughout the world for her work, receiving numerous awards, in 2002, Loftus was ranked 58th in the Review of General Psychology’s list of the 100 most influential psychological researchers of the 20th century, and was the highest ranked woman on the list. Loftus grew up in Bel Air, California and her parents were Sidney and Rebecca Fishman, her father was a doctor and her mother a librarian. When Loftus was 14 years old, her mother drowned, in 1968, Loftus married fellow psychologist Geoffrey Loftus, divorcing in 1991 but remaining friends. Loftus received her Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics and psychology with highest honors from the University of California and she received her MA in 1967 and Ph. D in 1970, the only woman in her cohort. Her thesis was entitled An Analysis of the Structural Variables That Determine Problem-Solving Difficulty on a Computer-Based Teletype, Loftus took her first academic appointment in 1970 at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Her research during her time there focused on the organization of information in longterm memory. However Loftus soon realized she wanted to do research with greater social relevance, previous studies had established that memories were not necessarily accurate representations of actual events but were actually constructed using past experiences and other manipulations. The study showed that the way in which questions were worded altered the memories subjects reported, Loftus’ next step was to investigate whether asking leading questions, or providing misleading information in other forms, might also affect people’s memory for the original event. Loftus has testified and advised courts about the nature of memory for many cases. In 1975 Loftus set a precedent when she provided Washington State’s first expert testimony about eyewitness memory. She has since testified in over 250 cases and consulted on many more, notable cases she has been involved in due to her expertise include the McMartin preschool trial, O. J. In the early 1990s, the focus of Loftus’ work shifted to investigating whether it was possible to implant false memories for events that had never taken place. The impetus for new line of research was a case for which Loftus had been asked to provide expert testimony in 1990. At that time, many others were also making accusations, both in and out of court, based on recovered memories of trauma and her student Jim Coan developed the lost in the mall technique. The method involves attempting to implant a memory of being lost in a shopping mall as a child. In her initial study, Loftus found that 25% of subjects came to develop a memory for the event which had never taken place
15.
Hyperlink
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In computing, a hyperlink, or simply a link, is a reference to data that the reader can directly follow either by clicking, tapping, or hovering. A hyperlink points to a document or to a specific element within a document. The text that is linked from is called anchor text, a software system that is used for viewing and creating hypertext is a hypertext system, and to create a hyperlink is to hyperlink. A user following hyperlinks is said to navigate or browse the hypertext, the document containing a hyperlink is known as its source document. For example, in a reference work such as Wikipedia, many words. Hyperlinks are often used to implement reference mechanisms such as tables of contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes, letters, in some hypertext hyperlinks can be bidirectional, they can be followed in two directions, so both ends act as anchors and as targets. More complex arrangements exist, such as many-to-many links, another possibility is transclusion, for which the link target is a document fragment that replaces the link anchor within the source document. Not only persons browsing the document follow hyperlinks, they may also be followed automatically by programs, a program that traverses the hypertext, following each hyperlink and gathering all the retrieved documents is known as a Web spider or crawler. An inline link displays remote content without the need for embedding the content, the remote content may be accessed with or without the user selecting the link. An inline link may display a modified version of the content, for instance, instead of an image, the full content will then usually be available on demand, as is the case with print publishing software – e. g. with an external link. This allows for file sizes and quicker response to changes when the full linked content is not needed. An anchor hyperlink is a bound to a portion of a document—generally text. For instance, it may also be a hot area in an image, one way to define it is by a list of coordinates that indicate its boundaries. For example, a map of Africa may have each country hyperlinked to further information about that country. A separate invisible hot area interface allows for swapping skins or labels within the hot areas without repetitive embedding of links in the various skin elements. Tim Berners-Lee saw the possibility of using hyperlinks to link any information to any information over the Internet. Hyperlinks were therefore integral to the creation of the World Wide Web, Web pages are written in the hypertext mark-up language HTML. w3. org to the URL for the page. The URL is followed by >, marking the end of the opening tag
16.
Web page
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A web page is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and web browsers. A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile device, the web page is what displays, but the term also refers to a computer file, usually written in HTML or comparable markup language. Web browsers coordinate the various web resource elements for the web page, such as style sheets, scripts. Typical web pages provide hypertext that includes a bar or a sidebar menu to other web pages via hyperlinks. On a network, a web browser can retrieve a web page from a web server. On a higher level, the web server may restrict access to only a network such as a corporate intranet or it provides access to the World Wide Web. On a lower level, the web browser uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol to make such requests, dynamic website pages help the browser to enhance the web page through user input to the server. Web pages usually include information as to the colors of text and backgrounds, an HTTP1.1 web server will maintain a connection with the browser until all related resources have been requested and provided. Web browsers usually render images along with the text and other material on the web page. These scripts may run on the client computer, if the user allows, a web browser can have a Graphical User Interface, like Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Opera, or can be text-based, like Lynx or Links. Web users with disabilities often use assistive technologies and adaptive strategies to access web pages, disabled and able-bodied users may disable the download and viewing of images and other media, to save time, network bandwidth or merely to simplify their browsing experience. Users of mobile devices often have restricted displays and bandwidth, anyone may prefer not to use the fonts, font sizes, styles and color schemes selected by the web page designer and may apply their own CSS styling to the page. The World Wide Web Consortium and Web Accessibility Initiative recommend that all web pages should be designed with all of options in mind. Non-textual information, Static images may be raster graphics, typically GIF, JPEG or PNG, Animated images typically Animated GIF and SVG, but also may be Flash, Shockwave, or Java applet. Audio, typically MP3, Ogg or various proprietary formats, video, WMV, RM, FLV, MPG, MOV Interactive information, see interactive media. For on page interaction, Interactive text, see DHTML, Interactive illustrations, ranging from click to play images to games, typically using script orchestration, Flash, Java applets, SVG, or Shockwave. Buttons, forms providing an interface, typically for use with script orchestration. For between pages interaction, Hyperlinks, standard change page reactivity, forms, providing more interaction with the server and server-side databases
17.
Document
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A document is a written, drawn, presented, or memorialized representation of thought. The word originates from the Latin documentum, which denotes a teaching or lesson, in the past the word was usually used to denote a written proof useful as evidence of a truth or fact. In the computer age, document usually denotes a primarily textual computer file, including its structure and format, e. g. fonts, colors, contemporarily, document is not defined by its transmission medium, e. g. paper, given the existence of electronic documents. Documentation is distinct because it has more denotations than document, the concept of document has been defined as any concrete or symbolic indication, preserved or recorded, for reconstructing or for proving a phenomenon, whether physical or mental. The shift to digital technology would seem to make this even more important. Levys thoughtful analyses have shown that an emphasis on the technology of digital documents has impeded our understanding of digital documents as documents. A conventional document, such as a message or a technical report, exists physically in digital technology as a string of bits. As an object of study, it has made into a document. It has become physical evidence by those who study it, template, Citation is problematic and should be verified. The classic example provided by Suzanne Briet is an antelope, An antelope running wild on the plains of Africa should not be considered a document she rules. But if it were to be captured, taken to a zoo and made an object of study and it has become physical evidence being used by those who study it. Indeed, scholarly articles written about the antelope are secondary documents and this opinion has been interpreted as an early expression of actor–network theory. Documents are sometimes classified as secret, private, or public and they may also be described as drafts or proofs. When a document is copied, the source is denominated the original, standards are accepted for specific applications in various fields, e. g. Academia, manuscript, thesis, paper, and journal, government, law, and politics, application, brief, certificate, commission, constitutional document, form, gazette, identity document, license, summons, and white paper. Such standard documents can be drafted based on a template, the page layout of a document is the manner in which information is graphically arranged in the space of the document, e. g. on a page. If the appearance of the document is of concern, page layout is generally the responsibility of a graphic designer, typography concerns the design of letter and symbol forms and their physical arrangement in the document. Information design concerns the communication of information, especially in industrial documents
18.
Web browser
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A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
19.
Italic type
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In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a stylized form of calligraphic handwriting. Owing to the influence from calligraphy, italics normally slant slightly to the right, italics are a way to emphasise key points in a printed text, or when quoting a speaker a way to show which words they stressed. One manual of English usage described italics as the print equivalent of underlining, the name comes from the fact that calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents traditionally written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. Aldus Manutius and Ludovico Arrighi were the type designers involved in this process at the time. Different glyph shapes from roman type are usually used – another influence from calligraphy –, an alternative is oblique type, in which the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape, this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces. Italic type was first used by Aldus Manutius and his press in Venice in 1500, Manutius used italic not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books, replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period. The choice of using italic type, rather than the type in general use at the time, was apparently made to suggest informality in editions designed for leisure reading. Manutius italic type, cut and conceived by his employee, punchcutter Francesco Griffo, replicated handwriting of the following from the style of Niccolò de Niccoli. The first use in a volume was a 1501 edition of Virgil dedicated to Italy. Manutius italic was different in some ways from modern italics, unlike the italic type of today, the capital letters were upright capitals on the model of Roman square capitals, shorter than the ascending lower-case italic letters. While modern italics are more condensed than roman types, historian Harry Carter describes Manutius italic as about the same width as roman type. To replicate handwriting, Griffo cut at least sixty-five tied letters in the Aldine Dante, Italic typefaces of the following century used varying but reduced numbers of ligatures. Manutius type rapidly became popular in its own day and was widely imitated. The Venetian Senate gave Aldus exclusive right to its use, a patent confirmed by three successive Popes, but it was widely counterfeited as early as 1502. Griffo, who had left Venice in a dispute, cut a version for printer Girolamo Soncino. The Italians called the character Aldino, while called it Italic. Italics spread rapidly, historian Hendrik Vervliet dates the first production of italics in Paris to 1512, chancery italics faded as a style over the course of the sixteenth century, although revivals were made beginning in the twentieth century. Chancery italics may have backward-pointing serifs or round terminals pointing forwards on the ascenders, Vervliet comments that among punchcutters the main name associated with the change is Granjons
20.
Cascading Style Sheets
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Cascading Style Sheets is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language. It can also display the web page differently depending on the size or viewing device. Readers can also specify a different style sheet, such as a CSS file stored on their own computer, to override the one the author specified. Changes to the design of a document can be applied quickly and easily, by editing a few lines in the CSS file they use. The CSS specification describes a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element, in this so-called cascade, priorities are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable. The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium, Internet media type text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC2318. The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents, CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties. A style sheet consists of a list of rules, each rule or rule-set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block. In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags, Selectors may apply to, all elements of a specific type, e. g. Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any elements, an ID may only be applied to a single element. Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree. One example of a widely used pseudo-class is, hover, which identifies content only when the points to the visible element. It is appended to a selector as in a, hover or #elementid, a pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as, link or, visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as, first-line or, first-letter. Selectors may be combined in ways to achieve great specificity and flexibility. Multiple selectors may be joined in a spaced list to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, the order of the selectors is important. For example, div. myClass applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, the following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it. A declaration block consists of a list of declarations in braces, each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon, and a value. If there are multiple declarations in a block, a semi-colon must be inserted to separate each declaration, properties are specified in the CSS standard
21.
XML
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In computing, Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. The W3Cs XML1.0 Specification and several other related specifications—all of them free open standards—define XML, the design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a data format with strong support via Unicode for different human languages. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, the language is used for the representation of arbitrary data structures such as those used in web services. Several schema systems exist to aid in the definition of XML-based languages, hundreds of document formats using XML syntax have been developed, including RSS, Atom, SOAP, SVG, and XHTML. XML-based formats have become the default for many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office, OpenOffice. org and LibreOffice, XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft. NET Framework use XML files for configuration, apple has an implementation of a registry based on XML. XML has come into use for the interchange of data over the Internet. IETF RFC7303 gives rules for the construction of Internet Media Types for use when sending XML and it also defines the media types application/xml and text/xml, which say only that the data is in XML, and nothing about its semantics. The use of text/xml has been criticized as a source of encoding problems. RFC7303 also recommends that XML-based languages be given media types ending in +xml, further guidelines for the use of XML in a networked context appear in RFC3470, also known as IETF BCP70, a document covering many aspects of designing and deploying an XML-based language. The material in this section is based on the XML Specification and this is not an exhaustive list of all the constructs that appear in XML, it provides an introduction to the key constructs most often encountered in day-to-day use. Character An XML document is a string of characters, almost every legal Unicode character may appear in an XML document. Processor and application The processor analyzes the markup and passes structured information to an application, the specification places requirements on what an XML processor must do and not do, but the application is outside its scope. The processor is often referred to colloquially as an XML parser, Markup and content The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content, which may be distinguished by the application of simple syntactic rules. Generally, strings that constitute markup either begin with the character < and end with a >, or they begin with the character &, strings of characters that are not markup are content. However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <. > are classified as markup, in addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup. Tag A tag is a construct that begins with <
22.
Database
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A database is a well organized collection of data. It is the collection of schemas, tables, queries, reports, views, a database management system is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, MariaDB, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, MemSQL and IBM DB2. Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a database, formally, a database refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information, because of the close relationship between them, the term database is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data. This article is concerned only with databases where the size and usage requirements necessitate use of a management system. Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data, retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications. The retrieved data may be available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database. Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a database model. Database system refers collectively to the model, database management system. Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS, Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail, hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications, DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans, databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers. Databases are used to hold information and more specialized data. A DBMS has evolved into a software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort. Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s, general-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity
23.
XHTML
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Extensible Hypertext Markup Language is part of the family of XML markup languages. It mirrors or extends versions of the widely used Hypertext Markup Language, XHTML documents are well-formed and may therefore be parsed using standard XML parsers, unlike HTML, which requires a lenient HTML-specific parser. XHTML1.0 became a World Wide Web Consortium Recommendation on January 26,2000, XHTML1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on May 31,2001. The standard known as XHTML5 is being developed as an XML adaptation of the HTML5 specification, XHTML1.0 is a reformulation of the three HTML4 document types as applications of XML1.0. The World Wide Web Consortium also continues to maintain the HTML4.01 Recommendation, and the specifications for HTML5 and XHTML5 are being actively developed. In the current XHTML1.0 Recommendation document, as published and revised to August 2002, by migrating to XHTML today, content developers can enter the XML world with all of its attendant benefits, while still remaining confident in their contents backward and future compatibility. However, in 2005, the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group formed, independently of the W3C, the WHATWG eventually began working on a standard that supported both XML and non-XML serializations, HTML5, in parallel to W3C standards such as XHTML2. In 2007, the W3Cs HTML working group voted to officially recognize HTML5, in 2009, the W3C allowed the XHTML2 Working Groups charter to expire, acknowledging that HTML5 would be the sole next-generation HTML standard, including both XML and non-XML serializations. Of the two serializations, the W3C suggests that most authors use the HTML syntax, rather than the XHTML syntax, XHTML was developed to make HTML more extensible and increase interoperability with other data formats. In addition, browsers were forgiving of errors in HTML, and most websites were displayed despite technical errors in the markup, the XML standard, approved in 1998, provided a simpler data format closer in simplicity to HTML4. By using namespaces, XHTML documents could provide extensibility by including fragments from other XML-based languages such as Scalable Vector Graphics, finally, the renewed work would provide an opportunity to divide HTML into reusable components and clean up untidy parts of the language. There are various differences between XHTML and HTML, the Document Object Model is a tree structure that represents the page internally in applications, and XHTML and HTML are two different ways of representing that in markup. Both are less expressive than the DOM, and generally XHTMLs XML syntax is a more expressive than HTML. First off, one source of differences is immediate, XHTML uses an XML syntax, secondly however, because the expressible contents of the DOM in syntax are slightly different, there are some changes in actual behavior between the two models. XML is case-sensitive for element and attribute names, while HTML is not, there are numerous other technical requirements surrounding namespaces and precise parsing of whitespace and certain characters and elements. The exact parsing of HTML in practice has been undefined until recently, see the HTML5 specification for full details, Second, in contrast to these minor syntactical differences, there are some behavioral differences, mostly arising from the underlying differences in serialization. For example, Most prominently, behavior on parse errors differ, a fatal parse error in XML causes document processing to be aborted. Most content requiring namespaces will not work in HTML, except the built-in support for SVG, javaScript processing is a little different in XHTML, with minor changes in case sensitivity to some functions, and further precautions to restrict processing to well-formed content
24.
Scalable Vector Graphics
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Scalable Vector Graphics is an XML-based vector image format for two-dimensional graphics with support for interactivity and animation. The SVG specification is a standard developed by the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999. SVG images and their behaviors are defined in XML text files and this means that they can be searched, indexed, scripted, and compressed. As XML files, SVG images can be created and edited with any text editor, All major modern web browsers—including Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Microsoft Edge—have SVG rendering support. SVG has been in development within the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999, the early SVG Working Group decided not to develop any of the commercial submissions, but to create a new markup language that was informed by but not really based on any of them. SVG allows three types of objects, vector graphic shapes such as paths and outlines consisting of straight lines and curves, bitmap images. Graphical objects can be grouped, styled, transformed and composited into previously rendered objects, the feature set includes nested transformations, clipping paths, alpha masks, filter effects and template objects. SVG drawings can be interactive and can include animation, defined in the SVG XML elements or via scripting that accesses the SVG Document Object Model, SVG uses CSS for styling and JavaScript for scripting. Text, including internationalization and localization, appearing in plain text within the SVG DOM enhances the accessibility of SVG graphics, the SVG specification was updated to version 1.1 in 2011. There are two Mobile SVG Profiles, SVG Tiny and SVG Basic, meant for mobile devices with reduced computational, Scalable Vector Graphics 2 became a W3C Candidate Recommendation on 15 September 2016. SVG2 incorporates several new features in addition to those of SVG1.1, though the SVG Specification primarily focuses on vector graphics markup language, its design includes the basic capabilities of a page description language like Adobes PDF. It contains provisions for rich graphics, and is compatible with CSS for styling purposes, SVG has the information needed to place each glyph and image in a chosen location on a printed page. A print-specialized subset of SVG is currently a W3C Working Draft, SVG drawings can be dynamic and interactive. Time-based modifications to the elements can be described in SMIL, or can be programmed in a scripting language, the W3C explicitly recommends SMIL as the standard for animation in SVG. A rich set of event handlers such as onmouseover and onclick can be assigned to any SVG graphical object, SVG images, being XML, contain many repeated fragments of text, so they are well suited for lossless data compression algorithms. When an SVG image has been compressed with the industry standard gzip algorithm, it is referred to as an SVGZ image, conforming SVG1.1 viewers will display compressed images. An SVGZ file is typically 20 to 50 percent of the original size, W3C provides SVGZ files to test for conformance. SVG1.0 became a W3C Recommendation on 4 September 2001, SVG1.1 became a W3C Recommendation on 14 January 2003
25.
Web 2.0
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Web 2.0 describes World Wide Web websites that emphasize user-generated content, usability, and interoperability for end users. The term was popularized by Tim OReilly and Dale Dougherty at the OReilly Media Web 2.0 Conference in late 2004, Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but to changes in the way Web pages are designed and used. A Web 2. 0-era websites where people were limited to the viewing of content. Whether Web 2.0 is substantively different from prior Web technologies has been challenged by World Wide Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee and his original vision of the Web was a collaborative medium, a place where we all meet and read and write. On the other hand, the term Semantic Web was coined by Berners-Lee to refer to a web of content where the meaning can be processed by machines, Web 1.0 is a retronym referring to the first stage of the World Wide Webs evolution. According to Cormode, G. and Krishnamurthy, B. content creators were few in Web 1.0 with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content. Personal web pages were common, consisting mainly of static pages hosted on ISP-run web servers, with the advent of Web 2. The content for both were generated dynamically from stored content, allowing for readers to comment directly on pages in a way that was not previously common, some Web 2.0 capabilities were present in the days of Web 1.0 but they were implemented differently. For example, a Web 1.0 site may have had a page to publish visitor comments. Server performance and bandwidth considerations had a long thread on each page. Terry Flew, in his 3rd edition of New Media described the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2, Flew believed it to be the above factors that form the basic change in trends that resulted in the onset of the Web 2.0 craze. Some design elements of a Web 1.0 site include, pages built using Server Side Includes or Common Gateway Interface instead of a web application written in a dynamic programming language such as Perl, PHP, Python or Ruby. The use of HTML3. 2-era elements such as frames and tables to position and these were often used in combination with spacer GIFs. Proprietary HTML extensions, such as the <blink> and <marquee> tags, GIF buttons, graphics promoting web browsers, operating systems, text editors and various other products. Support for server side scripting was rare on shared servers during this period, to provide a feedback mechanism for web site visitors, mailto forms were used. A user would fill in a form, and upon clicking the forms submit button, their client would launch. The popularity and complications of the mailto protocol led browser developers to incorporate email clients into their browsers, the term Web 2.0 was first used in January 1999 by Darcy DiNucci, an information architecture consultant. In her article, Fragmented Future, DiNucci writes, The Web we know now, the first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop
26.
SNOMED CT
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SNOMED CT is considered to be the most comprehensive, multilingual clinical healthcare terminology in the world. The primary purpose of SNOMED CT is to encode the meanings that are used in health information, SNOMED CT provides the core general terminology for electronic health records. SNOMED CT comprehensive coverage includes, clinical findings, symptoms, diagnoses, procedures, body structures, organisms and other etiologies, substances, pharmaceuticals, devices, SNOMED CT is maintained and distributed by SNOMED International, an international non-profit standards development organization, located in London, UK. SNOMED International is the name of the International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation. SNOMED CT provides for consistent information interchange and is fundamental to an electronic health record. It provides a consistent means to index, store, retrieve and it also helps in organizing the content of electronic health records systems by reducing the variability in the way data are captured, encoded and used for clinical care of patients and research. SNOMED CT can be used to directly record clinical details of individuals in electronic patient records, SNOMED CT is a terminology that can cross-map to other international standards and classifications. Specific language editions are available which augment the international edition and can contain language translations, SNOMED was started in 1965 as a Systematized Nomenclature of Pathology and was further developed into a logic-based health care terminology. The final product was released in January 2002, the historical strength of SNOMED was its coverage of medical specialties. The strength of CTV3 was its terminologies for general practice, CTV3, with 200,000 interrelated concepts, was used for storing structured information about primary care encounters in individual, patient-based records. Currently, SNOMED CT contains more than 311,000 active concepts, users at no cost through the National Library of Medicines Unified Medical Language System UMLS Metathesaurus. The contract provided NLM with a license for the core SNOMED CT. SNOMED CT is a multinational and multilingual terminology, which can manage different languages, SNOMED CT is currently available in American English, British English, Spanish, Danish and Swedish, with other translations under way or nearly completed in French and Dutch. SNOMED CT cross maps to other terminologies, such as, ICD-9-CM, ICD-10, ICD-O-3, ICD-10-AM, Laboratory LOINC and it supports ANSI, DICOM, HL7, and ISO standards. SNOMED CT is currently used in a joint project with the World Health Organization as the basis of the upcoming ICD-11. SNOMED CT Concepts are representational units that all the things that characterize health care processes. In 2011, SNOMED CT included more than 311,000 concepts, all SNOMED CT concepts are organized into acyclic taxonomic hierarchies, for example, Viral pneumonia IS-A Infectious pneumonia IS-A Pneumonia IS-A Lung disease. Concepts may have multiple parents, for example Infectious pneumonia is also a child of Infectious disease, the taxonomic structure allows data to be recorded and later accessed at different levels of aggregation
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Fuzzy logic
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Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic in which the truth values of variables may be any real number between 0 and 1. By contrast, in Boolean logic, the values of variables may only be the integer values 0 or 1. Fuzzy logic has been employed to handle the concept of partial truth, furthermore, when linguistic variables are used, these degrees may be managed by specific functions. The term fuzzy logic was introduced with the 1965 proposal of set theory by Lotfi Zadeh. Fuzzy logic had however been studied since the 1920s, as infinite-valued logic—notably by Łukasiewicz, Fuzzy logic has been applied to many fields, from control theory to artificial intelligence. Classical logic only permits conclusions which are true or false. However, there are also propositions with variable answers, such as one might find when asking a group of people to identify a color. In such instances, the truth appears as the result of reasoning from inexact or partial knowledge in which the answers are mapped on a spectrum. Humans and animals often operate using fuzzy evaluations in many everyday situations, instead the person instinctively applies quick fuzzy estimates, based upon previous experience, to determine what output values of force, direction and vertical angle to use to make the toss. Take, for example, the concepts of empty and full, the meaning of each of them can be represented by a certain fuzzy set. The concept of emptiness would be subjective and thus would depend on the observer or designer, a basic application might characterize various sub-ranges of a continuous variable. For instance, a measurement for anti-lock brakes might have several separate membership functions defining particular temperature ranges needed to control the brakes properly. Each function maps the temperature value to a truth value in the 0 to 1 range. These truth values can then be used to determine how the brakes should be controlled, in this image, the meanings of the expressions cold, warm, and hot are represented by functions mapping a temperature scale. A point on that scale has three truth values—one for each of the three functions, the vertical line in the image represents a particular temperature that the three arrows gauge. Since the red arrow points to zero, this temperature may be interpreted as not hot, the orange arrow may describe it as slightly warm and the blue arrow fairly cold. While variables in mathematics usually take numerical values, in fuzzy logic applications non-numeric values are used to facilitate the expression of rules. A linguistic variable such as age may accept values such as young, because natural languages do not always contain enough value terms to express a fuzzy value scale, it is common practice to modify linguistic values with adjectives or adverbs
