1.
Number theory
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Number theory or, in older usage, arithmetic is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers. It is sometimes called The Queen of Mathematics because of its place in the discipline. Number theorists study prime numbers as well as the properties of objects out of integers or defined as generalizations of the integers. Integers can be considered either in themselves or as solutions to equations, questions in number theory are often best understood through the study of analytical objects that encode properties of the integers, primes or other number-theoretic objects in some fashion. One may also study real numbers in relation to rational numbers, the older term for number theory is arithmetic. By the early century, it had been superseded by number theory. The use of the arithmetic for number theory regained some ground in the second half of the 20th century. In particular, arithmetical is preferred as an adjective to number-theoretic. The first historical find of a nature is a fragment of a table. The triples are too many and too large to have been obtained by brute force, the heading over the first column reads, The takiltum of the diagonal which has been subtracted such that the width. The tables layout suggests that it was constructed by means of what amounts, in language, to the identity 2 +1 =2. If some other method was used, the triples were first constructed and then reordered by c / a, presumably for use as a table. It is not known what these applications may have been, or whether there could have any, Babylonian astronomy, for example. It has been suggested instead that the table was a source of examples for school problems. While Babylonian number theory—or what survives of Babylonian mathematics that can be called thus—consists of this single, striking fragment, late Neoplatonic sources state that Pythagoras learned mathematics from the Babylonians. Much earlier sources state that Thales and Pythagoras traveled and studied in Egypt, Euclid IX 21—34 is very probably Pythagorean, it is very simple material, but it is all that is needed to prove that 2 is irrational. Pythagorean mystics gave great importance to the odd and the even, the discovery that 2 is irrational is credited to the early Pythagoreans. This forced a distinction between numbers, on the one hand, and lengths and proportions, on the other hand, the Pythagorean tradition spoke also of so-called polygonal or figurate numbers
2.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
3.
Natural number
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In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting and ordering. In common language, words used for counting are cardinal numbers, texts that exclude zero from the natural numbers sometimes refer to the natural numbers together with zero as the whole numbers, but in other writings, that term is used instead for the integers. These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded in the number systems. Properties of the numbers, such as divisibility and the distribution of prime numbers, are studied in number theory. Problems concerning counting and ordering, such as partitioning and enumerations, are studied in combinatorics, the most primitive method of representing a natural number is to put down a mark for each object. Later, a set of objects could be tested for equality, excess or shortage, by striking out a mark, the first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers. This allowed systems to be developed for recording large numbers, the ancient Egyptians developed a powerful system of numerals with distinct hieroglyphs for 1,10, and all the powers of 10 up to over 1 million. A stone carving from Karnak, dating from around 1500 BC and now at the Louvre in Paris, depicts 276 as 2 hundreds,7 tens, and 6 ones, and similarly for the number 4,622. A much later advance was the development of the idea that 0 can be considered as a number, with its own numeral. The use of a 0 digit in place-value notation dates back as early as 700 BC by the Babylonians, the Olmec and Maya civilizations used 0 as a separate number as early as the 1st century BC, but this usage did not spread beyond Mesoamerica. The use of a numeral 0 in modern times originated with the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628, the first systematic study of numbers as abstractions is usually credited to the Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Archimedes. Some Greek mathematicians treated the number 1 differently than larger numbers, independent studies also occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica. In 19th century Europe, there was mathematical and philosophical discussion about the nature of the natural numbers. A school of Naturalism stated that the numbers were a direct consequence of the human psyche. Henri Poincaré was one of its advocates, as was Leopold Kronecker who summarized God made the integers, in opposition to the Naturalists, the constructivists saw a need to improve the logical rigor in the foundations of mathematics. In the 1860s, Hermann Grassmann suggested a recursive definition for natural numbers thus stating they were not really natural, later, two classes of such formal definitions were constructed, later, they were shown to be equivalent in most practical applications. The second class of definitions was introduced by Giuseppe Peano and is now called Peano arithmetic and it is based on an axiomatization of the properties of ordinal numbers, each natural number has a successor and every non-zero natural number has a unique predecessor. Peano arithmetic is equiconsistent with several systems of set theory
4.
Divisor
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In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some other integer to produce n. In this case one says also that n is a multiple of m, an integer n is divisible by another integer m if m is a divisor of n, this implies dividing n by m leaves no remainder. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 holds for every m, as before, but with the additional constraint k ≠0. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 does not hold for m ≠0, in the remainder of this article, which definition is applied is indicated where this is significant. Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4, they are 1,2,4, −1, −2, and −4,1 and −1 divide every integer. Every integer is a divisor of itself, every integer is a divisor of 0. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd,1, −1, n and −n are known as the trivial divisors of n. A divisor of n that is not a divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor. A non-zero integer with at least one divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1. There are divisibility rules which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the numbers digits, the generalization can be said to be the concept of divisibility in any integral domain. 7 is a divisor of 42 because 7 ×6 =42 and it can also be said that 42 is divisible by 7,42 is a multiple of 7,7 divides 42, or 7 is a factor of 42. The non-trivial divisors of 6 are 2, −2,3, the positive divisors of 42 are 1,2,3,6,7,14,21,42. 5 ∣0, because 5 ×0 =0, if a ∣ b and b ∣ a, then a = b or a = − b. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ holds, however, if a ∣ b and c ∣ b, then ∣ b does not always hold. If a ∣ b c, and gcd =1, then a ∣ c, if p is a prime number and p ∣ a b then p ∣ a or p ∣ b. A positive divisor of n which is different from n is called a proper divisor or a part of n. A number that does not evenly divide n but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of n, an integer n >1 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number
5.
24 (number)
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24 is the natural number following 23 and preceding 25. The SI prefix for 1024 is yotta, and for 10−24 yocto and these numbers are the largest and smallest number to receive an SI prefix to date. In a 24-hour clock, the hour is in conventional language called twelve or twelve oclock. 24 is the factorial of 4 and a number, being the first number of the form 23q. It follows that 24 is the number of ways to order 4 distinct items and it is the smallest number with exactly eight divisors,1,2,3,4,6,8,12, and 24. It is a composite number, having more divisors than any smaller number. 24 is a number, since adding up all the proper divisors of 24 except 4 and 8 gives 24. Subtracting 1 from any of its divisors yields a number,24 is the largest number with this property. 24 has a sum of 36 and the aliquot sequence. It is therefore the lowest abundant number whose aliquot sum is itself abundant, the aliquot sum of only one number,529 =232, is 24. There are 10 solutions to the equation φ =24, namely 35,39,45,52,56,70,72,78,84 and 90 and this is more than any integer below 24, making 24 a highly totient number. 24 is the sum of the prime twins 11 and 13, the product of any four consecutive numbers is divisible by 24. This is because among any four consecutive numbers there must be two numbers, one of which is a multiple of four, and there must be a multiple of three. The tesseract has 24 two-dimensional faces,24 is the only nontrivial solution to the cannonball problem, that is,12 +22 +32 + … +242 is a perfect square. In 24 dimensions there are 24 even positive definite unimodular lattices, the Leech lattice is closely related to the equally nice length-24 binary Golay code and the Steiner system S and the Mathieu group M24. The modular discriminant Δ is proportional to the 24th power of the Dedekind eta function η, Δ = 12η24, the Barnes-Wall lattice contains 24 lattices. 24 is the number whose divisors — namely 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 — are exactly those numbers n for which every invertible element of the commutative ring Z/nZ is a square root of 1. It follows that the multiplicative group × = is isomorphic to the additive group 3 and this fact plays a role in monstrous moonshine
6.
40 (number)
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Despite being related to the word four, the modern spelling of 40 is forty. The archaic form fourty is now considered a misspelling, the modern spelling possibly reflects a pronunciation change due to the horse–hoarse merger. Forty is a number, an octagonal number, and as the sum of the first four pentagonal numbers. Adding up some subsets of its divisors gives 40, hence 40 is a semiperfect number, given 40, the Mertens function returns 0. 40 is the smallest number n with exactly 9 solutions to the equation φ = n, Forty is the number of n-queens problem solutions for n =7. Since 402 +1 =1601 is prime,40 is a Størmer number,40 is a repdigit in base 3 and a Harshad number in base 10. Negative forty is the temperature at which the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales correspond. It is referred to as either minus forty or forty below, the planet Venus forms a pentagram in the night sky every eight years with it returning to its original point every 40 years with a 40-day regression. The duration of Saros series 40 was 1280.1 years, lunar eclipse series which began on -1387 February 12 and ended on -71 April 12. The duration of Saros series 40 was 1316.2 years, the number 40 is used in Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and other Middle Eastern traditions to represent a large, approximate number, similar to umpteen. In the Hebrew Bible, forty is often used for periods, forty days or forty years. Rain fell for forty days and forty nights during the Flood, spies explored the land of Israel for forty days. The Hebrew people lived in the Sinai desert for forty years and this period of years represents the time it takes for a new generation to arise. Moses life is divided into three 40-year segments, separated by his growing to adulthood, fleeing from Egypt, and his return to lead his people out, several Jewish leaders and kings are said to have ruled for forty years, that is, a generation. Examples include Eli, Saul, David, and Solomon, goliath challenged the Israelites twice a day for forty days before David defeated him. He went up on the day of Tammuz to beg forgiveness for the peoples sin. He went up on the first day of Elul and came down on the day of Tishrei. A mikvah consists of 40 seah of water 40 lashes is one of the punishments meted out by the Sanhedrin, One of the prerequisites for a man to study Kabbalah is that he is forty years old
7.
88 (number)
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88 is the natural number following 87 and preceding 89. An Erdős–Woods number, since it is possible to find sequences of 88 consecutive integers such that each member shares a factor with either the first or the last member. A palindromic number in bases 5,10,21, and 43, a repdigit in bases 10,21 and 43. The atomic number of the element radium, the number of constellations in the sky as defined by the International Astronomical Union. Messier object M88, a magnitude 11.0 spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices, the New General Catalogue object NGC88, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Phoenix, and a member of Roberts Quartet. Space Shuttle Mission 88, launched and completed in December,1998, the Saros number of the solar eclipse series which began on -246 October 6 and ended on 1233 March. The duration of Saros series 88 was 1478.4 years, further, the Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which began on 38 July and ended on 1336 August. The duration of Saros series 88 was 1298.1 years, approximately the number of days it takes Mercury to complete its orbit. Number 88 symbolizes fortune and good luck in Chinese culture, since the word 8 sounds similar to the word fā, the number 8 is considered to be the luckiest number in Chinese culture, and prices in Chinese supermarkets often contain many 8s. The shape of the Chinese character for 8 implies that a person will have a great, wide future as the character starts narrow, the Chinese government has been auctioning auto license plates containing many 8s for tens of thousands of dollars. The 2008 Beijing Olympics opened on 8/8/08 at 8 p. m, in amateur radio,88 is used as shorthand for love and kisses when signing a message or ending an exchange. It is used in word, Morse code, and in various digital modes. It is considered more intimate than 73, which means best regards. The two may be used together, sometimes either expression is pluralized by appending an -s. These number codes originate with the 92 Code adopted by Western Union in 1859, neo-Nazis use the number 88 as an abbreviation for the Nazi salute Heil Hitler. The letter H is eighth in the alphabet, whereby 88 becomes HH, often, this number is associated with the number 14, e. g. 14/88, 14-88, or 1488, this number symbolizes the Fourteen Words coined by David Lane, a prominent white nationalist. Example uses of 88 include the song 88 Rock n Roll Band by Landser, currently, the Michigan-based ANP uses 14 in its domain name and 88 as part of a radio sign-off. Professional golfer Kathy Whitworth, throughout her career won 88 LPGA Tour tournaments
8.
Journal of Number Theory
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The Journal of Number Theory is a mathematics journal that publishes a broad spectrum of original research in number theory. The journal was established in 1969 by R. P. Bambah, P. Roquette, A. Ross, A. Woods and it is currently published monthly by Elsevier, with 6 volumes per year
9.
Richard K. Guy
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Richard Kenneth Guy is a British mathematician, professor emeritus in the Department of Mathematics at the University of Calgary. He is known for his work in theory, geometry, recreational mathematics, combinatorics. He is best known for co-authorship of Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays and he has also published over 300 papers. For this paper he received the MAA Lester R. Ford Award, Guy was born 30 Sept 1916 in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England, to Adeline Augusta Tanner and William Alexander Charles Guy. Both of his parents were teachers, rising to the rank of headmistress and headmaster and he attended Warwick School for Boys, the third oldest school in Britain, but was not enthusiastic about most of the curriculum. He was good at sports, however, and excelled in mathematics, at the age of 17 he read Dicksons History of the Theory of Numbers. He said it was better than the works of Shakespeare. By then he had developed a passion for mountain climbing. In 1935 Guy entered Gonville and Caius College, at the University of Cambridge as a result of winning several scholarships, to win the most important of these he had to travel to Cambridge and write exams for two days. His interest in games began while at Cambridge where he became a composer of chess problems. In 1938, he graduated with an honours degree, he himself thinks that his failure to get a first may have been related to his obsession with chess. Although his parents advised against it, Guy decided to become a teacher. He met his future wife Nancy Louise Thirian through her brother Michael who was a fellow scholarship winner at Gonville and he and Louise shared loves of mountains and dancing. He wooed her through correspondence, and they married in December 1940, in November 1942, Guy received an emergency commission in the Meteorological Branch of the Royal Air Force, with the rank of flight lieutenant. He was posted to Reykjavik, and later to Bermuda, as a meteorologist and he tried to get permission for Louise to join him but was refused. While in Iceland, he did some glacier travel, skiing and mountain climbing, marking the beginning of another love affair. When Guy returned to England after the war, he went back to teaching, this time at Stockport Grammar School, in 1947 the family moved to London, where he got a job teaching math at Goldsmiths College. In 1951 he moved to Singapore, where he taught at the University of Malaya for the next decade and he then spent a few years at the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi, India
