1.
Cuisenaire rod
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In the early 1950s, Caleb Gattegno popularised this set of coloured number rods created by the Belgian primary school teacher Georges Cuisenaire, who called the rods réglettes. They became very good at traditional arithmetic when they were allowed to manipulate the rods, in 1952 he published Les nombres en couleurs, Numbers in Color, which outlined their use. Cuisenaire, a player, taught music as well as arithmetic in the primary school in Thuin. He wondered why children found it easy and enjoyable to pick up a tune and these comparisons with music and its representation led Cuisenaire to experiment in 1931 with a set of ten rods sawn out of wood, with lengths from 1 cm to 10 cm. He painted each length of rod a different colour and began to use these in his teaching of arithmetic, at this sight, all other impressions of the surrounding vanished, to be replaced by a growing excitement. Gattegno named the rods Cuisenaire rods and began trialing and popularizing them, while of course the material has found an important place in myriad teacher-centered lessons, Gattegnos student-centered practice inspired a number of educators. For instance, the French-Canadian educator Madeleine Goutard in her 1963 Mathematics and Children, wrote and he is the one who reveals the child to himself by making him more conscious of, and more creative with his own mind. We find everything out for ourselves, Gattegno formed the Cuisenaire Company in Reading, England in 1954 and, by the end of the 1950s, Cuisenaire rods had been adopted by teachers in 10,000 schools in more than a hundred countries. The rods received wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in 2000, the United States-based company Educational Teaching Aids acquired the US Cuisenaire Company and formed ETA/Cuisenaire to sell Cuisenaire rods-related material. In 2004, Cuisenaire rods were featured in an exhibition of paintings, though primarily used for mathematics, they have also become popular in language-teaching classrooms, particularly The Silent Way. In her first school, and in schools since then, Maria Montessori used coloured rods in the classroom to teach concepts of mathematics and length. This is possibly the first instance of coloured rods being used in the classroom for this purpose, catherine Stern also devised a set of coloured rods produced by staining wood with aesthetically pleasing colours. In 1961 Seton Pollock produced the Colour Factor system, consisting of rods from lengths 1 to 12 cm, based on the work of Cuisenaire and Gattegno, he had invented a unified system for logically assigning a color to any number. After white, the colors red, blue and yellow are assigned to the first three primes. Higher primes are associated with darkening shades of grey, the colors of non-prime numbers are obtained by mixing the colors associated with their factors – this is the key concept. The aesthetic and numerically comprehensive Color Factor system was marketed for years by Setons family, before being conveyed to Edward Arnold
2.
Number theory
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Number theory or, in older usage, arithmetic is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers. It is sometimes called The Queen of Mathematics because of its place in the discipline. Number theorists study prime numbers as well as the properties of objects out of integers or defined as generalizations of the integers. Integers can be considered either in themselves or as solutions to equations, questions in number theory are often best understood through the study of analytical objects that encode properties of the integers, primes or other number-theoretic objects in some fashion. One may also study real numbers in relation to rational numbers, the older term for number theory is arithmetic. By the early century, it had been superseded by number theory. The use of the arithmetic for number theory regained some ground in the second half of the 20th century. In particular, arithmetical is preferred as an adjective to number-theoretic. The first historical find of a nature is a fragment of a table. The triples are too many and too large to have been obtained by brute force, the heading over the first column reads, The takiltum of the diagonal which has been subtracted such that the width. The tables layout suggests that it was constructed by means of what amounts, in language, to the identity 2 +1 =2. If some other method was used, the triples were first constructed and then reordered by c / a, presumably for use as a table. It is not known what these applications may have been, or whether there could have any, Babylonian astronomy, for example. It has been suggested instead that the table was a source of examples for school problems. While Babylonian number theory—or what survives of Babylonian mathematics that can be called thus—consists of this single, striking fragment, late Neoplatonic sources state that Pythagoras learned mathematics from the Babylonians. Much earlier sources state that Thales and Pythagoras traveled and studied in Egypt, Euclid IX 21—34 is very probably Pythagorean, it is very simple material, but it is all that is needed to prove that 2 is irrational. Pythagorean mystics gave great importance to the odd and the even, the discovery that 2 is irrational is credited to the early Pythagoreans. This forced a distinction between numbers, on the one hand, and lengths and proportions, on the other hand, the Pythagorean tradition spoke also of so-called polygonal or figurate numbers
3.
Natural number
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In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting and ordering. In common language, words used for counting are cardinal numbers, texts that exclude zero from the natural numbers sometimes refer to the natural numbers together with zero as the whole numbers, but in other writings, that term is used instead for the integers. These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded in the number systems. Properties of the numbers, such as divisibility and the distribution of prime numbers, are studied in number theory. Problems concerning counting and ordering, such as partitioning and enumerations, are studied in combinatorics, the most primitive method of representing a natural number is to put down a mark for each object. Later, a set of objects could be tested for equality, excess or shortage, by striking out a mark, the first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers. This allowed systems to be developed for recording large numbers, the ancient Egyptians developed a powerful system of numerals with distinct hieroglyphs for 1,10, and all the powers of 10 up to over 1 million. A stone carving from Karnak, dating from around 1500 BC and now at the Louvre in Paris, depicts 276 as 2 hundreds,7 tens, and 6 ones, and similarly for the number 4,622. A much later advance was the development of the idea that 0 can be considered as a number, with its own numeral. The use of a 0 digit in place-value notation dates back as early as 700 BC by the Babylonians, the Olmec and Maya civilizations used 0 as a separate number as early as the 1st century BC, but this usage did not spread beyond Mesoamerica. The use of a numeral 0 in modern times originated with the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628, the first systematic study of numbers as abstractions is usually credited to the Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Archimedes. Some Greek mathematicians treated the number 1 differently than larger numbers, independent studies also occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica. In 19th century Europe, there was mathematical and philosophical discussion about the nature of the natural numbers. A school of Naturalism stated that the numbers were a direct consequence of the human psyche. Henri Poincaré was one of its advocates, as was Leopold Kronecker who summarized God made the integers, in opposition to the Naturalists, the constructivists saw a need to improve the logical rigor in the foundations of mathematics. In the 1860s, Hermann Grassmann suggested a recursive definition for natural numbers thus stating they were not really natural, later, two classes of such formal definitions were constructed, later, they were shown to be equivalent in most practical applications. The second class of definitions was introduced by Giuseppe Peano and is now called Peano arithmetic and it is based on an axiomatization of the properties of ordinal numbers, each natural number has a successor and every non-zero natural number has a unique predecessor. Peano arithmetic is equiconsistent with several systems of set theory
4.
Divisor
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In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some other integer to produce n. In this case one says also that n is a multiple of m, an integer n is divisible by another integer m if m is a divisor of n, this implies dividing n by m leaves no remainder. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 holds for every m, as before, but with the additional constraint k ≠0. Under this definition, the statement m ∣0 does not hold for m ≠0, in the remainder of this article, which definition is applied is indicated where this is significant. Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4, they are 1,2,4, −1, −2, and −4,1 and −1 divide every integer. Every integer is a divisor of itself, every integer is a divisor of 0. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd,1, −1, n and −n are known as the trivial divisors of n. A divisor of n that is not a divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor. A non-zero integer with at least one divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1. There are divisibility rules which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the numbers digits, the generalization can be said to be the concept of divisibility in any integral domain. 7 is a divisor of 42 because 7 ×6 =42 and it can also be said that 42 is divisible by 7,42 is a multiple of 7,7 divides 42, or 7 is a factor of 42. The non-trivial divisors of 6 are 2, −2,3, the positive divisors of 42 are 1,2,3,6,7,14,21,42. 5 ∣0, because 5 ×0 =0, if a ∣ b and b ∣ a, then a = b or a = − b. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c, then a ∣ holds, however, if a ∣ b and c ∣ b, then ∣ b does not always hold. If a ∣ b c, and gcd =1, then a ∣ c, if p is a prime number and p ∣ a b then p ∣ a or p ∣ b. A positive divisor of n which is different from n is called a proper divisor or a part of n. A number that does not evenly divide n but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of n, an integer n >1 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number
5.
Perfect number
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In number theory, a perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of its positive divisors excluding the number itself. Equivalently, a number is a number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors i. e. σ1 = 2n. This definition is ancient, appearing as early as Euclids Elements where it is called τέλειος ἀριθμός. Euclid also proved a formation rule whereby q /2 is a perfect number whenever q is a prime of the form 2 p −1 for prime p —what is now called a Mersenne prime. Much later, Euler proved that all even numbers are of this form. This is known as the Euclid–Euler theorem and it is not known whether there are any odd perfect numbers, nor whether infinitely many perfect numbers exist. The first perfect number is 6 and its proper divisors are 1,2, and 3, and 1 +2 +3 =6. Equivalently, the number 6 is equal to half the sum of all its positive divisors, the next perfect number is 28 =1 +2 +4 +7 +14. This is followed by the perfect numbers 496 and 8128, in about 300 BC Euclid showed that if 2p−1 is prime then 2p−1 is perfect. The first four numbers were the only ones known to early Greek mathematics. Philo of Alexandria in his first-century book On the creation mentions perfect numbers, claiming that the world was created in 6 days and the moon orbits in 28 days because 6 and 28 are perfect. Philo is followed by Origen, and by Didymus the Blind, st Augustine defines perfect numbers in City of God in the early 5th century AD, repeating the claim that God created the world in 6 days because 6 is the smallest perfect number. The Egyptian mathematician Ismail ibn Fallūs mentioned the next three numbers and listed a few more which are now known to be incorrect. Euclid proved that 2p−1 is a perfect number whenever 2p −1 is prime. Prime numbers of the form 2p −1 are known as Mersenne primes, after the seventeenth-century monk Marin Mersenne, for 2p −1 to be prime, it is necessary that p itself be prime. However, not all numbers of the form 2p −1 with a prime p are prime, in fact, Mersenne primes are very rare—of the 9,592 prime numbers p less than 100,000, 2p −1 is prime for only 28 of them. Nicomachus conjectured that every number is of the form 2p−1 where 2p −1 is prime. Ibn al-Haytham circa 1000 AD conjectured that every perfect number is of that form
6.
6 (number)
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6 is the natural number following 5 and preceding 7. The SI prefix for 10006 is exa-, and for its reciprocal atto-,6 is the smallest positive integer which is neither a square number nor a prime number. Six is the second smallest composite number, its proper divisors are 1,2 and 3, since six equals the sum of its proper divisors, six is the smallest perfect number, Granville number, and S -perfect number. As a perfect number,6 is related to the Mersenne prime 3,6 is the only even perfect number that is not the sum of successive odd cubes. As a perfect number,6 is the root of the 6-aliquot tree, and is itself the sum of only one number. Six is the number that is both the sum and the product of three consecutive positive numbers. Unrelated to 6 being a number, a Golomb ruler of length 6 is a perfect ruler. Six is the first discrete biprime and the first member of the discrete biprime family, Six is the smallest natural number that can be written as the sum of two positive rational cubes which are not integers,6 =3 +3. Six is a perfect number, a harmonic divisor number and a superior highly composite number. The next superior highly composite number is 12,5 and 6 form a Ruth-Aaron pair under either definition. There are no Graeco-Latin squares with order 6, if n is a natural number that is not 2 or 6, then there is a Graeco-Latin square with order n. The smallest non-abelian group is the symmetric group S3 which has 3, s6, with 720 elements, is the only finite symmetric group which has an outer automorphism. This automorphism allows us to construct a number of mathematical objects such as the S Steiner system, the projective plane of order 4. This can also be expressed category theoretically, consider the category whose objects are the n element sets and this category has a non-trivial functor to itself only for n =6. 6 similar coins can be arranged around a central coin of the radius so that each coin makes contact with the central one. This makes 6 the answer to the kissing number problem. The densest sphere packing of the plane is obtained by extending this pattern to the lattice in which each circle touches just six others. 6 is the largest of the four all-Harshad numbers, a six-sided polygon is a hexagon, one of the three regular polygons capable of tiling the plane
7.
12 (number)
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12 is the natural number following 11 and preceding 13. The product of the first three factorials, twelve is a highly composite number, divisible by 2,3,4. It is central to systems of counting, including the Western calendar and units of time. The word twelve is the largest number with a name in English. Such uses gradually disappeared with the introduction of Arabic numerals during the 12th-century Renaissance and it derives from the Old English twelf and tuelf, first attested in the 10th-century Lindisfarne Gospels Book of John. It has cognates in every Germanic language, whose Proto-Germanic ancestor has been reconstructed as *twaliƀi, from *twa and suffix *-lif- or *-liƀ- of uncertain meaning. It is sometimes compared with the Lithuanian dvýlika, although -lika is used as the suffix for all numbers from 11 to 19, every other Indo-European language instead uses a form of two+ten, such as the Latin duōdecim. The usual ordinal form is twelfth but dozenth or duodecimal is also used in some contexts, similarly, a group of twelve things is usually a dozen but may also be referred to as a duodecad. The adjective referring to a group of twelve is duodecuple, as with eleven, the earliest forms of twelve are often considered to be connected with Proto-Germanic *liƀan or *liƀan, with the implicit meaning that two is left after having already counted to ten. The Lithuanian suffix is also considered to share a similar development, the suffix *-lif- has also been connected with reconstructions of the Proto-Germanic for ten. While, as mentioned above,12 has its own name in Germanic languages such as English and German, it is a number in many other languages, e. g. Italian dodici. In Germany, according to an old tradition, the numbers 0 through 12 were spelt out, the Duden now calls this tradition outdated and no longer valid, but many writers still follow it. Another system spells out all numbers written in one or two words, Twelve is a composite number, the smallest number with exactly six divisors, its divisors being 1,2,3,4,6 and 12. Twelve is also a composite number, the next one being twenty-four. Twelve is also a highly composite number, the next one being sixty. It is the first composite number of the form p2q, a square-prime,12 has an aliquot sum of 16. Accordingly,12 is the first abundant number and demonstrates an 8-member aliquot sequence,12 is the 3rd composite number in the 3-aliquot tree, the only number which has 12 as its aliquot sum is the square 121. Only 2 other square primes are abundant, Twelve is a sublime number, a number that has a perfect number of divisors, and the sum of its divisors is also a perfect number
8.
20 (number)
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20 is the natural number following 19 and preceding 21. A group of twenty units may also be referred to as a score,20 is a tetrahedral number as 1,4,10,20. 20 is the basis for vigesimal number systems,20 is the third composite number comprising the product of a squared prime and a prime, and also the second member of the q family in this form. 20 has a sum of 22. Accordingly,20 is the abundant number and demonstrates an 8-member aliquot sequence. 20 is the smallest primitive abundant number,20 is the 4th composite number in the 7-aliquot tree. Two numbers have 20 as their sum, the discrete semiprime 34. Only 2 other square primes are abundant 12 and 18,20 can be written as the sum of three Fibonacci numbers uniquely, i. e.20 =13 +5 +2. The product of the number of divisors and the number of divisors of 20 is exactly 20. 20 is the number of required to optimally solve a Rubiks Cube in the worst case. 20 is the number with more than one digit that can be written from base 2 to base 20 using only the digits 0 to 9. The third magic number in physics, the IAU shower number for Coma Berenicids. The number of amino acids that are encoded by the standard genetic code. In some countries, the number 20 is used as an index in measuring visual acuity, 20/20 indicates normal vision at 20 feet, although it is commonly used to mean perfect vision. When someone is able to see only after an event how things turned out, the Baltimore Orioles and Cincinnati Reds, both for Hall of Famer Frank Robinson. The Kansas City Royals, for Frank White, the Los Angeles Dodgers, for Hall of Famer Don Sutton. The Philadelphia Phillies, for Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt, the Pittsburgh Pirates, for Hall of Famer Pie Traynor. The St. Louis Cardinals, for Hall of Famer Lou Brock, the San Francisco Giants, for Hall of Famer Monte Irvin, who played for the team when it was the New York Giants
9.
24 (number)
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24 is the natural number following 23 and preceding 25. The SI prefix for 1024 is yotta, and for 10−24 yocto and these numbers are the largest and smallest number to receive an SI prefix to date. In a 24-hour clock, the hour is in conventional language called twelve or twelve oclock. 24 is the factorial of 4 and a number, being the first number of the form 23q. It follows that 24 is the number of ways to order 4 distinct items and it is the smallest number with exactly eight divisors,1,2,3,4,6,8,12, and 24. It is a composite number, having more divisors than any smaller number. 24 is a number, since adding up all the proper divisors of 24 except 4 and 8 gives 24. Subtracting 1 from any of its divisors yields a number,24 is the largest number with this property. 24 has a sum of 36 and the aliquot sequence. It is therefore the lowest abundant number whose aliquot sum is itself abundant, the aliquot sum of only one number,529 =232, is 24. There are 10 solutions to the equation φ =24, namely 35,39,45,52,56,70,72,78,84 and 90 and this is more than any integer below 24, making 24 a highly totient number. 24 is the sum of the prime twins 11 and 13, the product of any four consecutive numbers is divisible by 24. This is because among any four consecutive numbers there must be two numbers, one of which is a multiple of four, and there must be a multiple of three. The tesseract has 24 two-dimensional faces,24 is the only nontrivial solution to the cannonball problem, that is,12 +22 +32 + … +242 is a perfect square. In 24 dimensions there are 24 even positive definite unimodular lattices, the Leech lattice is closely related to the equally nice length-24 binary Golay code and the Steiner system S and the Mathieu group M24. The modular discriminant Δ is proportional to the 24th power of the Dedekind eta function η, Δ = 12η24, the Barnes-Wall lattice contains 24 lattices. 24 is the number whose divisors — namely 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 — are exactly those numbers n for which every invertible element of the commutative ring Z/nZ is a square root of 1. It follows that the multiplicative group × = is isomorphic to the additive group 3 and this fact plays a role in monstrous moonshine
10.
30 (number)
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30 is the natural number following 29 and preceding 31. Thirty is the sum of the first four squares, which makes it a square pyramidal number and it is a primorial and is the smallest Giuga number. 30 is the smallest sphenic number, and the smallest of the form 2 ×3 × r,30 has an aliquot sum of 42, the second sphenic number and all sphenic numbers of this form have an aliquot sum 12 greater than themselves. The aliquot sequence of 30 is 16 members long, it comprises Thirty has but one number for which it is the aliquot sum, adding up some subsets of its divisors gives 30, hence 30 is a semiperfect number. 30 is the largest number such that all smaller than itself. A polygon with thirty sides is called a triacontagon, the icosahedron and the dodecahedron are Platonic solids with 30 edges. The icosidodecahedron is an Archimedean solid with 30 vertices, and the Tutte–Coxeter graph is a graph with 30 vertices. The atomic number of zinc is 30 Messier object M30, a magnitude 8, the duration of Saros series 30 was 1496.5 years, and it contained 84 solar eclipses. Further, the Saros number of the lunar eclipse series began on June 19,1803 BC. The duration of Saros series 30 was 1316.2 years, Thirty is, Used to indicate the end of a newspaper story, a copy editors typographical notation. S. Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus for 30 pieces of silver, one of the rallying-cries of the 1960s student/youth protest movement was the slogan, Dont trust anyone over thirty. In Franz Kafkas novel The Trial Joseph wakes up on the morning of his birthday to find himself under arrest for an unspecified crime. After making many attempts to find the nature of the crime or the name of his accuser. The number of uprights that formed the Sarsen Circle at Stonehenge, western Christianitys most prolific 20th century essayist, F. W. Also in that essay Boreham writes It was said of Keats, in tennis, the number 30 represents the second point gained in a game. Under NCAA rules for basketball, the offensive team has 30 seconds to attempt a shot. As of 2012, three of the four major leagues in the United States and Canada have 30 teams each. The California Angels baseball team retired the number in honor of its most notable wearer, Nolan Ryan, the San Francisco Giants extended the same honor to Orlando Cepeda
11.
40 (number)
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Despite being related to the word four, the modern spelling of 40 is forty. The archaic form fourty is now considered a misspelling, the modern spelling possibly reflects a pronunciation change due to the horse–hoarse merger. Forty is a number, an octagonal number, and as the sum of the first four pentagonal numbers. Adding up some subsets of its divisors gives 40, hence 40 is a semiperfect number, given 40, the Mertens function returns 0. 40 is the smallest number n with exactly 9 solutions to the equation φ = n, Forty is the number of n-queens problem solutions for n =7. Since 402 +1 =1601 is prime,40 is a Størmer number,40 is a repdigit in base 3 and a Harshad number in base 10. Negative forty is the temperature at which the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales correspond. It is referred to as either minus forty or forty below, the planet Venus forms a pentagram in the night sky every eight years with it returning to its original point every 40 years with a 40-day regression. The duration of Saros series 40 was 1280.1 years, lunar eclipse series which began on -1387 February 12 and ended on -71 April 12. The duration of Saros series 40 was 1316.2 years, the number 40 is used in Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and other Middle Eastern traditions to represent a large, approximate number, similar to umpteen. In the Hebrew Bible, forty is often used for periods, forty days or forty years. Rain fell for forty days and forty nights during the Flood, spies explored the land of Israel for forty days. The Hebrew people lived in the Sinai desert for forty years and this period of years represents the time it takes for a new generation to arise. Moses life is divided into three 40-year segments, separated by his growing to adulthood, fleeing from Egypt, and his return to lead his people out, several Jewish leaders and kings are said to have ruled for forty years, that is, a generation. Examples include Eli, Saul, David, and Solomon, goliath challenged the Israelites twice a day for forty days before David defeated him. He went up on the day of Tammuz to beg forgiveness for the peoples sin. He went up on the first day of Elul and came down on the day of Tishrei. A mikvah consists of 40 seah of water 40 lashes is one of the punishments meted out by the Sanhedrin, One of the prerequisites for a man to study Kabbalah is that he is forty years old
12.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
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The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, also cited simply as Sloanes, is an online database of integer sequences. It was created and maintained by Neil Sloane while a researcher at AT&T Labs, Sloane continues to be involved in the OEIS in his role as President of the OEIS Foundation. OEIS records information on integer sequences of interest to professional mathematicians and amateurs, and is widely cited. As of 30 December 2016 it contains nearly 280,000 sequences, the database is searchable by keyword and by subsequence. Neil Sloane started collecting integer sequences as a student in 1965 to support his work in combinatorics. The database was at first stored on punched cards and he published selections from the database in book form twice, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, containing 2,372 sequences in lexicographic order and assigned numbers from 1 to 2372. The Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences with Simon Plouffe, containing 5,488 sequences and these books were well received and, especially after the second publication, mathematicians supplied Sloane with a steady flow of new sequences. The collection became unmanageable in book form, and when the database had reached 16,000 entries Sloane decided to go online—first as an e-mail service, as a spin-off from the database work, Sloane founded the Journal of Integer Sequences in 1998. The database continues to grow at a rate of some 10,000 entries a year, Sloane has personally managed his sequences for almost 40 years, but starting in 2002, a board of associate editors and volunteers has helped maintain the database. In 2004, Sloane celebrated the addition of the 100, 000th sequence to the database, A100000, in 2006, the user interface was overhauled and more advanced search capabilities were added. In 2010 an OEIS wiki at OEIS. org was created to simplify the collaboration of the OEIS editors and contributors, besides integer sequences, the OEIS also catalogs sequences of fractions, the digits of transcendental numbers, complex numbers and so on by transforming them into integer sequences. Sequences of rationals are represented by two sequences, the sequence of numerators and the sequence of denominators, important irrational numbers such as π =3.1415926535897. are catalogued under representative integer sequences such as decimal expansions, binary expansions, or continued fraction expansions. The OEIS was limited to plain ASCII text until 2011, yet it still uses a form of conventional mathematical notation. Greek letters are represented by their full names, e. g. mu for μ. Every sequence is identified by the letter A followed by six digits, sometimes referred to without the leading zeros, individual terms of sequences are separated by commas. Digit groups are not separated by commas, periods, or spaces, a represents the nth term of the sequence. Zero is often used to represent non-existent sequence elements, for example, A104157 enumerates the smallest prime of n² consecutive primes to form an n×n magic square of least magic constant, or 0 if no such magic square exists. The value of a is 2, a is 1480028129, but there is no such 2×2 magic square, so a is 0
13.
Prime number
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A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a number is called a composite number. For example,5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors, the property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a number n is known as trial division. It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and n, algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of January 2016, the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits, there are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. There is no simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, many questions regarding prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbachs conjecture, and the twin prime conjecture. Such questions spurred the development of branches of number theory. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements. A natural number is called a number if it has exactly two positive divisors,1 and the number itself. Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite, among the numbers 1 to 6, the numbers 2,3, and 5 are the prime numbers, while 1,4, and 6 are not prime. 1 is excluded as a number, for reasons explained below. 2 is a number, since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2. Next,3 is prime, too,1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder, however,4 is composite, since 2 is another number dividing 4 without remainder,4 =2 ·2. 5 is again prime, none of the numbers 2,3, next,6 is divisible by 2 or 3, since 6 =2 ·3. The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime,12 =3 ·4, no even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition, any such number n has at least three distinct divisors, namely 1,2, and n
14.
Mersenne prime
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In mathematics, a Mersenne prime is a prime number that is one less than a power of two. That is, it is a number that can be written in the form Mn = 2n −1 for some integer n. They are named after Marin Mersenne, a French Minim friar, the first four Mersenne primes are 3,7,31, and 127. If n is a number then so is 2n −1. The definition is therefore unchanged when written Mp = 2p −1 where p is assumed prime, more generally, numbers of the form Mn = 2n −1 without the primality requirement are called Mersenne numbers. The smallest composite pernicious Mersenne number is 211 −1 =2047 =23 ×89, Mersenne primes Mp are also noteworthy due to their connection to perfect numbers. As of January 2016,49 Mersenne primes are known, the largest known prime number 274,207,281 −1 is a Mersenne prime. Since 1997, all newly found Mersenne primes have been discovered by the “Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search”, many fundamental questions about Mersenne primes remain unresolved. It is not even whether the set of Mersenne primes is finite or infinite. The Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture asserts that there are infinitely many Mersenne primes,23 | M11,47 | M23,167 | M83,263 | M131,359 | M179,383 | M191,479 | M239, and 503 | M251. Since for these primes p, 2p +1 is congruent to 7 mod 8, so 2 is a quadratic residue mod 2p +1, since p is a prime, it must be p or 1. The first four Mersenne primes are M2 =3, M3 =7, M5 =31, a basic theorem about Mersenne numbers states that if Mp is prime, then the exponent p must also be prime. This follows from the identity 2 a b −1 = ⋅ = ⋅ and this rules out primality for Mersenne numbers with composite exponent, such as M4 =24 −1 =15 =3 ×5 = ×. Though the above examples might suggest that Mp is prime for all p, this is not the case. The evidence at hand does suggest that a randomly selected Mersenne number is more likely to be prime than an arbitrary randomly selected odd integer of similar size. Nonetheless, prime Mp appear to grow increasingly sparse as p increases, in fact, of the 2,270,720 prime numbers p up to 37,156,667, Mp is prime for only 45 of them. The lack of any simple test to determine whether a given Mersenne number is prime makes the search for Mersenne primes a difficult task, the Lucas–Lehmer primality test is an efficient primality test that greatly aids this task. The search for the largest known prime has somewhat of a cult following, consequently, a lot of computer power has been expended searching for new Mersenne primes, much of which is now done using distributed computing
15.
Abundant number
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In number theory, an abundant number or excessive number is a number for which the sum of its proper divisors is greater than the number itself. The integer 12 is the first abundant number and its proper divisors are 1,2,3,4 and 6 for a total of 16. The amount by which the sum exceeds the number is the abundance, the number 12 has an abundance of 4, for example. A number n for which the sum of divisors σ>2n, or, equivalently, the sum of proper divisors s>n. The first 28 abundant numbers are,12,18,20,24,30,36,40,42,48,54,56,60,66,70,72,78,80,84,88,90,96,100,102,104,108,112,114,120, …. For example, the divisors of 24 are 1,2,3,4,6,8. Because 36 is more than 24, the number 24 is abundant and its abundance is 36 −24 =12. The smallest odd abundant number is 945, the smallest abundant number not divisible by 2 or by 3 is 5391411025 whose distinct prime factors are 5,7,11,13,17,19,23, and 29. An algorithm given by Iannucci in 2005 shows how to find the smallest abundant number not divisible by the first k primes. If A represents the smallest abundant number not divisible by the first k primes then for all ϵ >0 we have,2 − ϵ < ln A <2 + ϵ for sufficiently large k, infinitely many even and odd abundant numbers exist. The set of abundant numbers has a natural density, marc Deléglise showed in 1998 that the natural density of the set of abundant numbers and perfect numbers is between 0.2474 and 0.2480. Every multiple of a number is abundant. For example, every multiple of 6 is abundant because the divisors include 1, n/2, n/3, every multiple of an abundant number is abundant. For example, every multiple of 20 is abundant because n/2 + n/4 + n/5 + n/10 + n/20 = n + n/10, every integer greater than 20161 can be written as the sum of two abundant numbers. An abundant number which is not a number is called a weird number. An abundant number with abundance 1 is called a quasiperfect number, numbers whose sum of proper factors equals the number itself are called perfect numbers, while numbers whose sum of proper factors is less than the number itself are called deficient numbers. The abundancy index of n is the ratio σ/n, distinct numbers n1, n2. with the same abundancy index are called friendly numbers. The sequence of least numbers n such that σ > kn, in which a2 =12 corresponds to the first abundant number, if p = is a list of primes, then p is termed abundant if some integer composed only of primes in p is abundant
16.
Weird number
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In number theory, a weird number is a natural number that is abundant but not semiperfect. In other words, the sum of the divisors of the number is greater than the number. The smallest weird number is 70 and its proper divisors are 1,2,5,7,10,14, and 35, these sum to 74, but no subset of these sums to 70. The number 12, for example, is abundant but not weird, because the divisors of 12 are 1,2,3,4, and 6, which sum to 16. The first few numbers are 70,836,4030,5830,7192,7912,9272,10430,10570,10792,10990,11410,11690,12110,12530,12670,13370,13510,13790,13930,14770. It is easy to see that a number of weird numbers exist. For example, 70p is weird for all primes p ≥149, in fact, the set of weird numbers has positive asymptotic density. It is not known if any odd weird numbers exist, if so, they must be greater than 230 ≈ 1×109, with this formula, he found a large weird number n =256 ⋅ ⋅153722867280912929 ≈2 ⋅1052. A property of weird numbers is that if n is weird and this leads to the definition of primitive weird numbers, i. e. weird numbers that are not multiple of other weird numbers. There are only 24 primitive weird numbers smaller than a million and it is conjectured that there exist infinitely many primitive numbers, and Melfi has shown that the infiniteness of primitive weird numbers is a consequence of Cramérs conjecture
17.
Primary pseudoperfect number
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The eight known primary pseudoperfect numbers are 2,6,42,1806,47058,2214502422,52495396602,8490421583559688410706771261086. The first four of these numbers are one less than the numbers in Sylvesters sequence. It is unknown whether there are many primary pseudoperfect numbers. The prime factors of primary pseudoperfect numbers sometimes may provide solutions to Známs problem, for instance, the prime factors of the primary pseudoperfect number 47058 form the solution set to Známs problem. Anne observes that there is one solution set of this type that has k primes in it, for each k ≤8. If a primary pseudoperfect number N is one less than a prime number, for instance,47058 is primary pseudoperfect, and 47059 is prime, so 47058 ×47059 =2214502422 is also primary pseudoperfect. Primary pseudoperfect numbers were first investigated and named by Butske, Jaje and those with 2 ≤ r ≤8, when reduced modulo 288, form the arithmetic progression 6,42,78,114,150,186,222, as was observed by Sondow and MacMillan. Giuga number Anne, Premchand, Egyptian fractions and the problem, The College Mathematics Journal, Mathematical Association of America,29, 296–300, doi,10. 2307/2687685. Butske, William, Jaje, Lynda M. Mayernik, Daniel R, on the equation ∑ p | N1 p +1 N =1, pseudoperfect numbers, and perfectly weighted graphs, Mathematics of Computation,69, 407–420, doi,10. 1090/S0025-5718-99-01088-1. Weisstein, Eric W. Primary Pseudoperfect Number
18.
Practical number
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In number theory, a practical number or panarithmic number is a positive integer n such that all smaller positive integers can be represented as sums of distinct divisors of n. Practical numbers were used by Fibonacci in his Liber Abaci in connection with the problem of representing rational numbers as Egyptian fractions, Fibonacci does not formally define practical numbers, but he gives a table of Egyptian fraction expansions for fractions with practical denominators. The name practical number is due to Srinivasan and he noted that the subdivision of money, weights and measures involved numbers like 4,12,16,20 and 28 which are usually supposed to be so inconvenient as to deserve replacement by powers of 10. He rediscovered the number theoretical property of such numbers and was the first to attempt a classification of numbers that was completed by Stewart. This characterization makes it possible to determine whether a number is practical by examining its prime factorization, every even perfect number and every power of two is also a practical number. Practical numbers have also shown to be analogous with prime numbers in many of their properties. If the ordered set of all divisors of the number n is d 1, d 2. D j with d 1 =1 and d j = n, in other words the ordered sequence of all divisors d 1 < d 2 <. < d j of a number has to be a complete sub-sequence. This partial characterization was extended and completed by Stewart and Sierpiński who showed that it is straightforward to determine whether a number is practical from its prime factorization, a positive integer greater than one with prime factorization n = p 1 α1. P k α k is if and only if each of its prime factors p i is small enough for p i −1 to have a representation as a sum of smaller divisors. The condition stated above is necessary and sufficient for a number to be practical, in the other direction, the condition is sufficient, as can be shown by induction. Since q ≤ σ and n / p k α k can be shown by induction to be practical, we can find a representation of q as a sum of divisors of n / p k α k. The divisors representing r, together with p k α k times each of the divisors representing q, the only odd practical number is 1, because if n >2 is an odd number, then 2 cannot be expressed as the sum of distinct divisors of n. More strongly, Srinivasan observes that other than 1 and 2, the product of two practical numbers is also a practical number. More strongly the least common multiple of any two numbers is also a practical number. Equivalently, the set of all numbers is closed under multiplication. From the above characterization by Stewart and Sierpiński it can be seen that if n is a practical number, in the set of all practical numbers there is a primitive set of practical numbers
19.
88 (number)
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88 is the natural number following 87 and preceding 89. An Erdős–Woods number, since it is possible to find sequences of 88 consecutive integers such that each member shares a factor with either the first or the last member. A palindromic number in bases 5,10,21, and 43, a repdigit in bases 10,21 and 43. The atomic number of the element radium, the number of constellations in the sky as defined by the International Astronomical Union. Messier object M88, a magnitude 11.0 spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices, the New General Catalogue object NGC88, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Phoenix, and a member of Roberts Quartet. Space Shuttle Mission 88, launched and completed in December,1998, the Saros number of the solar eclipse series which began on -246 October 6 and ended on 1233 March. The duration of Saros series 88 was 1478.4 years, further, the Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which began on 38 July and ended on 1336 August. The duration of Saros series 88 was 1298.1 years, approximately the number of days it takes Mercury to complete its orbit. Number 88 symbolizes fortune and good luck in Chinese culture, since the word 8 sounds similar to the word fā, the number 8 is considered to be the luckiest number in Chinese culture, and prices in Chinese supermarkets often contain many 8s. The shape of the Chinese character for 8 implies that a person will have a great, wide future as the character starts narrow, the Chinese government has been auctioning auto license plates containing many 8s for tens of thousands of dollars. The 2008 Beijing Olympics opened on 8/8/08 at 8 p. m, in amateur radio,88 is used as shorthand for love and kisses when signing a message or ending an exchange. It is used in word, Morse code, and in various digital modes. It is considered more intimate than 73, which means best regards. The two may be used together, sometimes either expression is pluralized by appending an -s. These number codes originate with the 92 Code adopted by Western Union in 1859, neo-Nazis use the number 88 as an abbreviation for the Nazi salute Heil Hitler. The letter H is eighth in the alphabet, whereby 88 becomes HH, often, this number is associated with the number 14, e. g. 14/88, 14-88, or 1488, this number symbolizes the Fourteen Words coined by David Lane, a prominent white nationalist. Example uses of 88 include the song 88 Rock n Roll Band by Landser, currently, the Michigan-based ANP uses 14 in its domain name and 88 as part of a radio sign-off. Professional golfer Kathy Whitworth, throughout her career won 88 LPGA Tour tournaments
20.
Harmonic divisor number
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In mathematics, a harmonic divisor number, or Ore number, is a positive integer whose divisors have a harmonic mean that is an integer. The first few harmonic divisor numbers are 1,6,28,140,270,496,672,1638,2970,6200,8128,8190, for example, the harmonic divisor number 6 has the four divisors 1,2,3, and 6. Their harmonic mean is an integer,411 +12 +13 +16 =2, the number 140 has divisors 1,2,4,5,7,10,14,20,28,35,70, and 140. All of the terms in this formula are multiplicative, but not completely multiplicative, therefore, the harmonic mean H is also multiplicative. This means that, for any integer n, the harmonic mean H can be expressed as the product of the harmonic means for the prime powers in the factorization of n. For any integer M, as Ore observed, the product of the mean and arithmetic mean of its divisors equals M itself. Therefore, M is harmonic, with mean of divisors k, if. Ore showed that every number is harmonic. To see this, observe that the sum of the divisors of a perfect number M is exactly 2M, therefore, the average of the divisors is M, where τ denotes the number of divisors of M. For any M, τ is odd if and only if M is a square number, for otherwise each divisor d of M can be paired with a different divisor M/d. But, no perfect number can be a square, this follows from the form of even perfect numbers. Therefore, for a perfect number M, τ is even, Ore conjectured that no odd harmonic divisor numbers exist other than 1. If the conjecture is true, this would imply the nonexistence of odd perfect numbers. W. H. Mills showed that any odd harmonic divisor number above 1 must have a power factor greater than 107. Cohen & Sorli showed that there are no odd harmonic divisor numbers smaller than 1024, Cohen, Goto, and others starting with Ore himself have performed computer searches listing all small harmonic divisor numbers. From these results, lists are known of all harmonic divisor numbers up to 2×109, an Identity Concerning Averages of Divisors of a Given Integer. Numbers Whose Positive Divisors Have Small Integral Harmonic Mean, Cohen, Graeme L. Sorli, Ronald M. Odd harmonic numbers exceed 1024. On Divisors of Odd Perfect Numbers, on the averages of the divisors of a number
21.
Journal of Number Theory
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The Journal of Number Theory is a mathematics journal that publishes a broad spectrum of original research in number theory. The journal was established in 1969 by R. P. Bambah, P. Roquette, A. Ross, A. Woods and it is currently published monthly by Elsevier, with 6 volumes per year
22.
Richard K. Guy
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Richard Kenneth Guy is a British mathematician, professor emeritus in the Department of Mathematics at the University of Calgary. He is known for his work in theory, geometry, recreational mathematics, combinatorics. He is best known for co-authorship of Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays and he has also published over 300 papers. For this paper he received the MAA Lester R. Ford Award, Guy was born 30 Sept 1916 in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England, to Adeline Augusta Tanner and William Alexander Charles Guy. Both of his parents were teachers, rising to the rank of headmistress and headmaster and he attended Warwick School for Boys, the third oldest school in Britain, but was not enthusiastic about most of the curriculum. He was good at sports, however, and excelled in mathematics, at the age of 17 he read Dicksons History of the Theory of Numbers. He said it was better than the works of Shakespeare. By then he had developed a passion for mountain climbing. In 1935 Guy entered Gonville and Caius College, at the University of Cambridge as a result of winning several scholarships, to win the most important of these he had to travel to Cambridge and write exams for two days. His interest in games began while at Cambridge where he became a composer of chess problems. In 1938, he graduated with an honours degree, he himself thinks that his failure to get a first may have been related to his obsession with chess. Although his parents advised against it, Guy decided to become a teacher. He met his future wife Nancy Louise Thirian through her brother Michael who was a fellow scholarship winner at Gonville and he and Louise shared loves of mountains and dancing. He wooed her through correspondence, and they married in December 1940, in November 1942, Guy received an emergency commission in the Meteorological Branch of the Royal Air Force, with the rank of flight lieutenant. He was posted to Reykjavik, and later to Bermuda, as a meteorologist and he tried to get permission for Louise to join him but was refused. While in Iceland, he did some glacier travel, skiing and mountain climbing, marking the beginning of another love affair. When Guy returned to England after the war, he went back to teaching, this time at Stockport Grammar School, in 1947 the family moved to London, where he got a job teaching math at Goldsmiths College. In 1951 he moved to Singapore, where he taught at the University of Malaya for the next decade and he then spent a few years at the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi, India
23.
Springer Science+Business Media
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Springer also hosts a number of scientific databases, including SpringerLink, Springer Protocols, and SpringerImages. Book publications include major works, textbooks, monographs and book series. Springer has major offices in Berlin, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, on 15 January 2015, Holtzbrinck Publishing Group / Nature Publishing Group and Springer Science+Business Media announced a merger. In 1964, Springer expanded its business internationally, opening an office in New York City, offices in Tokyo, Paris, Milan, Hong Kong, and Delhi soon followed. The academic publishing company BertelsmannSpringer was formed after Bertelsmann bought a majority stake in Springer-Verlag in 1999, the British investment groups Cinven and Candover bought BertelsmannSpringer from Bertelsmann in 2003. They merged the company in 2004 with the Dutch publisher Kluwer Academic Publishers which they bought from Wolters Kluwer in 2002, Springer acquired the open-access publisher BioMed Central in October 2008 for an undisclosed amount. In 2009, Cinven and Candover sold Springer to two private equity firms, EQT Partners and Government of Singapore Investment Corporation, the closing of the sale was confirmed in February 2010 after the competition authorities in the USA and in Europe approved the transfer. In 2011, Springer acquired Pharma Marketing and Publishing Services from Wolters Kluwer, in 2013, the London-based private equity firm BC Partners acquired a majority stake in Springer from EQT and GIC for $4.4 billion. In 2014, it was revealed that Springer had published 16 fake papers in its journals that had been computer-generated using SCIgen, Springer subsequently removed all the papers from these journals. IEEE had also done the thing by removing more than 100 fake papers from its conference proceedings. In 2015, Springer retracted 64 of the papers it had published after it was found that they had gone through a fraudulent peer review process, Springer provides its electronic book and journal content on its SpringerLink site, which launched in 1996. SpringerProtocols is home to a collection of protocols, recipes which provide step-by-step instructions for conducting experiments in research labs, SpringerImages was launched in 2008 and offers a collection of currently 1.8 million images spanning science, technology, and medicine. SpringerMaterials was launched in 2009 and is a platform for accessing the Landolt-Börnstein database of research and information on materials, authorMapper is a free online tool for visualizing scientific research that enables document discovery based on author locations and geographic maps. The tool helps users explore patterns in scientific research, identify trends, discover collaborative relationships. While open-access publishing typically requires the author to pay a fee for copyright retention, for example, a national institution in Poland allows authors to publish in open-access journals without incurring any personal cost - but using public funds. Springer is a member of the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association, the Academic Publishing Industry, A Story of Merger and Acquisition – via Northern Illinois University
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
25.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
26.
Integer factorization
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In number theory, integer factorization is the decomposition of a composite number into a product of smaller integers. If these integers are further restricted to numbers, the process is called prime factorization. When the numbers are large, no efficient, non-quantum integer factorization algorithm is known. However, it has not been proven that no efficient algorithm exists, the presumed difficulty of this problem is at the heart of widely used algorithms in cryptography such as RSA. Many areas of mathematics and computer science have been brought to bear on the problem, including elliptic curves, algebraic number theory, not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. The hardest instances of these problems are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers, many cryptographic protocols are based on the difficulty of factoring large composite integers or a related problem—for example, the RSA problem. An algorithm that efficiently factors an arbitrary integer would render RSA-based public-key cryptography insecure, by the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer has a unique prime factorization. If the integer is then it can be recognized as such in polynomial time. If composite however, the theorem gives no insight into how to obtain the factors, given a general algorithm for integer factorization, any integer can be factored down to its constituent prime factors simply by repeated application of this algorithm. The situation is complicated with special-purpose factorization algorithms, whose benefits may not be realized as well or even at all with the factors produced during decomposition. For example, if N =10 × p × q where p < q are very large primes, trial division will quickly produce the factors 2 and 5 but will take p divisions to find the next factor. Among the b-bit numbers, the most difficult to factor in practice using existing algorithms are those that are products of two primes of similar size, for this reason, these are the integers used in cryptographic applications. The largest such semiprime yet factored was RSA-768, a 768-bit number with 232 decimal digits and this factorization was a collaboration of several research institutions, spanning two years and taking the equivalent of almost 2000 years of computing on a single-core 2.2 GHz AMD Opteron. Like all recent factorization records, this factorization was completed with an optimized implementation of the general number field sieve run on hundreds of machines. No algorithm has been published that can factor all integers in polynomial time, neither the existence nor non-existence of such algorithms has been proved, but it is generally suspected that they do not exist and hence that the problem is not in class P. The problem is clearly in class NP but has not been proved to be in, or not in and it is generally suspected not to be in NP-complete. There are published algorithms that are faster than O for all positive ε, i. e. sub-exponential, the best published asymptotic running time is for the general number field sieve algorithm, which, for a b-bit number n, is, O. For current computers, GNFS is the best published algorithm for large n, for a quantum computer, however, Peter Shor discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in polynomial time
27.
Unitary divisor
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In mathematics, a natural number a is a unitary divisor of a number b if a is a divisor of b and if a and b a are coprime, having no common factor other than 1. 1 is a divisor of every natural number. Equivalently, a given divisor a of b is a unitary divisor if, the sum of unitary divisors function is denoted by the lowercase Greek letter sigma thus, σ*. The sum of the powers of the unitary divisors is denoted by σ*k. If the proper divisors of a given number add up to that number. The number of divisors of a number n is 2k. The sum of the divisors of n is odd if n is a power of 2. Both the count and the sum of the divisors of n are multiplicative functions of n that are not completely multiplicative. The Dirichlet generating function is ζ ζ ζ = ∑ n ≥1 σ k ∗ n s, every divisor of n is unitary if and only if n is square-free. The sum of the powers of the odd unitary divisors is σ k ∗ = ∑ d ∣ n d ≡1 gcd =1 d k. It is also multiplicative, with Dirichlet generating function ζ ζ ζ = ∑ n ≥1 σ k ∗ n s, a divisor d of n is a bi-unitary divisor if the greatest common unitary divisor of d and n/d is 1. The number of divisors of n is a multiplicative function of n with average order A log x where A = ∏ p. A bi-unitary perfect number is one equal to the sum of its bi-unitary aliquot divisors, the only such numbers are 6,60 and 90. My Numbers, My Friends, Popular Lectures on Number Theory, a class of residue systems and related arithmetical functions. Arithmetical functions associated with the unitary divisors of an integer, the number of unitary divisors of an integer. Cohen, Graeme L. Arithmetic functions associated with infinitary divisors of an integer, the theory of the Riemann zeta-function with applications. Sándor, József, Mitrinović, Dragoslav S. Crstici, Borislav, eds
28.
Divisor function
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In mathematics, and specifically in number theory, a divisor function is an arithmetic function related to the divisors of an integer. When referred to as the function, it counts the number of divisors of an integer. It appears in a number of identities, including relationships on the Riemann zeta function. Divisor functions were studied by Ramanujan, who gave a number of important congruences and identities, a related function is the divisor summatory function, which, as the name implies, is a sum over the divisor function. The sum of divisors function σx, for a real or complex number x, is defined as the sum of the xth powers of the positive divisors of n. It can be expressed in sigma notation as σ x = ∑ d ∣ n d x, the notations d, ν and τ are also used to denote σ0, or the number-of-divisors function. When x is 1, the function is called the function or sum-of-divisors function. The aliquot sum s of n is the sum of the proper divisors, and equals σ1 − n, the cases x =2 to 5 are listed in A001157 − A001160, x =6 to 24 are listed in A013954 − A013972. For a non-square integer, n, every divisor, d, of n is paired with divisor n/d of n and σ0 is even, for an integer, one divisor is not paired with a distinct divisor. Similarly, the number σ1 is odd if and only if n is a square or twice a square. For a prime p, σ0 =2 σ0 = n +1 σ1 = p +1 because by definition. Also, where pn# denotes the primorial, σ0 =2 n since n prime factors allow a sequence of binary selection from n terms for each proper divisor formed, clearly,1 < σ0 < n and σ > n for all n >2. The divisor function is multiplicative, but not completely multiplicative and it follows that d is, σ0 = ∏ i =1 r. For example, if n is 24, there are two factors, noting that 24 is the product of 23×31, a1 is 3. Thus we can calculate σ0 as so, σ0 = ∏ i =12 = =4 ⋅2 =8, the eight divisors counted by this formula are 1,2,4,8,3,6,12, and 24. Here s denotes the sum of the divisors of n, that is. This function is the one used to perfect numbers which are the n for which s = n. If s > n then n is an abundant number and if s < n then n is a deficient number
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Prime factor
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In number theory, the prime factors of a positive integer are the prime numbers that divide that integer exactly. The prime factorization of an integer is a list of the integers prime factors, together with their multiplicities. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic says that every integer has a single unique prime factorization. To shorten prime factorizations, factors are expressed in powers. For example,360 =2 ×2 ×2 ×3 ×3 ×5 =23 ×32 ×5, in which the factors 2,3 and 5 have multiplicities of 3,2 and 1, respectively. For a prime factor p of n, the multiplicity of p is the largest exponent a for which pa divides n exactly. For a positive n, the number of prime factors of n. Perfect square numbers can be recognized by the fact all of their prime factors have even multiplicities. For example, the number 144 has the prime factors 144 =2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×3 ×3 =24 ×32. These can be rearranged to make the more visible,144 =2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×3 ×3 = × =2 =2. Because every prime factor appears a number of times, the original number can be expressed as the square of some smaller number. In the same way, perfect cube numbers will have prime factors whose multiplicities are multiples of three, and so on, positive integers with no prime factors in common are said to be coprime. Two integers a and b can also be defined as if their greatest common divisor gcd =1. Euclids algorithm can be used to determine whether two integers are coprime without knowing their prime factors, the runs in a time that is polynomial in the number of digits involved. The integer 1 is coprime to every integer, including itself. This is because it has no prime factors, it is the empty product and this implies that gcd =1 for any b ≥1. The function, ω, represents the number of prime factors of n, while the function, Ω. If n = ∏ i =1 ω p i α i, for example,24 =23 ×31, so ω =2 and Ω =3 +1 =4
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Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
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For example,1200 =24 ×31 ×52 =3 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×5 ×5 =5 ×2 ×3 ×2 ×5 ×2 ×2 = etc. The requirement that the factors be prime is necessary, factorizations containing composite numbers may not be unique. This theorem is one of the reasons why 1 is not considered a prime number, if 1 were prime. Book VII, propositions 30,31 and 32, and Book IX, proposition 14 of Euclids Elements are essentially the statement, proposition 30 is referred to as Euclids lemma. And it is the key in the proof of the theorem of arithmetic. Proposition 31 is proved directly by infinite descent, proposition 32 is derived from proposition 31, and prove that the decomposition is possible. Book IX, proposition 14 is derived from Book VII, proposition 30, indeed, in this proposition the exponents are all equal to one, so nothing is said for the general case. Article 16 of Gauss Disquisitiones Arithmeticae is a modern statement. < pk are primes and the αi are positive integers and this representation is commonly extended to all positive integers, including one, by the convention that the empty product is equal to 1. This representation is called the representation of n, or the standard form of n. For example 999 = 33×37,1000 = 23×53,1001 = 7×11×13 Note that factors p0 =1 may be inserted without changing the value of n, allowing negative exponents provides a canonical form for positive rational numbers. However, as Integer factorization of large integers is much harder than computing their product, gcd or lcm, these formulas have, in practice, many arithmetical functions are defined using the canonical representation. In particular, the values of additive and multiplicative functions are determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers, the proof uses Euclids lemma, if a prime p divides the product of two natural numbers a and b, then p divides a or p divides b. We need to show that every integer greater than 1 is either prime or a product of primes, for the base case, note that 2 is prime. By induction, assume true for all numbers between 1 and n, if n is prime, there is nothing more to prove. Otherwise, there are integers a and b, where n = ab and 1 < a ≤ b < n, by the induction hypothesis, a = p1p2. pj and b = q1q2. qk are products of primes. But then n = ab = p1p2. pjq1q2. qk is a product of primes, assume that s >1 is the product of prime numbers in two different ways, s = p 1 p 2 ⋯ p m = q 1 q 2 ⋯ q n. We must show m = n and that the qj are a rearrangement of the pi, by Euclids lemma, p1 must divide one of the qj, relabeling the qj if necessary, say that p1 divides q1
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Arithmetic number
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In number theory, an arithmetic number is an integer for which the average of its positive divisors is also an integer. For instance,6 is a number because the average of its divisors is 1 +2 +3 +64 =3. However,2 is not a number because its only divisors are 1 and 2. It is known that the density of such numbers is 1, indeed. A number N is arithmetic if the number of divisors d divides the sum of divisors σ and it is known that the density of integers N obeying the stronger condition that d2 divides σ is 1/2
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Composite number
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A composite number is a positive integer that can be formed by multiplying together two smaller positive integers. Equivalently, it is an integer that has at least one divisor other than 1. Every positive integer is composite, prime, or the unit 1, so the numbers are exactly the numbers that are not prime. For example, the integer 14 is a number because it is the product of the two smaller integers 2 ×7. Likewise, the integers 2 and 3 are not composite numbers because each of them can only be divided by one, every composite number can be written as the product of two or more primes. For example, the composite number 299 can be written as 13 ×23, and the composite number 360 can be written as 23 ×32 ×5, furthermore and this fact is called the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. There are several known primality tests that can determine whether a number is prime or composite, one way to classify composite numbers is by counting the number of prime factors. A composite number with two prime factors is a semiprime or 2-almost prime, a composite number with three distinct prime factors is a sphenic number. In some applications, it is necessary to differentiate between composite numbers with an odd number of prime factors and those with an even number of distinct prime factors. For the latter μ =2 x =1, while for the former μ =2 x +1 = −1, however, for prime numbers, the function also returns −1 and μ =1. For a number n with one or more repeated prime factors, if all the prime factors of a number are repeated it is called a powerful number. If none of its factors are repeated, it is called squarefree. For example,72 =23 ×32, all the factors are repeated. 42 =2 ×3 ×7, none of the factors are repeated. Another way to classify composite numbers is by counting the number of divisors, all composite numbers have at least three divisors. In the case of squares of primes, those divisors are, a number n that has more divisors than any x < n is a highly composite number. Composite numbers have also been called rectangular numbers, but that name can refer to the pronic numbers, numbers that are the product of two consecutive integers. Table of prime factors Integer factorization Canonical representation of a positive integer Sieve of Eratosthenes Fraleigh, a First Course In Abstract Algebra, Reading, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-01984-1 Herstein, I. N
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Semiprime
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In mathematics, a semiprime is a natural number that is the product of two prime numbers. The semiprimes less than 100 are 4,6,9,10,14,15,21,22,25,26,33,34,35,38,39,46,49,51,55,57,58,62,65,69,74,77,82,85,86,87,91,93,94, and 95. Semiprimes that are not perfect squares are called discrete, or distinct, by definition, semiprime numbers have no composite factors other than themselves. For example, the number 26 is semiprime and its factors are 1,2,13. The total number of prime factors Ω for a n is two, by definition. A semiprime is either a square of a prime or square-free, the square of any prime number is a semiprime, so the largest known semiprime will always be the square of the largest known prime, unless the factors of the semiprime are not known. It is conceivable, but unlikely, that a way could be found to prove a number is a semiprime without knowing the two factors. A composite n non-divisible by primes ≤ n 3 is semiprime, various methods, such as elliptic pseudo-curves and the Goldwasser-Kilian ECPP theorem have been used to create provable, unfactored semiprimes with hundreds of digits. These are considered novelties, since their construction method might prove vulnerable to factorization, for a semiprime n = pq the value of Eulers totient function is particularly simple when p and q are distinct, φ = = p q − +1 = n − +1. If otherwise p and q are the same, φ = φ = p = p2 − p = n − p and these methods rely on the fact that finding two large primes and multiplying them together is computationally simple, whereas finding the original factors appears to be difficult. In the RSA Factoring Challenge, RSA Security offered prizes for the factoring of specific large semiprimes, the most recent such challenge closed in 2007. In practical cryptography, it is not sufficient to choose just any semiprime, the factors p and q of n should both be very large, around the same order of magnitude as the square root of n, this makes trial division and Pollards rho algorithm impractical. At the same time they should not be too close together, or else the number can be quickly factored by Fermats factorization method. The number may also be chosen so that none of p −1, p +1, q −1, or q +1 are smooth numbers, protecting against Pollards p −1 algorithm or Williams p +1 algorithm. However, these checks cannot take future algorithms or secret algorithms into account, in 1974 the Arecibo message was sent with a radio signal aimed at a star cluster. It consisted of 1679 binary digits intended to be interpreted as a 23×73 bitmap image, the number 1679 = 23×73 was chosen because it is a semiprime and therefore can only be broken down into 23 rows and 73 columns, or 73 rows and 23 columns. Chens theorem Weisstein, Eric W. Semiprime
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Pronic number
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A pronic number is a number which is the product of two consecutive integers, that is, a number of the form n. The study of these dates back to Aristotle. They are also called oblong numbers, heteromecic numbers, or rectangular numbers, however, the rectangular number name has also been applied to the composite numbers. The first few numbers are,0,2,6,12,20,30,42,56,72,90,110,132,156,182,210,240,272,306,342,380,420,462 …. The nth pronic number is also the difference between the odd square 2 and the st centered hexagonal number. The sum of the reciprocals of the numbers is a telescoping series that sums to 1,1 =12 +16 +112 ⋯ = ∑ i =1 ∞1 i. The partial sum of the first n terms in this series is ∑ i =1 n 1 i = n n +1, the nth pronic number is the sum of the first n even integers. It follows that all numbers are even, and that 2 is the only prime pronic number. It is also the only number in the Fibonacci sequence. The number of entries in a square matrix is always a pronic number. The fact that consecutive integers are coprime and that a number is the product of two consecutive integers leads to a number of properties. Each distinct prime factor of a number is present in only one of the factors n or n+1. Thus a pronic number is squarefree if and only if n and n +1 are also squarefree, the number of distinct prime factors of a pronic number is the sum of the number of distinct prime factors of n and n +1. If 25 is appended to the representation of any pronic number. This is because 2 =100 n 2 +100 n +25 =100 n +25
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Sphenic number
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In number theory, a sphenic number is a positive integer that is the product of three distinct prime numbers. A sphenic number is a product pqr where p, q and this definition is more stringent than simply requiring the integer to have exactly three prime factors. For instance,60 =22 ×3 ×5 has exactly 3 prime factors, the smallest sphenic number is 30 =2 ×3 ×5, the product of the smallest three primes. The first few numbers are 30,42,66,70,78,102,105,110,114,130,138,154,165. As of January 2016 the largest known number is × ×. It is the product of the three largest known primes, all sphenic numbers have exactly eight divisors. If we express the number as n = p ⋅ q ⋅ r, where p, q. For example,24 is not a number, but it has exactly eight divisors. All sphenic numbers are by definition squarefree, because the factors must be distinct. The Möbius function of any number is −1. The cyclotomic polynomials Φ n, taken over all sphenic numbers n, the first case of two consecutive sphenic integers is 230 = 2×5×23 and 231 = 3×7×11. The first case of three is 1309 = 7×11×17,1310 = 2×5×131, and 1311 = 3×19×23, there is no case of more than three, because every fourth consecutive positive integer is divisible by 4 = 2×2 and therefore not squarefree. The numbers 2013,2014, and 2015 are all sphenic, the next three consecutive sphenic years will be 2665,2666 and 2667. Semiprimes, products of two prime numbers
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Square-free integer
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In mathematics, a square-free, or quadratfrei integer, is an integer which is divisible by no other perfect square than 1. For example,10 is square-free but 18 is not, as 18 is divisible by 9 =32. The smallest positive square-free numbers are 1,2,3,5,6,7,10,11,13,14,15,17,19,21,22,23,26,29,30,31,33,34,35,37,38,39. The radical of an integer is its largest square-free factor, an integer is square-free if and only if it is equal to its radical. Any arbitrary positive integer n can be represented in a way as the product of a powerful number and a square-free integer. The square-free factor is the largest square-free divisor k of n that is coprime with n/k, a positive integer n is square-free if and only if in the prime factorization of n, no prime factor occurs with an exponent larger than one. Another way of stating the same is that for every prime factor p of n, also n is square-free if and only if in every factorization n = ab, the factors a and b are coprime. An immediate result of this definition is that all numbers are square-free. A positive integer n is square-free if and only if all abelian groups of n are isomorphic. This follows from the classification of finitely generated abelian groups, a integer n is square-free if and only if the factor ring Z / nZ is a product of fields. This follows from the Chinese remainder theorem and the fact that a ring of the form Z / kZ is a field if, for every positive integer n, the set of all positive divisors of n becomes a partially ordered set if we use divisibility as the order relation. This partially ordered set is always a distributive lattice and it is a Boolean algebra if and only if n is square-free. A positive integer n is square-free if and only if μ ≠0, a positive integer n is squarefree if and only if ∑ d 2 ∣ n μ =1. This results from the properties of Möbius function, and the fact that this sum is equal to ∑ d ∣ m μ, where m is the largest divisor of n such that m2 divides n. The Dirichlet generating function for the numbers is ζ ζ = ∑ n =1 ∞ | μ | n s where ζ is the Riemann zeta function. This is easily seen from the Euler product ζ ζ = ∏ p = ∏ p, let Q denote the number of square-free integers between 1 and x. For large n, 3/4 of the positive integers less than n are not divisible by 4, 8/9 of these numbers are not divisible by 9, and so on. Under the Riemann hypothesis, the term can be further reduced to yield Q = x ζ + O =6 x π2 + O
