1.
Manner of articulation
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In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another, others include those involved in the r-like sounds, and the sibilancy of fricatives. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation of voicing are considered separately from manner, homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, from greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants, fricative consonants, approximants, and vowels. Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative. Over time, sounds in a language may move along this cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition, sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, taps and flaps are similar to very brief stops. However, their articulation and behavior are enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length. Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs, since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative, nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, when a sound is not nasal, it is called oral. Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue and this can be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants, lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates. Stop, an oral occlusive, where there is occlusion of the vocal tract. Examples include English /p t k/ and /b d ɡ/, if the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion, if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the vowel, as well as the release burst. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different stops their characteristic sounds, nasal, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds, nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island. Fricative, sometimes called spirant, where there is continuous frication at the place of articulation, examples include English /f, s/, /v, z/, etc
2.
Stop consonant
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In phonetics, a stop, also known as a plosive or oral occlusive, is a consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be made with the blade or body, lips. The terms stop, occlusive, and plosive are often and inaccurately used interchangeably, linguists who distinguish them may not agree on the distinction being made. The terms refer to different features of the consonant, stop refers to the airflow that is stopped. Occlusive refers to the articulation, which occludes the vocal tract, Plosive refers to the release burst of the consonant. Therefore, a plosive is a stop that is released, typically into an open speech sound such as a vowel. It is inaccurate to call a stop an plosive. Either occlusive or stop may be used as a term covering the other together with nasals. That is, occlusive may be defined as oral occlusives plus nasal occlusives, Ladefoged and Maddieson prefer to restrict stop to oral occlusives. They say, what we call simply nasals are called nasal stops by some linguists and we avoid this phrase, preferring to reserve the term stop for sounds in which there is a complete interruption of airflow. In addition, they use plosive for a stop, stops in their usage include ejective and implosive consonants. If a term such as plosive is used for oral obstruents, in other cases, however, it may be the word plosive that is restricted to the glottal stop. Note that, generally speaking, stops do not have plosion, in English, for example, there are stops with no audible release, such as the /p/ in apt. However, pulmonic stops do have plosion in other environments, in Ancient Greek, the term for stop was ἄφωνον, which means unpronounceable, voiceless, or silent, because stops could not be pronounced without a vowel. This term was calqued into Latin as mūta, and from there borrowed into English as mute, for more information on the Ancient Greek terms, see Ancient Greek phonology § Terminology. All languages in the world have stops, and most have at least the voiceless stops, however, there are exceptions, Colloquial Samoan lacks the coronal, and several North American languages, such as the northern Iroquoian and southern Iroquoian languages, lack the labial. Formal Samoan has only one word with velar, colloquial Samoan conflates /t/, ni‘ihau Hawaiian has for /k/ to a greater extent than Standard Hawaiian, but neither distinguish a /k/ from a /t/. It may be accurate to say that Hawaiian and colloquial Samoan do not distinguish velar
3.
Affricate consonant
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An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation. It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair, English has two affricate phonemes, and, often spelled ch and j. However, voiced affricates other than are relatively uncommon, for several places of articulation they are not attested at all. Much less common are labiodental affricates, such as in German and Izi, or velar affricates, worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the corresponding stop consonants, and, are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the release is lateral, such as the sound found in Nahuatl. Some other Athabaskan languages, such as Dene Suline, have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral, and. Affricates are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by a combination of two letters, one for the element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, the tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because this is more legible. Thus, ⟨p͡f, t͡sʼ, d͡z, t͡ɬ, d͡ɮ, t͡ʃʼ, d͡ʒ, t͡ɕʼ, d͡ʑ, t͡ʂʼ, d͡ʐ , k͡xʼ⟩ or ⟨p͜f, t͜sʼ, d͜z, t͜ɬ, d͜ɮ, t͜ʃʼ, d͜ʒ, t͜ɕʼ, d͜ʑ, t͜ʂʼ, d͜ʐ , k͜xʼ⟩. A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript. ⟨pᶠ, tˢ, dᶻ, tᶴ, dᶾ, however, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate. Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available in Unicode for the six common affricates ⟨ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ⟩. Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a stop plus a fricative, however, in languages where there is no such distinction, such as English, the tie bars are commonly dropped. In other phonetic transcription systems, such as the Americanist system, the affricates, are transcribed respectively as ⟨c⟩ or ⟨¢⟩, ⟨j⟩, ⟨ƶ⟩, or ⟨ʒ⟩, ⟨c⟩ or ⟨č⟩, ⟨ǰ⟩, ⟨ǧ⟩, or ⟨ǯ⟩, ⟨ƛ⟩, and ⟨λ⟩ or ⟨dl⟩. Within the IPA, and are transcribed with the symbols for the palatal stops, ⟨c⟩. In some languages, affricates contrast phonemically with stop–fricative sequences, Polish affricate /t͡ʂ/ in czysta clean versus stop–fricative /tʂ/ in trzysta three hundred, klallam affricate /t͡s/ in k’ʷə́nc look at me versus stop–fricative /ts/ in k’ʷə́nts he looks at it. The exact phonetic difference varies between languages, in stop–fricative sequences, the stop has a release burst before the fricative starts, but in affricates, the fricative element is the release. Phonologically, stop–fricative sequences may have a boundary between the two segments, but not necessarily. In English, /ts/ and /dz/ are considered phonemically stop–fricative sequences because they contain a morpheme boundary
4.
Fricative consonant
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Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. This turbulent airflow is called frication, a particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants. When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a channel, but in addition. English, and are examples of sibilants, the usage of two other terms is less standardized, Spirant can be a synonym of fricative, or refer to non-sibilant fricatives only. Strident could mean just sibilant, but some authors include also labiodental, lateral or uvular fricatives in the class. However, at the place of articulation, the tongue may take several shapes, domed, laminal, or apical, and each of these is given a separate symbol. Prototypical retroflexes are subapical and palatal, but they are written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, voiced uvular fricative voiced pharyngeal fricative No language distinguishes voiced fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeal, approximants are more numerous than fricatives, a fricative realization may be specified by adding the uptack to the letters. Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, however, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives. In addition, is called a voiceless labial-velar fricative. True doubly articulated fricatives may not occur in any language, Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis fricatives. Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants, however, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare. Contrasts with in Korean, aspirated fricatives are found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages. The record may be Cone Tibetan, which has four contrastive aspirated fricatives, /sʰ/ /ɕʰ/, /ʂʰ/, some South Arabian languages have /z̃/, Umbundu has /ṽ/, and Kwangali and Souletin Basque have /h̃/. In Coatzospan Mixtec, appear allophonically before a vowel, and in Igbo nasality is a feature of the syllable. H is not a fricative in English, until its extinction, Ubykh may have been the language with the most fricatives, some of which did not have dedicated symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English, by contrast, approximately 8. 7% of the worlds languages have no phonemic fricatives at all
5.
Sibilant
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Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English words sip, zip, ship, chip, and jump, and the second consonant in vision. The symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to denote the sibilant sounds in words are. More specifically, the sounds, as in chip and jump, are affricates, Sibilants have a characteristically intense sound, which accounts for their paralinguistic use in getting ones attention. In the alveolar hissing sibilants and, the back of the forms a narrow channel to focus the stream of air more intensely. With the hushing sibilants, such as English, and, the tongue is flatter, because all sibilants are also stridents, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, the terms do not mean the same thing, the English stridents are /f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/. The English sibilants are a high pitched subset of the stridents. The English sibilants are /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, /f/ and /v/ are stridents, but not sibilants, because they are lower in pitch. Non-sibilant fricatives and affricates produce their characteristic sound directly with the tongue or lips etc. however, there is a great deal of variety among sibilants as to tongue shape, point of contact on the tongue, and point of contact on the upper side of the mouth. For example, a laminal denti-alveolar grooved sibilant occurs in Polish, the main distinction is the shape of the tongue. Most sibilants have a running down the centerline of the tongue that helps focus the airstream. Because of the prominence of these sounds, they are the most common and they occur in English, where they are denoted with a letter s or z, as in soon or zone. Alveolo-palatal, with a convex, V-shaped tongue, and highly palatalized and these sounds occur in English, where they are denoted with letter combinations such as sh, ch, g, j or si, as in shin, chin, gin and vision. Retroflex, with a flat or concave tongue, and no palatalization and these sounds occur in a large number of varieties, some of which also go by other names. The subapical palatal or true retroflex sounds are the very dullest, the latter three post-alveolar types of sounds are often known as hushing sounds because of their quality, as opposed to the hissing alveolar sounds. The alveolar sounds in fact occur in several varieties, in addition to the sound of English s, Palatalized. Palatalized alveolars are transcribed e. g. and occur in Russian, lisping, Alveolar sibilants made with the tip of the tongue near the upper teeth have a softer sound reminiscent of the lisping sound of English think. In these dialects, the sibilant is the normal pronunciation of the letters s and z, as well as c before i or e
6.
Nasal consonant
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Examples of nasals in English are and, in words such as nose and mouth. Nasal occlusives are nearly universal in human languages, there are also other kinds of nasal consonants in some languages. Nearly all nasal consonants are nasal occlusives, in which air escapes through the nose but not through the mouth, the oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound. Rarely, non-occlusive consonants may be nasalized, most nasals are voiced, and in fact, the nasal sounds and are among the most common sounds cross-linguistically. Voiceless nasals occur in a few such as Burmese, Welsh, Icelandic. In terms of acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which means that they do not significantly restrict the escape of air, however, nasals are also obstruents in their articulation because the flow of air through the mouth is blocked. This duality, a sonorant airflow through the nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, for example, nasals tend to pattern with other sonorants such as and, but in many languages, they may develop from or into stops. Acoustically, nasals have bands of energy at around 200 and 2,000 Hz.1, ^ The symbol ⟨n⟩ is commonly used to represent the dental nasal as well, rather than ⟨n̪⟩, as it is rarely distinguished from the alveolar nasal. Examples of languages containing nasal occlusives, The voiced retroflex nasal is is a sound in Languages of India. Many Germanic languages, including German, Dutch, English and Swedish, as well as varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and Cantonese, have, tamil has a six-fold distinction between, and. Catalan, Occitan, Spanish, and Italian have, as phonemes, nevertheless, in several American dialects of Spanish, there is no palatal nasal but only a palatalized nasal, as in English canyon. In Brazilian Portuguese and Angolan Portuguese, written ⟨nh⟩, is pronounced as, a nasal palatal approximant. Semivowels in Portuguese often nasalize before and always after nasal vowels, resulting in, what would be coda nasal occlusives in other West Iberian languages is only slightly pronounced before dental consonants. Outside this environment the nasality is spread over the vowel or become a nasal diphthong, the Mapos Buang language of New Guinea has an unusual three-way dorsal distinction between, and uvular. The presence of on a level is extremely rare cross-lingually, especially when the language also has other phonemic dorsal nasals present as in the case of Mapos Buang. The term nasal occlusive is generally abbreviated to nasal, however, there are also nasalized fricatives, nasalized flaps, nasal glides, and nasal vowels, as in French, Portuguese, and Polish. In the IPA, nasal vowels and nasalized consonants are indicated by placing a tilde over the vowel or consonant in question, French sang, a few languages have phonemic voiceless nasal occlusives. Among them are Icelandic, Faroese, Burmese, Jalapa Mazatec, Kildin Sami, Welsh, iaai of New Caledonia has an unusually large number of them, with /m̥ m̥ʷ n̪̊ ɳ̊ ɲ̊ ŋ̊/, along with a number of voiceless approximants
7.
Approximant consonant
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Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence and this class of sounds includes lateral approximants like, non-lateral approximants like, and semivowels like and. Before Peter Ladefoged coined the term approximant in the 1960s, the term frictionless continuant referred to non-lateral approximants, some approximants resemble vowels in acoustic and articulatory properties and the terms semivowel and glide are often used for these non-syllabic vowel-like segments. The correlation between semivowels and vowels is strong enough that cross-language differences between semivowels correspond with the differences between their related vowels, vowels and their corresponding semivowels alternate in many languages depending on the phonological environment, or for grammatical reasons, as is the case with Indo-European ablaut. Similarly, languages often avoid configurations where a semivowel precedes its corresponding vowel, a number of phoneticians distinguish between semivowels and approximants by their location in a syllable. This means that opaque contrasts can occur in languages like Italian, ^* Because of the articulatory complexities of the American English rhotic, there is some variation in its phonetic description. A transcription with the IPA character for an alveolar approximant is common, actual retroflexion may occur as well and both occur as variations of the same sound. ^** Because the vowels are articulated with spread lips, spreading is implied for their approximant analogues, however, these sounds generally have little or no lip-spreading. The fricative letters with a diacritic, ⟨ʝ˕ ɣ˕⟩, may therefore be justified for a neutral articulation between spread and rounded. In articulation and often diachronically, palatal approximants correspond to front vowels, velar approximants to back vowels, in American English, the rhotic approximant corresponds to the rhotic vowel. In addition to alternations, glides can be inserted to the left or the right of their corresponding vowels when they next to a hiatus. Sievers law describes this behaviour for Germanic, in colloquial Nepali speech, a process of glide-formation occurs, where one of two adjacent vowels becomes non-syllabic, the process includes mid vowels so that features a non-syllabic mid vowel. Spanish features a similar process and even nonsyllabic /a/ can occur so that ahorita is pronounced and it is not often clear, however, whether such sequences involve a semivowel or a diphthong, and in many cases, it may not be a meaningful distinction. Although many languages have central vowels, which lie between back/velar and front/palatal, there are few cases of a corresponding approximant, in addition to less turbulence, approximants also differ from fricatives in the precision required to produce them. When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated, which is reminiscent of fricatives, for example, the Spanish word ayuda features a palatal approximant that is pronounced as a fricative in emphatic speech. Spanish can be analyzed as having a distinction between fricative, approximant, and intermediate /ʝ ʝ˕ j/. However, such frication is generally slight and intermittent, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants and this is why, for example, the voiceless labialized velar approximant has traditionally been labeled a fricative, and no language is known to contrast it with a voiceless labialized velar fricative. Similarly, Standard Tibetan has a lateral approximant, and Welsh has a voiceless lateral fricative
8.
Vowel
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In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. There is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis and this contrasts with consonants, such as the English sh, which have a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as syllabic, a phonetically equivalent but non-syllabic sound is a semivowel. In oral languages, phonetic vowels normally form the peak of many to all syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and coda. Some languages allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, the word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning vocal. In English, the vowel is commonly used to mean both vowel sounds and the written symbols that represent them. The phonetic definition of vowel does not always match the phonological definition, the approximants and illustrate this, both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract, but they occur at the onset of syllables. A similar debate arises over whether a word like bird in a dialect has an r-colored vowel /ɝ/ or a syllabic consonant /ɹ̩/. The American linguist Kenneth Pike suggested the terms vocoid for a vowel and vowel for a phonological vowel, so using this terminology. Nonetheless, the phonetic and phonemic definitions would still conflict for the syllabic el in table, or the syllabic nasals in button, daniel Jones developed the cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the features of tongue height, tongue backness and roundedness. These three parameters are indicated in the schematic quadrilateral IPA vowel diagram on the right, there are additional features of vowel quality, such as the velum position, type of vocal fold vibration, and tongue root position. This conception of vowel articulation has been known to be inaccurate since 1928, Peter Ladefoged has said that early phoneticians. Thought they were describing the highest point of the tongue, and they were actually describing formant frequencies. The IPA Handbook concedes that the quadrilateral must be regarded as an abstraction. Vowel height is named for the position of the tongue relative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the jaw. However, it refers to the first formant, abbreviated F1. Height is defined by the inverse of the F1 value, The higher the frequency of the first formant, however, if more precision is required, true-mid vowels may be written with a lowering diacritic. Although English contrasts six heights in its vowels, they are interdependent with differences in backness and it appears that some varieties of German have five contrasting vowel heights independently of length or other parameters
9.
Flap consonant
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In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator is thrown against another. The main difference between a flap and a stop is that in a flap there is no buildup of air pressure behind the place of articulation, otherwise a flap is similar to a brief stop. Flaps also contrast with trills, where the causes the articulator to vibrate. Trills may be realized as a contact, like a flap. When a trill is brief and made with a single contact it is erroneously described as an flap. Many linguists use the terms tap and flap indiscriminately, peter Ladefoged proposed for a while that it might be useful to distinguish between them. However, his usage was inconsistent, contradicting itself even between different editions of the same text, later, however, he used the term flap in all cases. Subsequent work on the flap has clarified the issue, flaps involve retraction of the active articulator. For linguists that do make the distinction, the tap is transcribed as a fish-hook ar, and while the flap can be transcribed as a small capital dee. In IPA terms the retroflex flap symbol captures the initial retraction, otherwise alveolars are typically called taps, and other articulations flaps. No language has been confirmed to contrast a tap and a flap at the place of articulation. However, such a distinction has been claimed for Norwegian, where the alveolar apical tap /ɾ/, however, the former could be mistaken for a short trill, and is more clearly transcribed ⟨ɢ̆ ⟩, whereas for a nasal tap the unambiguous transcription ⟨ɾ̃⟩ is generally used. Most of the alternative transcriptions in parentheses imply a tap rather than flap articulation, so for example the flap, spanish features a good illustration of an alveolar flap, contrasting it with a trill, pero /ˈpeɾo/ but vs. perro /ˈpero/ dog. Among the Germanic languages, this occurs in American and Australian English. In American and Australian English it tends to be an allophone of intervocalic /t/ – see intervocalic alveolar flapping. In a number of Low Saxon dialects it occurs as an allophone of intervocalic /d/ or /t/, e. g. bäden /beeden/ → ‘to pray’, ‘to request’, /gaa tou bede/ → ‘go to bed. ’, Water /vaater/ → ‘water’, Vadder /fater/ → ‘father’. Occurrence varies, in some Low Saxon dialects it affects both /t/ and /d/, while in others it affects only /d/, other languages with this are Portuguese, Korean, and Austronesian languages with /r/. In Galician, Portuguese and Sardinian, a flap often appears instead of a former /l/ and this is part of a wider phenomenon called rhotacism
10.
Trill consonant
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In phonetics, a trill is a consonantal sound produced by vibrations between the active articulator and passive articulator. Standard Spanish <rr> as in perro, for example is an alveolar trill, trills are very different from flaps. Usually a trill vibrates for 2–3 periods, but may be up to 5, however, trills may also be produced with only a single period. Although this might seem like a flap, the articulation is different, trills will vary in the number of periods, the coronal trill is most frequently alveolar, but dental and postalveolar articulations and also occur. An alleged retroflex trill found in Toda has been transcribed, but might be less ambiguously written, as only the onset is retroflex, the epiglottal trills are identified by the IPA as fricatives, with the trilling assumed to be allophonic. However, analyzing the sounds as trills may be more economical, there are also so-called strident vowels which are accompanied by epiglottal trill. The cells in the IPA chart for the velar, pharyngeal, according to Esling, palatal trills are also implausible. The upper pharyngeal tract cannot reliably produce a trill, but the epiglottis does, a partially devoiced pre-uvular fricative trill has been reported to occur as coda allophone of /ʀ/ in Limburgish dialects of Maastricht and Weert. It is in variation with partially devoiced uvular fricative trill. Voiceless trills occur phonemically in e. g. Welsh and Icelandic, mangbetu and Ninde have phonemically voiceless bilabial trills. The Czech language has two contrastive alveolar trills, one a fricative trill, in the fricative trill the tongue is raised, so that there is audible frication during the trill, sounding a little like a simultaneous and. A symbol for this sound, has dropped from the IPA. Liangshan Yi has two buzzed or fricative vowels /i̝/, /u̝/ which may also be trilled, a number of languages have trilled affricates such as and. The Chapakuran language Wari’ and the Muran language Pirahã have a very unusual trilled phoneme, a nasal trill has been described from some dialects of Romanian, and is posited as an intermediate historical step in rhotacism. However, the variation of the sound is considerable. A linguolabial trill is not known to be used phonemically, snoring typically consists of vibration of the uvula and the soft palate. Although the former part is simply a uvular trill, there is no standard term for the latter. It does not constitute a velar trill, because the velum is here the active articulator, not the passive and they may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow
11.
Lateral consonant
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A lateral is an l-like consonant in which the airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but it is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth. Most commonly, the tip of the tongue makes contact with the teeth or the upper gum just behind the teeth. The most common laterals are approximants and belong to the class of liquids, plosives are never lateral, but they may have lateral release. The distinction is meaningless for nasals and for consonants articulated in the throat, consonants are not necessarily lateral or central. Some, such as Japanese r, are not defined by centrality, English has one lateral phoneme, the lateral approximant /l/, which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in lady or fly, is called clear l, in some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes. East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have, in many British accents, dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide. This process turns tell into something like, as must have happened with talk or walk at some stage, in central and Venice dialects of Venetian, intervocalic /l/ has turned into a semivocalic, so that the written word ła bała is pronounced. The orthography uses the letter ł to represent this phoneme, many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish. In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant, many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, however, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant. Also, a diacritic may be added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant, however, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States. For example, Tlingit has /tɬ, tɬʰ, tɬʼ, ɬ, ɬʼ/, other examples from the same area include Nuu-chah-nulth and Kutenai, and elsewhere, Chukchi and Kabardian. Standard Tibetan has a lateral approximant, usually romanized as lh. A uvular lateral approximant has been reported to occur in some speakers of American English, pashto has a retroflex lateral flap. There are a number of lateral click consonants,17 occur in. Xóõ. Lateral trills are also possible, but they do not occur in any known language and they may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow
12.
Continuant
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A continuant is a speech sound produced with an incomplete closure of the oral vocal tract. Among consonants, there are two categories of continuants, fricatives and approximants. Approximants are sometimes called frictionless continuants, compare sonorant, which includes approximants and nasals but not fricatives. Both terms technically include vowels, but are restricted to the context of consonants. List of phonetics topics Obstruent Schwa Spectromorphology
13.
Ejective consonant
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In phonetics, ejective consonants are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the phonology of a language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated, voiced. The Adams apple may be moving when the sound is pronounced. In the languages in which they are obvious, ejectives are often described as sounding like “spat” consonants. In some contexts and in languages, they are easy to mistake for tenuis or even voiced stops. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language, in strict, technical terms, ejectives are glottalic egressive consonants. In proportion to the frequency of uvular consonants, is more common. On the other hand, is quite rare and that is the opposite pattern to what is found in the implosive consonants, in which the bilabial is common and the velar is rare. Ejectives occur in about 20% of the worlds languages, Ejectives that phonemically contrast with pulmonic consonants occur in about 15% of languages around the world. They are extremely common in northwestern North America and frequently throughout the western parts of both North and South America. They are also common in East Africa and Southern Africa, in Eurasia, the Caucasus forms an island of ejective languages. Ejectives are found today in Ossetic and Eastern Armenian only because of influence of the nearby Northeast Caucasian and/or Kartvelian language families, nguni languages, such as Zulu have an implosive b alongside a series of allophonically ejective stops. Dahalo of Kenya, has both ejectives and implosives and click consonants, among affricates, are all quite common, and and are not unusual. A few languages have ejective fricatives, in some dialects of Hausa, the standard affricate is a fricative, Ubykh had an ejective lateral fricative, and the related Kabardian also has ejective labiodental and alveolopalatal fricatives, and. Tlingit is a case, with ejective alveolar, lateral, velar. Upper Necaxa Totonac is unusual and perhaps unique in that it has ejective fricatives, other languages with ejective fricatives are Yuchi, which some sources analyze as having, and, Keres dialects, with, and, and Lakota, with, and. Amharic is interpreted by many as having an ejective fricative, at least historically, strangely, although an ejective retroflex stop is easy to make and quite distinctive in sound, it is rare. A similar historical sound change occurred in Veinakh and Lezgic in the Caucasus
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Implosive consonant
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Implosive consonants are stops with a mixed glottalic ingressive and pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. That is, the airstream is controlled by moving the glottis downward in addition to expelling air from the lungs, therefore, unlike the purely glottalic ejective consonants, implosives can be modified by phonation. Contrastive implosives are found in approximately 13% of the worlds languages, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, implosives are indicated by modifying the top of a letter with a downward-facing hook, ⟨ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ ⟩. During the occlusion of the stop, pulling the glottis downward rarefies the air in the vocal tract, in languages whose implosives are particularly salient, that may result in air rushing into the mouth before it flows out again with the next vowel. To take in air sharply in that way is to implode a sound, however, probably more typically, there is no movement of air at all, which contrasts with the burst of the pulmonary plosives. This is the case many of the Kru languages, for example. That means that implosives are phonetically sonorants as the concept of sonorant is usually defined, however, implosives can phonologically pattern as both, that is, they may be phonological sonorants or obstruents depending on the language. George N. Clements actually proposes that implosives are phonologically neither obstruents nor sonorants, the vast majority of implosive consonants are voiced, so the glottis is only partially closed. Because the airflow required for voicing reduces the vacuum being created in the mouth, bilabial is thus the easiest implosive to pronounce and so it is the most common one around the world. Velar, on the hand, is quite rare. That is the pattern to the ejective consonant in which it is the velar articulation that is most common. Implosive fricatives are unknown, and implosive affricates unlikely, a few affricates have been reported, but more investigation may reanalyze them as something else. Consonants variously called voiceless implosives, implosives with glottal closure, or reverse ejectives involve a slightly different airstream mechanism, the glottis is closed so no pulmonic airstream is possible. The IPA once dedicated symbols ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ ⟩ to such sounds and they are now transcribed ⟨ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ ⟩ or occasionally ⟨pʼ↓ tʼ↓ cʼ↓ kʼ↓⟩. Some authors use a superscript left pointer, ⟨p˂ t˂ c˂ k˂⟩, Implosives are widespread among the languages of Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia and are found in a few languages of the Amazon Basin. They are rarely reported elsewhere but occur in scattered languages such as the Mayan languages in North America, Saraiki and Sindhi in the Indian subcontinent and in Vietnamese. They appear to be absent from Europe and northern Asia and from Australia, even from the Australian ceremonial language Damin. Sindhi and Saraiki have a large number of contrastive implosives
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Click consonant
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Clicks are speech sounds that occur as consonants in many languages of Southern Africa and in three languages of East Africa. Examples familiar to English-speakers are the tsk. tsk. or tut-tut used to express disapproval or pity, used to spur on a horse, and the clip-clop. Sound children make with their tongue to imitate a horse trotting, technically, clicks are obstruents articulated with two closures in the mouth, one forward and one at the back. The enclosed pocket of air is rarefied by an action of the tongue. Click consonants occur at five places of articulation. IPA represents a click by placing the assigned symbol for the place of click articulation adjacent to a symbol for a sound at the rear place of articulation. The IPA symbols are used in writing most Khoisan languages, but Bantu languages such as Zulu typically use Latin ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩ and ⟨q⟩ for dental, lateral, the easiest clicks for English speakers are the dental clicks written with a single pipe, ǀ. They are all sharp squeaky sounds made by sucking on the front teeth, a simple dental click is used in English to express pity or to shame someone, and sometimes to call an animal, and is written tsk. in American English and tut. in British English. Curiously, in Italian this sound means no used as an answer to a direct question, next most familiar to English speakers are the lateral clicks written with a double pipe, ǁ. They are also sounds, though less sharp than ǀ. A simple lateral click is made in English to get a horse moving, then there are the labial clicks, written with a bulls eye, ʘ. These are lip-smacking sounds, but without the pursing of the found in a kiss. The above clicks sound like affricates, in that they involve a lot of friction, the other two families are more abrupt sounds that do not have this friction. Like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle and these sounds can be quite loud. Finally, the clicks, ǂ, are made with a flat tongue. Clicks occur in all three Khoisan language families of southern Africa, where they may be the most numerous consonants, to a lesser extent they occur in three neighbouring groups of Bantu languages—which borrowed them, directly or indirectly, from Khoisan. These sounds occur not only in borrowed vocabulary, but have spread to native Bantu words as well, some creolized varieties of Afrikaans, such as Oorlams, retain clicks in Khoekhoe words. Three languages in East Africa use clicks, Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania, and Dahalo and it is thought the latter may remain from an episode of language shift
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Pulmonic-contour clicks
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All click types have linguo-pulmonic variants, which occur as both stops and affricates, and are attested in four phonations, tenuis, voiced, aspirated, and murmured. Traditionally, contour clicks were believed to be uvular in their rear articulation, Miller analyzes them as contours, whereas Nakagawa analyzes them as sequences of a click followed by a uvular consonant. The benefit of an analysis is that it greatly reduces the consonant inventory of the language. Taa, for example, has 164 known consonants, including 111 clicks, an extraordinary number considering that the largest inventory of any language without clicks, that of Ubykh, is 80. With a cluster analysis, the number of clicks in Taa is reduced to 43, also, all other languages in the world that allow obstruent clusters also allow clusters with sonorants. The forward articulation, made with the lips or the front of the tongue, the rear articulation, however, is held longer, and when it is released, it is with a pulmonic airstream. That is, such consonants have a release burst, one ingressive. The rear articulation is involved in both, it helps create the suction that powers the first, and then is released for the second. Six series of pulmonic-contour clicks are attested, there are two manners of articulation and four voicing contrasts, each of which is found for each of the places of articulation that clicks use. Linguo-pulmonic stops In linguo-pulmonic stops, the articulation is released into a pulmonic stop. This may be tenuis, aspirated, voiced, or murmured, the modally voiced and breathy-voiced clicks tend to be prenasalized in the various languages which use them, for reasons which are not clear. They tend to be written with a ⟨q⟩ before or after the letter for the click, the breathy-voiced consonants of some languages such as Juǀʼhoansi, including clicks, contain a voiceless interval and are sometimes written with mixed voicing. Miller attributes this to a larger glottal opening than is found in for example Hindustani breathy-voiced consonants, linguo-pulmonic affricates The rear articulation may also be released as a fricative, one which may be either voiceless or voiced. Aspiration / breathy voice is not distinctive, as fricatives are not easily aspirated, however, because the forward articulation may be considered a stop, these are called affricates rather than fricatives. There are two conventions for writing the frication, the English convention, with an ⟨x⟩, and the Afrikaans tradition, both are used in the orthographies of Khoisan languages. In the IPA, the two series of linguo-pulmonic affricates may be written ⟨ǃ͡χ⟩ and ⟨ǃ͡ʁ⟩, though with an analysis they would be ⟨ǃq͡χ⟩. The fricated alveolar clicks may be lingual or linguo-pulmonic—that is, they may be affricates at both places of articulation, or at one, ejective-contour clicks Glottalized clicks Nasal clicks Amanda Miller,2011
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Ejective-contour clicks
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All click types have linguo-glottalic variants, which occur as both stops and affricates, and may be voiced. Traditionally, contour clicks were believed to be uvular in their rear articulation, linguists now analyze them as either contours or as sequences of a click followed by a uvular consonant. Phonetically, a consonant is a click in which the forward. The forward articulation, made with the lips or the front of the tongue, the rear articulation, however, is held longer, and when it is released, it is with a glottalic airstream. That is, such consonants have a release burst, one ingressive. The rear articulation is involved in both, it helps create the suction that powers the first, and then is released for the second. Four series of ejective-contour clicks are attested, there are two manners of articulation and two voicing contrasts, each of which is found for each of the places of articulation that clicks use. Linguo-glottalic stops In linguo-glottalic stops, the articulation is released into a ejective stop. Although ejective stops are voiceless, click–ejective contours may be voiced. In IPA, using the series as an example, the two series are ⟨ǃ͡qʼ⟩ and ⟨ᶢǃ͡qʼ⟩. Linguo-glottalic affricates The rear articulation may also be released as a fricative, however, because the forward articulation may be considered a stop, these are called affricates rather than fricatives. There are two conventions for writing the frication, the English convention, with an x, and the Afrikaans tradition, both are used in the orthographies of Khoisan languages. In the IPA, the two series of linguo-pulmonic affricates may be written ⟨ǃ͡χʼ⟩ and ⟨ᶢǃ͡χʼ⟩, though with an analysis they would be ⟨ǃq͡χʼ⟩ and ⟨ᶢǃq͡χʼ⟩. Although no language contrasts these possibilities from homorganic affricates, she holds that they are different enough in sound that considering them to be different consonants is useful, the transcriptions she uses are ⟨ǃ͡kxʼ⟩ or ⟨ᶢǃ͡kxʼ⟩ and ⟨ǃᵸ⟩ or ⟨ᶢǃˁ⟩. In Gǀui, which has a release, the fricative is actually lateral. Pulmonic-contour clicks Glottalized clicks Nasal clicks Amanda Miller,2011
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Articulatory phonetics
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The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures, generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the vocal tract and its potential form is air pressure, its kinetic form is the actual dynamic airflow. Acoustic energy is variation in the air pressure that can be represented as sound waves, the main air cavities present in the articulatory system are the supraglottal cavity and the subglottal cavity. They are so-named because the glottis, the space between the vocal folds internal to the larynx, separates the two cavities. The supraglottal cavity or the orinasal cavity is divided into an oral subcavity, the subglottal cavity consists of the trachea and the lungs. The atmosphere external to the stem may also be considered an air cavity whose potential connecting points with respect to the body are the nostrils. The term initiator refers to the fact that they are used to initiate a change in the volumes of air cavities, and, by Boyles Law, the term initiation refers to the change. Since changes in air pressures between connected cavities lead to airflow between the cavities, initiation is referred to as an airstream mechanism. The three pistons present in the system are the larynx, the tongue body, and the physiological structures used to manipulate lung volume. The lung pistons are used to initiate a pulmonic airstream, the larynx is used to initiate the glottalic airstream mechanism by changing the volume of the supraglottal and subglottal cavities via vertical movement of the larynx. Ejectives and implosives are made with this airstream mechanism, the tongue body creates a velaric airsteam by changing the pressure within the oral cavity, the tongue body changes the mouth subcavity. Click consonants use the velaric airstream mechanism, pistons are controlled by various muscles. Airflow occurs when an air valve is open and there is a difference between the connecting cavities. When an air valve is closed, there is no airflow, like the pistons, the air valves are also controlled by various muscles. To produce any kind of sound, there must be movement of air. To produce sounds that people today can interpret as words, the movement of air must pass through the chords, up through the throat and. Different sounds are formed by different positions of the mouth—or, as linguists call it, sounds of all languages fall under two categories, Consonants and Vowels
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Phonation
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The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration and this is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Voiceless and supra-glottal phonations are included under this definition, the phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis, creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate, the minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation is called the phonation threshold pressure, and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H2O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, however, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of the air through the larynx, the sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series. In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone accompanied by harmonic overtones, in linguistics, a phone is called voiceless if there is no phonation during its occurrence. In speech, voiceless phones are associated with folds that are elongated, highly tensed. Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch, large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of the cricothyroid muscle. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce intonation and tone, There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated, the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory. These two theories are not in contention with one another and it is possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the theory, was in considerable vogue in the 1950s. Pressure builds up again until the cords are pushed apart. The rate at which the open and close—the number of cycles per second—determines the pitch of the phonation. The aerodynamic theory is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids, the push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, whereas the pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation. The amount of pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure. During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes the folds apart and this theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxie of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension
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Place of articulation
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Along with the manner of articulation and the phonation, it gives the consonant its distinctive sound. The terminology in this article has developed for precisely describing all the consonants in all the worlds spoken languages. No known language distinguishes all of the described here so less precision is needed to distinguish the sounds of a particular language. The human voice produces sounds in the manner, Air pressure from the lungs creates a steady flow of air through the trachea. The vocal folds in the larynx vibrate, creating fluctuations in air pressure, mouth and nose openings radiate the sound waves into the environment. The larynx or voice box is a framework of cartilage that serves to anchor the vocal folds. When the muscles of the vocal folds contract, the airflow from the lungs is impeded until the vocal folds are forced apart again by the air pressure from the lungs. The process continues in a cycle that is felt as a vibration. In singing, the frequency of the vocal folds determines the pitch of the sound produced. Voiced phonemes such as the vowels are, by definition. The lips of the mouth can be used in a way to create a similar sound. A rubber balloon, inflated but not tied off and stretched tightly across the neck produces a squeak or buzz, depending on the tension across the neck, similar actions with similar results occur when the vocal cords are contracted or relaxed across the larynx. k. a. The pharynx The epiglottis at the entrance to the windpipe, above the voice box The regions are not strictly separated. Likewise, the alveolar and post-alveolar regions merge into other, as do the hard and soft palate, the soft palate and the uvula. Terms like pre-velar, post-velar, and upper vs. lower pharyngeal may be used to more precisely where an articulation takes place. The articulatory gesture of the place of articulation involves the more mobile part of the vocal tract. That is unlike coronal gestures involving the front of the tongue, the epiglottis may be active, contacting the pharynx, or passive, being contacted by the aryepiglottal folds. Distinctions made in these areas are very difficult to observe and are the subject of ongoing investigation
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Voice (phonetics)
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Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterise speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless or voiced. It can also refer to a classification of sounds that tend to be associated with vocal cord vibration. That is the primary use in phonology to describe phonemes or in phonetics to describe phones. At the articulatory level, a sound is one in which the vocal cords vibrate. For example, voicing accounts for the difference between the pair of sounds associated with the English letters s and z, the two sounds are transcribed as and to distinguish them from the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations, depending on the context. If one places the fingers on the box, one can feel a vibration while zzzz is pronounced. In most European languages, with an exception being Icelandic, vowels. When used to classify speech sounds, voiced and unvoiced are merely used to group phones and phonemes together for the purposes of classification. The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and voiced pairs of consonants, in addition, there is a diacritic for voicedness, ⟨◌̬⟩. Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiceless sounds, in Unicode, the symbols are encoded U+032C ◌̬ COMBINING CARON BELOW and U+0325 ◌̥ COMBINING RING BELOW. For the example, ₍s̬₎ could be an with voicing in the middle, partial voicing can also be indicated in the normal IPA with transcriptions like and. The distinction between the use of voice and the phonological use rests on the distinction between phone and phoneme. The difference is best illustrated by a rough example, the English word nods is made up of a sequence of phonemes, represented symbolically as /nɒdz/, or the sequence of /n/, /ɒ/, /d/, and /z/. Each symbol is a representation of a phoneme. That awareness is an inherent part of speakers mental grammar that allows them to recognise words, however, phonemes are not sounds in themselves. Rather, phonemes are, in a sense, converted to phones before being spoken. The /z/ phoneme, for instance, can actually be pronounced as either the phone or the phone since /z/ is frequently devoiced, even in fluent speech, the sequence of phones for nods might be transcribed as or, depending on the presence or strength of this devoicing. While the phone has articulatory voicing, the phone does not have it, what complicates the matter is that for English, consonant phonemes are classified as either voiced or voiceless even though it is not the primary distinctive feature between them
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Phonology
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Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages, the word phonology can also refer to the phonological system of a given language. This is one of the systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax. Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics, note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. The word phonology comes from Ancient Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, voice, sound, according to Clark et al. it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, Baudouin de Courtenays work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of alternations, and may have had an influence on the work of Saussure according to E. F. K. Koerner. An influential school of phonology in the period was the Prague school. One of its members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century, in 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English, the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features and these features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a fixed set. There are at least two levels of representation, underlying representation and surface phonetic representation, ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation. An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable, furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. Natural phonology is a based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969. In this view, phonology is based on a set of phonological processes that interact with one another, which ones are active. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups, prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance
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Syllable
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A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the water is composed of two syllables, wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a nucleus with optional initial and final margins. Syllables are often considered the building blocks of words. They can influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter, syllabic writing began several hundred years before the first letters. The earliest recorded syllables are on tablets written around 2800 BC in the Sumerian city of Ur and this shift from pictograms to syllables has been called the most important advance in the history of writing. A word that consists of a syllable is called a monosyllable. Syllable is an Anglo-Norman variation of Old French sillabe, from Latin syllaba, συλλαβή means what is taken together, referring to letters that are taken together to make a single sound. συλλαβή is a noun from the verb συλλαμβάνω syllambánō, a compound of the preposition σύν sýn with. The noun uses the root λαβ-, which appears in the aorist tense, the present tense stem λαμβάν- is formed by adding a nasal infix ⟨μ⟩ ⟨m⟩ before the β b and a suffix -αν -an at the end. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the period ⟨. ⟩ marks syllable breaks, in practice, however, IPA transcription is typically divided into words by spaces, and often these spaces are also understood to be syllable breaks. When a word comes in the middle of a syllable. The liaison tie is used to join lexical words into phonological words. In the typical theory of structure, the general structure of a syllable consists of three segments. e. Nucleus and coda are grouped together as a rime and onset are only distinguished at the second level, the nucleus is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. The onset is the sound or sounds occurring before the nucleus, and they are sometimes collectively known as the shell. The term rime covers the nucleus plus coda, in the one-syllable English word cat, the nucleus is a, the onset c, the coda t, and the rime at. This syllable can be abstracted as a consonant-vowel-consonant syllable, abbreviated CVC, languages vary greatly in the restrictions on the sounds making up the onset, nucleus and coda of a syllable, according to what is termed a languages phonotactics
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International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
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Labiodental approximant
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The labiodental approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is similar to an English w pronounced with the teeth, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʋ⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is P or v\. The labiodental approximant is the realization of /v/ in the Indian South African variety of English. As the voiceless /f/ is also realized as an approximant, it is also an example of a language contrasting voiceless and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
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Phonetic symbols in Unicode
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Unicode supports several phonetic scripts and notations through the existing writing systems and the addition of extra blocks with phonetic characters. These phonetic extras are derived of a script, usually Latin. In Unicode there is no IPA script, apart from IPA, extensions to the IPA and obsolete and nonstandard IPA symbols, these blocks also contain characters from the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet and the Americanist Phonetic Alphabet. The International Phonetic Alphabet makes use of letters from other writing systems as most phonetic scripts do, IPA notably uses Latin, Greek and Cyrillic characters. Combining diacritics also adds meaning to the phonetic text, finally, these phonetic alphabets make use of modifier letters, that are specially constructed for the phonetic meaning. For example, ʰ should not occur on its own but modifies the preceding or following symbol, thus, tʰ is a single IPA symbol, distinct from t. In practice, however, several of these letters are also used as full graphemes, e. g. ʿ as transliterating Semitic ayin or Hawaiian okina. The following tables indicates the Unicode code point sequences for phonemes as used in the International Phonetic Alphabet, a bold code point indicates that the Unicode chart provides an application note such as voiced retroflex lateral for U+026D ɭ LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH RETROFLEX HOOK. Vowels appearing in pairs in the figure to the right indicate rounded and unrounded variations respectively, again, characters with Unicode names referring to phonemes are indicated by bold text. Those with explicit application notes are indicated by bold italic text and those from borrowed unchanged from another script are indicated by italics. The characters in the Spacing Modifier Letters block are intended as forming a unity with the preceding letter, diacritics are not always properly rendered, however. These all include several ranges of characters in addition to the IPA, modern Web browsers generally do not need any configuration to display these symbols, provided that a font capable of doing so is available to the operating system. Further Information, Unicode input#Selection from a screen Many systems provide a way to select Unicode characters visually, ISO14755 refers to this as a screen-selection entry method. Microsoft Windows has provided a Unicode version of the Character Map program since version NT4.0 – appearing in the edition since XP. This is limited to characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane, characters are searchable by Unicode character name, and the table can be limited to a particular code block. More advanced third-party tools of the type are also available. MacOS provides a character palette with much the same functionality, along with searching by related characters, glyph tables in a font, etc. It can be enabled in the menu in the menu bar under System Preferences → International → Input Menu or can be viewed under Edit → Emoji & Symbols in many programs
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Cardinal vowels
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Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages. For instance, the vowel of the English word feet can be described with reference to cardinal vowel 1, which is the cardinal vowel closest to it. It is often stated that to be able to use the vowel system effectively one must undergo training with an expert phonetician. Daniel Jones wrote The values of cardinal vowels cannot be learnt from written descriptions, a cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by Daniel Jones in the early 20th century, though the idea back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis. Cardinal vowels are not vowels of any language, but a measuring system. However, some languages contain vowel or vowels that are close to the cardinal vowel, an example of such language is Ngwe, which is spoken in Cameroon. It has been cited as a language with a system that has 8 vowels which are rather similar to the 8 primary cardinal vowels. Three of the cardinal vowels—, and —have articulatory definitions, the vowel is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible, with spread lips. The vowel is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible and this sound can be approximated by adopting the posture to whistle a very low note, or to blow out a candle. And is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible, the other vowels are auditorily equidistant between these three corner vowels, at four degrees of aperture or height, close, close-mid, open-mid, and open. These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define 8 reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria and these eight vowels are known as the eight primary cardinal vowels, and vowels like these are common in the worlds languages. Sounds such as these are claimed to be common in the worlds languages. Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet. In the International Phonetic Associations number chart, the vowels have the same numbers used above. The usual explanation of the vowel system implies that the competent user can reliably distinguish between sixteen Primary and Secondary vowels plus a small number of central vowels. This suggests a range of vowels nearer to forty or fifty than to twenty in number, empirical evidence for this ability in trained phoneticians is hard to come by. Ladefoged, in a series of pioneering experiments published in the 1950s and 60s and he asked eighteen phoneticians to listen to a recording of ten words spoken by a native speaker of Gaelic and to place the vowels on a cardinal vowel quadrilateral
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Palatal approximant
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The voiced palatal approximant is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨j⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is j, and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨y⟩. Because the English name of the letter J, jay, does not start with but with, the palatal approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close front unrounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, some languages, though, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding, and therefore cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either or its rounded counterpart. An example of language is Spanish, which distinguishes two palatal approximants, an approximant semivowel, which is always unrounded, and an unspecified for rounding approximant consonant. Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the difference between them as follows, is shorter and is usually a merely transitory sound and it can only exist together with a full vowel and does not appear in syllable onset. has a lower amplitude, mainly in F2. It can only appear in syllable onset and it is not noisy either articulatorily or perceptually. Can vary towards in emphatic pronunciations, having noise, thus, in words like viuda widow, Dios God, vio s/he saw, etc. the semi-vowel is unrounded, if it were rounded a sound that does not exist in Spanish, would appear. He also says that in his opinion, the IPA shows a lack of precision in the treatment it gives to approximants, and are two different segments, but they have to be labelled as voiced palatal approximant consonants. I think that the former is a consonant, whereas the latter is a semi-consonant, as it has traditionally been called in Spanish, or a semi-vowel. The IPA, though, classifies it as a consonant, there is a parallel problem with transcribing the voiced velar approximant. The symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may also be used when the palatal approximant is merely an allophone of the palatal fricative /ʝ/ as, compared with ⟨j⟩. The X-SAMPA equivalent of ⟨ʝ̞⟩ is j\_o, note that the symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. If that is the case, ⟨ʝ˕⟩ should be substituted, in the writing systems used for most of the languages of Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe, the letter j denotes the palatal approximant, as in German Jahr year. That is followed by IPA although it may be counterintuitive for English speakers, in grammars of Ancient Greek, the palatal approximant, which was lost early in the history of Greek, is sometimes written as ⟨ι̯⟩. It can be considered the equivalent of the close central unrounded vowel. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨j̠⟩, ⟨j˗⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j_- and M\_+, respectively, other possible transcriptions include a centralized ⟨j⟩, a centralized ⟨ɰ⟩ and a non-syllabic ⟨ɨ⟩
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Close front unrounded vowel
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The close front unrounded vowel, or high front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound that occurs in most spoken languages, represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol i. The close front unrounded vowel is the equivalent of the palatal approximant. The two are almost identical featurally, irish orthography reflects both etymology and whether preceding consonants are broad or slender, so such combinations as ⟨aí⟩, ⟨ei⟩, and ⟨aío⟩ all represent /iː/. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded
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Labialized palatal approximant
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The labialized palatal approximant, also called the labial–palatal or labio-palatal approximant, is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It has two constrictions in the tract, with the tongue on the palate, and rounded at the lips. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɥ⟩, the labialized palatal approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close front rounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, sometimes, ⟨y̆⟩ is written in place of ⟨y̑⟩, even though the former symbol denotes an extra-short in the official IPA. Some languages, though, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding, an example of such language is Spanish, in which the labialized palatal approximant consonant appears allophonically with rounded vowels in words such as ayuda help. It is not correct to transcribe it with the symbols ⟨ɥ⟩ or ⟨jʷ⟩, see palatal approximant for more information. It can be considered the equivalent of the close central rounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨ɥ̄⟩ or ⟨ɥ˗⟩, ⟨ɥ̈⟩, ⟨w̟⟩ or ⟨ẅ⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are H_o, H_, w_+ and w_, other possible transcriptions include a centralized and labialized ⟨j⟩ and a non-syllabic ⟨ʉ⟩. Especially in broad transcription, the labialized post-palatal approximant may be transcribed as a palatalized labialized velar approximant, the compressed palatal approximant is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨ɥ⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA, however, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨j͡β̞⟩ or ⟨jᵝ⟩. The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a labialized approximant letter ⟨ɥ͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, the compressed post-palatal approximant can be transcribed simply as ⟨ɥ̈⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. Other possible transcriptions include ⟨j̈ᵝ⟩ and ⟨ɥ͍̈⟩ and its place of articulation is called labio-palatal, which means it is labialized palatal, accomplished by raising the body of the tongue toward the palate while compressing the lips. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, because the labialized palatal approximant is assumed to have compression, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some examples in the table below may actually have protrusion. Another possible transcription is ⟨ɥʷ⟩ or ⟨jʷ⟩, acoustically, this sound is between the more typical compressed palatal approximant and the non-labialized palatal approximant. Its place of articulation is called labio-palatal, which means it is labialized palatal and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation
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Close front rounded vowel
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The close front rounded vowel, or high front rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. Acoustically it is a close front-central rounded vowel, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨y⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is y. Across many languages, it is most commonly represented orthographically as ⟨ü⟩ or ⟨y⟩, in the Attic and Ionic dialects of Ancient Greek, front developed by fronting from back /u uː/ around the 6th to 7th century BC. A little later, the diphthong /yi/ when not before another vowel monophthongized and merged with long /yː/, in Koine Greek, the diphthong /oi/ changed to, likely through the intermediate stages and. Through vowel shortening in Koine Greek, long /yː/ merged with short /y/, later, /y/ unrounded to, yielding the pronunciation of Modern Greek. For more information, see the articles on Ancient Greek and Koine Greek phonology, the close front rounded vowel is the vocalic equivalent of the labialized palatal approximant. The two are almost identical featurally, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. In most languages, this vowel is pronounced with compressed lips. However, in a few cases the lips are protruded, the close front compressed vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨y⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA, however, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨i͡β̞⟩ or ⟨iᵝ⟩. The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a vowel letter ⟨y͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol. Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front. Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense, because front rounded vowels are assumed to have compression, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some examples in the table below may actually have protrusion. Catford notes that most languages with rounded front and back vowels use distinct types of labialization, protruded back vowels, however, a few languages, such as Scandinavian ones, have protruded front vowels. One of these, Swedish, even contrasts the two types of rounding in front vowels. As there are no diacritics in the IPA to distinguish protruded and compressed rounding, another possible transcription is ⟨yʷ⟩ or ⟨iʷ⟩, but this could be misread as a diphthong. Acoustically, this sound is between the more typical compressed close front vowel and the close front vowel
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Voiced velar approximant
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The voiced velar approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɰ⟩, the voiced velar approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic counterpart of the close back unrounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, ⟨ɰ⟩ and ⟨ɯ̯⟩ with the non-syllabic diacritic are used in different transcription systems to represent the same sound. Some languages, though, have a velar approximant that is unspecified for rounding. Examples of such languages are Catalan, Galician and Spanish, in which the unspecified for rounding voiced velar approximant consonant appears as an allophone of /ɡ/ and they even establish an interesting parallelism, the sound can be regarded as an unrounded. It is evident, then, that is not a symbol for Spanish. Besides, it would be wrong to transcribe the word jugo juice with *. The symbol I have always proposed is, the correlate to the central approximants in Spanish. This coincides with Ball & Rahilly, whose example for the three approximants is the Spanish word abogado lawyer, there is a parallel problem with transcribing the palatal approximant. The symbol ⟨ɣ̞⟩ may also be used when the voiced velar approximant is merely an allophone of the velar fricative /ɣ/ as, compared with ⟨ɰ⟩. The X-SAMPA equivalent of ⟨ɣ̞⟩ is G_o, note that the symbol ⟨ɣ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. If that is the case, ⟨ɣ˕⟩ should be substituted, in broader transcriptions, the lowering diacritic may be omitted altogether, so that the symbol is rendered ⟨ɣ⟩, i. e. as if it represented the corresponding fricative. The most common type of approximant is glide or semivowel. The term glide emphasizes the characteristic of movement of from the position to a following vowel position. The term semivowel emphasizes that, although the sound is vocalic in nature, for a description of the approximant consonant variant used e. g. in Spanish, see above. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue
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Close back unrounded vowel
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The close back unrounded vowel, or high back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. Acoustically it is a close back-central unrounded vowel, the symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɯ⟩. Typographically a turned letter m, given its relation to the represented by the letter u it can be considered a u with an extra bowl. It is not to be confused with ⟨uɪ⟩, a sequence of the symbols ⟨u⟩ and ⟨ɪ⟩, the IPA prefers terms close and open for vowels, hence the name of this article. However, a number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms high. Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant, note that unrounded back vowels tend to be centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-back. It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded, the symbol ⟨ɯ⟩ is sometimes used for Japanese /u/, but that sound is rounded, albeit with labial compression rather than protrusion. It is more accurately described as a close back vowel
