1.
Shinjitai
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Shinjitai are the forms of kanji used in Japan since the promulgation of the Tōyō Kanji List in 1946. Some of the new forms found in shinjitai are also found in simplified Chinese, shinjitai were created by reducing the number of strokes in kyūjitai, unsimplified kanji equivalent to Traditional Chinese characters, also called seiji. There have been a few stages of simplifications made since the 1950s, the following forms were established as a result of the postwar character reforms. However, they were not completely created anew, as many were based on widely used handwritten abbreviations from the prewar era, due to the complexity of kanji, many abbreviations were used in handwriting, whose status rose to become official characters in the postwar reforms. Attention was paid to the balance of the characters in their new form. In almost all cases, characters in the new standard have fewer strokes than old forms, though in a few cases they have the same number, the most radical simplification was 廳→庁, removing 20 strokes. For example, the character 擧 was simplified as 挙, but the character 欅 which also contained 擧, simplified forms of hyōgaiji do exist, and are referred to as extended shinjitai. However, they are unofficial, a position reiterated in the National Language Council’s 2000 report on Characters Not Listed in the Jōyō Kanji Table, the Asahi Shimbun newspaper is thorough in its simplification of hyōgaiji, and its in-house simplifications are called Asahi characters. For example, 痙攣 is simplified following the model of 經→経 and this is also said to have been done because in the age of typewriter-based printing, more complicated kanji could not be clearly printed. Cursive script and semi-cursive script forms of kanji were adopted as shinjitai, examples include, 圖→図 觀→観 示 →礻 晝→昼 The aforementioned 门 handwritten simplification also originated from semi-cursive, but is not generally accepted in official Japanese writing. Characters in which there were two or more variants were standardized under one form, the character 島 also had the variant forms 嶋 and 嶌, but the 島 form became standard. The 辶 radical was once printed with two dots but was written one, so the written form with one dot became standard. The upper 丷 portion of the characters 半, 尊, and 平 was once printed as 八 and written 丷, Characters of the keisei monji group each contain a semantic part and a phonetic part. The choice was made to swap the phonetic parts with homophones which had fewer strokes, for example, 圍 was changed to 囲, because 韋 and 井 were homophones. Other simplifications of this method include 竊→窃, 廳→庁, 擔→担, there are also colloquial handwritten simplifications based on this model, in which various non-kanji symbols are used as onpu, for example 魔, 慶, 藤, and 機. In some cases, a character was replaced with a simpler character which neither had graphical resemblance, nor was homophonic. Examples include 登 → 正 and 登 → 丁, some kanji were simplified by removing entire components. Firstly, only a group of characters was simplified, with many characters outside this group retaining their earlier form
2.
Imperial Japanese Army
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The Imperial Japanese Army or IJA, literally Army of the Greater Japanese Empire, was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan, from 1871 to 1945. Later an Inspectorate General of Military Aviation became the agency with oversight of the army. During the Meiji Restoration, the forces loyal to Emperor Meiji were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist daimyōs of Satsuma. This central army, the Imperial Japanese Army, became even more essential after the abolition of the han system in 1871. One of the differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms, this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was an expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands and it marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Not surprisingly, the new led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the riots, led by Saigō Takamori, was the Satsuma Rebellion. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution, top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in matters more to military than to political leaders. By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well-equipped, however, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the weakness of the military of the Qing dynasty and this was the result by Japans 120, 000-strong western-style conscript army of two armies and five divisions, which was well-equipped and well-trained when compared with their Qing counterparts. The Treaty of Shimonoseki made the Qing defeat official, with a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan. In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified eventually resulting in the siege of the legations in Beijing
3.
Ministry of the Army (Japan)
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It existed from 1872 to 1945. The Army Ministry was created in April 1872, along with the Navy Ministry, initially, the Army Ministry was in charge of both administration and operational command of the Imperial Japanese Army. However, with the creation of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff in December 1878 and its primary role was to secure the army budget, weapons procurement, personnel, relations with the National Diet and the Cabinet and broad matters of military policy. The post of Army Minister was politically powerful, although a member of the Cabinet after the establishment of the cabinet system of government in 1885, the Army Minister was answerable directly to the Emperor and not the Prime Minister. From the time of its creation, the post of Army Minister was usually filled by an active-duty general in the Imperial Japanese Army. Abolished in 1913 under the administration of Yamamoto Gonnohyōe, the law was revived again in 1936 at the insistence of the Army General Staff by Prime Minister Hirota Kōki. At the same time, the Imperial Japanese Army prohibited its generals from accepting political offices except by permission from Imperial General Headquarters, taken together, these arrangements gave the Imperial Japanese Army an effective, legal right to nominate the Army Minister. After 1937, both the Army Minister and the Chief of the Army General Staff were members of the Imperial General Headquarters, warriors of the Rising Sun, A History of the Japanese Military. Soldiers of the Sun, The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army, foreign Office Files for Japan and the Far East
4.
Hideki Tojo
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After the end of the war, Tojo was arrested, sentenced to death for Japanese war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, and hanged on December 23,1948. Hideki Tojo was born in the Kōjimachi district of Tokyo on December 30,1884, as the 3rd son of Hidenori Tojo, under the bakufu, Japanese society was divided rigidly into four castes, the merchants, peasants, artisans and the samurai. The Tojo family came from the caste, through the Tojos were relatively lowly warrior retainers for the great damiyos that they had served for generations. Tojos father was a samurai turned Army officer and his mother was the daughter of a Buddhist priest, making his family very respectable, Tojo had an education typical of a Japanese youth in the Meiji era. Japanese girls who were taught it was the highest honor for a woman to have as many sons as possible who could die for the Emperor in war. Japanese schools in the Meiji era were very competitive, and there was no tradition of sympathy with failures, Tojo was of average intelligence, but he was known to compensate for his limited intelligence with a willingness to work extremely hard. Tojos boyhood hero was the 17th century shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu who issued the injunction, Avoid the things you like, Tojo liked to say, I am just an ordinary man possessing no shining talents. Anything I have achieved I owe to my capacity for hard work, in 1899, Tojo entered the Army Cadet School. When he graduated from the Japanese Military Academy in March 1905 he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the infantry of the IJA. Tojos anger at the Treaty of Portsmouth left him with a dislike of Americans. In 1909, Tojo married Katsuko Ito, with whom he would have three sons and four daughters, in 1918-19, Tojo briefly served in Siberia as part of the Japanese expeditionary force sent to intervene in the Russian Civil War. Tojo served as Japanese military attache to Germany between 1919-1922, a stern, humorless man, Tojo was known for his brusque manner, his obsession with etiquette, and for his coldness. Tojo wrote with bitterness at the time that American whites would never accept Asians as equals, Japan, too, has to be strong to survive in the world. By 1928, he had become the chief of the Japanese Army. He began to take an interest in militarist politics during his command of the 8th Infantry Regiment. Reflecting the hermaphrodite imagery often used in Japan to describe people in power, Tojo often visited the homes of the men under his command, assisted his men with personal problems and made loans to officers short of money. In 1934, Tojo was promoted to general and served as Chief of the Personnel Department within the Army Ministry. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū, a book published in March 1934 by the Army Ministry calling for Japan to become a national defense state
5.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
6.
Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors
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All military personnel were required to memorize the 2700 kanji document. The Rescript was issued by Emperor Meiji of Japan on 4 January 1882 and it was considered the most important document in the development of the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy. The Imperial Rescript was primarily written by Inoue Kowashi and Yamagata Aritomo, the Rescript was presented to Army Minister Yamagata Aritomo directly by Emperor Meiji in person in a special ceremony held at the Tokyo Imperial Palace. This unprecedented action was meant to symbolize the personal bond between the Emperor and the military, making the military in effect, the Emperors personal army, coming shortly after the Satsuma Rebellion, the Rescript stressed absolute personal loyalty of each individual member of the military to the Emperor. The Rescript also advises military personnel to be frugal in their personal habits, however, a clause that the military was subordinate to civilian authority did not make it into the final draft. A famous precept in the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors states that duty is heavier than a mountain, text of the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors
7.
Filial piety
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In Confucian philosophy, filial piety is a virtue of respect for ones parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian classic Xiao Jing or Classic of Xiào, thought to be written around the Qin-Han period, has historically been the source on the Confucian tenet of xiào / filial piety. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his student Zeng Shen, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiào, Filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, one of the most famous collections of such stories is The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars. These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past, while China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them, historian Hugh D. R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers, Filial piety is illustrated by the Chinese character xiao. The character is a combination of the character lao above the character zi, that is, in Korean Confucianism, the character 孝 is pronounced hyo. In Vietnamese, the character 孝 is written in Quoc Ngu as hiếu, in Japanese, the term is generally used in spoken and written language as 親孝行, oyakoukou, adding characters for parent and conduct to make the word more specific. For Confucius, filial piety was not merely blind loyalty to ones parents, more important than the norms of xiào were the norms of rén and yì. For Confucius and Mencius, xiào was a display of rén which was applied in ones dealings with all elders. However, in practice, xiào was usually reserved for ones own parents and grandparents, Filial piety was emphasized in Confucianism because devotion to ones parents was often associated with ones devotion to the state. Early Buddhism did not have a tradition of filial piety. Buddhism in India involved many men leaving or abandoning their families, parents, wives, the true Buddhist had to reject all family ties, just as they had to reject social and class ties if they were to pursue Nirvana. Family was viewed as just another encumbrance of mortal life that had to be dealt with, sorrow and grief were said to be born of those who are dear. In India, Buddhism also advocated celibacy among its monks which was unacceptable in the Confucian world view, when Buddhism was introduced to China, it was redefined to support filial piety. The Mouzi Lihuolun, a work defending Buddhism to the Chinese, presented arguments for Buddhist monks seemingly poor treatment of their parents, the Guiyangtu and Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra are also Buddhist works portraying lay householder duties and obligations in contrast with pure monastic renunciation. The Mouzi Lihuolun compares the Buddhist monk to a son who saves his father from drowning. A long time ago, the Chi people crossed a river in a boat
8.
Shinto
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Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified Shinto religion, practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods. The word Shinto was adopted, originally as Jindō or Shindō, from the written Chinese Shendao, the oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as spirits, essences or gods, Kami and people are not separate, they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, Shinto has 81,000 shrines and 85,000 priests in the country. According to Inoue, In modern scholarship, the term is used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals. In these contexts, Shinto takes on the meaning of Japans traditional religion, as opposed to religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam. Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories, Shrine Shinto and it consists in taking part in worship practices and events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions usually attached to Buddhist temples, the current successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80,000 shrines nationwide. Folk Shinto includes the folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing, some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions. Sect Shinto is a designation originally created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities. These communities originated especially in the Edo period, the basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a later development and grew self-consciously. They can identify a founder, a set of teachings. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, and usually classified under five headings, pure Shinto sects, Confucian sects, mountain worship sects, purification sects, and faith-healing sects. Koshintō, literally Old Shinto, is a reconstructed Shinto from before the time of Buddhism, today based on Ainu religion and it continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane. Many other sects and schools can be distinguished, Kami or shin is defined in English as god, spirit, spiritual essence, all these terms meaning the energy generating a thing. Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms, rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami
9.
Kami
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Kami are the spirits or phenomena that are worshiped in the religion of Shinto. They can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, as well as beings and the qualities that these beings express, and include the spirits of venerated dead persons. Many kami are considered the ancient ancestors of entire clans, traditionally, great or sensational leaders like the Emperor could be kami. In Shinto, kami are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, good and they are manifestations of musubi, the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards. Kami are believed to be “hidden” from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own, to be in harmony with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature is to be conscious of kannagara no michi. Though the word kami is translated in multiple ways into English, in this way, the ambiguity of the meaning of kami is necessary, as it conveys the ambiguous nature of kami themselves. Kami is the Japanese word for a god, deity, divinity and it has been used to describe mind, God, supreme being, one of the Shinto deities, an effigy, a principle, and anything that is worshipped. Although deity is the interpretation of kami, some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term. The wide variety of usage of the word can be compared to the Sanskrit Deva and the Hebrew Elohim, some etymological suggestions are, Kami may, at its root, simply mean spirit, or an aspect of spirituality. It is written with the kanji 神, Sino-Japanese reading shin or jin, in Chinese, the character means deity. In the Ainu language, the word refers to an animistic concept very similar to Japanese kami. In his Kojiki-den, Motoori Norinaga gave a definition of kami. any being whatsoever which possesses some eminent quality out of the ordinary, because Japanese does not normally distinguish grammatical number in nouns, it is sometimes unclear whether kami refers to a single or multiple entities. When a singular concept is needed, -kami or -kamisama is used as a suffix. The logograms for kami-sama are those used for shén yàng in Pŭtōnghuà, kami-sama can be used for a divinity, or for a human, such as Tezuka Osamu. The term generally used to refer to multiple kami is kamigami, gender is also not implied in the word kami, and as such it can be used to reference either male or female. The word megami, the use of female kami is a new tradition. The Kojiki also includes descriptions of various kami, in the ancient Shinto traditions there were 5 defining characteristics of kami. They can nurture and love when respected, or they can cause destruction, Kami must be appeased in order to gain their favor and avoid their wrath
10.
Operation Downfall
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Operation Downfall was the codename for the proposed Allied plan for the invasion of Japan near the end of World War II. The planned operation was abandoned when Japan surrendered following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The operation had two parts, Operations Olympic and Coronet, later, in the spring of 1946, Operation Coronet was the planned invasion of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo, on the Japanese island of Honshu. Airbases on Kyūshū captured in Operation Olympic would allow land-based air support for Operation Coronet, if Downfall had taken place, it would have been the largest amphibious operation in history. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high, depending on the degree to which Japanese civilians would have resisted the invasion, estimates ran up into the millions for Allied casualties. Leahy, and Generals of the Army George Marshall and Hap Arnold, at the time, MacArthur was also being considered for promotion to a special super rank of General of the Armies, so as to be granted operational authority over other five-star officers. However, the proposal to promote MacArthur was only at the level of discussion by the time World War II ended. Once the atomic bomb became available, General Marshall envisioned using it to support the invasion if sufficient numbers could be produced in time, throughout the Pacific War, the Allies were unable to agree on a single Commander-in-Chief. A unified command was deemed necessary for an invasion of Japan, interservice rivalry over who it should be was so serious that it threatened to derail planning. Ultimately, the Navy partially conceded, and MacArthur was to be given command of all forces. The primary considerations that the planners had to deal with were time, prior to the Quebec Conference,1943, a joint British-American planning team produced a plan which did not call for an invasion of the Japanese home islands until 1947–48. The American Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that prolonging the war to such an extent was dangerous for national morale, instead, at the Quebec conference, the Combined Chiefs of Staff agreed that Japan should be forced to surrender not more than one year after Germanys surrender. The United States Navy urged the use of a blockade and airpower to bring about Japans capitulation, the Army, on the other hand, argued that such a strategy could prolong the war indefinitely and expend lives needlessly, and therefore that an invasion was necessary. They supported mounting a large-scale thrust directly against the Japanese homeland, physically, Japan made an imposing target, distant from other landmasses and with very few beaches geographically suitable for sea-borne invasion. Only Kyūshū and the beaches of the Kantō plain were realistic invasion zones, the Allies decided to launch a two-stage invasion. Operation Olympic would attack southern Kyūshū, airbases would be established, which would give cover for Operation Coronet, the attack on Tokyo Bay. While the geography of Japan was known, the US military planners had to estimate the forces that they would face
11.
Japanese archipelago
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It consists of islands from the Sakhalin island arc and the Northeastern Japan arc. The term Home Islands was used at the end of World War II to define the area of Japan to which its sovereignty, the term is also commonly used today to distinguish the archipelago from Japans colonies and other territories in the first half of the 20th century. The archipelago consists of 6,852 islands, of which 430 are inhabited, the four main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, Honshu is the largest and referred to as the Japanese mainland. Sakhalin, part of the Russian Federation, is considered to be geographically part of the Japanese archipelago. Changes to the Japanese archipelago over time, Geography of Japan List of islands of Japan 37°30′52″N 137°42′44″E, center of mass
12.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
13.
Korechika Anami
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Korechika Anami was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II, and was War Minister at the time of the surrender of Japan. Anami was born in Taketa city in Ōita Prefecture, where his father was a bureaucrat in the Home Ministry and grew up in Tokyo. He attended the 18th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, in November 1918, Anami graduated from the 30th class of the Army Staff College with the rank of captain. He was assigned to the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff from April 1919 and was promoted to major in February 1922, Anami was promoted to lieutenant colonel in August 1925. From August–December 1925, Anami was sent as a military attaché to France, on his return to Japan, he was assigned to the 45th Infantry Regiment, and became unit commander in August 1928. From August 1929 to August 1930, Anami served as Aide-de-camp to Emperor Hirohito and he was then promoted to colonel. From August 1933-August 1934, Anami served as commander of the 2nd Guard Regiment of the Imperial Guards. He was subsequently Commandant of the Tokyo Military Preparatory School, from August 1936, Anami served as Chief of the Military Administration Bureau of the War Ministry. He became Chief of the Personnel Bureau in March 1937 and was promoted to lieutenant general in March the following year, with the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Anami was given a combat command, as Commander of the IJA 109th Division in China from November 1938. He was recalled to Japan in October 1939 to assume the role of Vice-Minister of War in the cabinet of Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe, Anami belonged to the clique which supported the rise of Hideki Tojo to power in October 1941. However, in April 1941, Anami returned to China as Commander in Chief of the IJA 11th Army and he was transferred to the Japanese Second Area Army in Manchukuo in July 1942. In May 1943, Anami was promoted to full general, Anami was recalled to Japan December 1944, becoming Inspector General of Army Aviation and Chief of the Army Aeronautical Department, while concurrently serving on the Supreme War Council. In April 1945, he was appointed War Minister in the cabinet of Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki, instead, he ordered his officers to concede, later saying to his brother-in-law, As a Japanese soldier, I must obey my Emperor. He informed the officers of the War Ministry of the decision, on 14 August 1945, Anami signed the surrender document with the rest of the cabinet, then committed suicide by seppuku early the next morning. His suicide note read, I—with my death—humbly apologize to the Emperor for the great crime and this cryptic note is open to multiple interpretations. Anamis grave is at Tama Cemetery, in Fuchū, Tokyo and his sword and blood-splattered dress uniform and suicide note are on display at the Yūshūkan Museum next to Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. Anamis son Anami Koreshige served as Japans ambassador to China from 2001 to 2006, behind Japans Surrender, The Secret Struggle That Ended an Empire. Downfall, The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire, the Rising Sun, The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945
14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
15.
Embracing Defeat
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Embracing Defeat, Japan in the Wake of World War II is a history book written by John W. Dower and published by W. W. Norton & Company in 1999. L. Winship/PEN New England Award, the Mark Lynton History Prize and the 1999 Los Angeles Times Book Prize, Dower, John W. Embracing defeat, Japan in the wake of World War II. Empire of Japan Japanese resistance during the Shōwa period Embracing Defeat on Open Library at the Internet Archive First Chapter Interview with Dower on Embracing Defeat, Booknotes, March 26,2000
16.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
17.
Agriculture in the Empire of Japan
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Agriculture in the Empire of Japan was an important component of the pre-war Japanese economy. Although Japan had only 16% of its area under cultivation before the Pacific War. Japanese cultivated land was dedicated to rice, which accounted for 15% of world rice production in 1937. After the end of the Tokugawa bakufu with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, by the end of the Meiji period, over 67% of all peasant families were driven into tenancy, and farm productivity stagnated. As tenants were forced to pay over half their crop as rent, they were forced to send wives. These cooperatives served in areas as credit unions, purchasing cooperatives and assisted in the marketing. The Imperial Agricultural Association was an organization for agricultural cooperatives in the Empire of Japan. It was established in 1910, and provided assistance to cooperatives through transmission of agricultural research. The Imperial Agricultural Association was at the peak of a three tier structure of system of agricultural cooperatives. Increasing tenant farmer disputes and issues with landlordism also led to increasing government regulation, after the Rice Riots of 1918, many peasants came under the influence of the urban labor movement with socialist, communist and/or agrarian ideas, which created a serious political issues. In 1922, the Nihon Nomin Kumiai was formed for collective bargaining for cultivator rights, by the 1930s, the growth of the urban economy and flight of farmers to the cities gradually weakened the hold of the landlords. The interwar years saw the rapid introduction of mechanized agriculture. Another duty of the organization was to secure supply to local markets. It was dissolved after World War II. Farmed land in 1937 was 14,940,000 acres, the proportion of farmed land rose from 11. 8% in 1887 to 13. 7% in 1902, and 14. 4% in 1912 to 15. 7% in 1919. This fell to 15. 4% in 1929, there were 5,374,897 farmers at an average 2.67 acres per family, in comparison with any American farmer family with 155 acres. These were larger in Hokkaidō and Karafuto and reduced by 2 acres in southwest area, the intense culture, fertilizers and scientific development, raised the yield to 43 bushels per acre in 1936. In some parts of southern Japan, the subtropical climate favored a double harvest, other important cereals were wheat, maize, rye, millet barley, with potatoes and some production of soybean
18.
Censorship in the Empire of Japan
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Censorship in the Empire of Japan was a continuation of a long tradition beginning in the feudal period of Japan. With the Meiji Restoration, the focus of censorship of information shifted to protection of the Emperor. Initially intended to serve as a law, it was quickly adopted as a method of controlling public anti-government criticism. With the establishment of the system of government, the Home Ministry was assigned this task. During the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the censorship laws were revised again in the Publication Law of 1893, which remained virtually unchanged until 1949. Newspaper regulations followed suit in the Press Law of 1909, which followed the regulations of the 1893 Publication Law, after the end of World War I, the Peace Preservation Law of 1925 increased police powers to prosecute promoters of socialism and of the Korean independence movement. Censorship restrictions were expanded to cover religious groups. In 1928, the penalty was added for certain violations. In 1924, the Publications Monitoring Department of the Home Ministry was created with separate sections for censorship, investigation, penalties for violations increased in severity, and voice recordings also came under official purview. The activities of this committee, a consortium of military, politicians, article 14 prohibited any photographs of atrocities but endorsed reports about the cruelty of the Chinese soldiers and civilians. Giving the example of the Nanjing massacre, Tokushi Kasahara of Tsuru University asserts and they always show some photographs with Nanjing refugees selling some food in the streets or Chinese people smiling in the camps. They are forgetting about Japanese propaganda, the Imperial Army imposed strict censorship. Any photographs with dead bodies couldnt get through, one of the most famous examples of censorship is related to Mugi to heitai, Ashihei Hinos wartime bestseller. A paragraph in which the described the beheading of three Chinese soldiers was cut from the final section of the book despite the authors dedication to the war effort. The new Jōhōkyoku had complete control over all news, advertising and it was headed by a president responsible directly to the Prime minister with a staff of about 600 people including military officers and officials from the Home and Foreign ministries. In February 1941 it distributed among editors a black list of writers whose articles they were advised not to print anymore, the officials spokesmen of the Naikaku Johōkyoku, such as the vice-president Hideo Okumura, Major-General Nakao Nahagi and Captain Hideo Hiraide, became themselves the most popular commentators. These men addressed press conferences, spoke on the radio and wrote in newspapers, the Naikaku Johōkyoku however dealt only with civilian matters. War bulletins were the domain of the Daihonei hōdōbu, the Press Department of the Imperial General Headquarters which was made up of the sections of the Army
19.
Demography of Imperial Japan
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This article deals with the population of the Empire of Japan. See also demographics of Japan and demographics of Japan before Meiji Restoration and these were comparable to the population of the United Kingdom, France and Austria-Hungary. Meiji government established the uniformed registered system of koseki in 1872, the first national census based on full sampling of inhabitants was conducted in Japan in 1920, and was conducted every five years thereafter. In Japan proper, the population of cities was as follows, In 1937 Japanese demographers projected the Japanese population in 1980 to reach 100,000,000. Japan annexed Taiwan after the First Sino-Japanese War, while victory in the Russo-Japanese War gained Japan the Kwantung Leased Territory, Karafuto and these acquisitions increased the area controlled by Japanese to 262,912 square miles. These numbers included 30,190,000 Chinese,590,760 Japanese, the Chinese numbers included 680,000 ethnic Koreans. This was in addition to the Japanese military garrison of approximately 300,000 men in 1937, between 1938 and 1942 a contingent of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo, joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. In Shinkyō Japanese made up 25% of the population, by 1940, the total population of Manchukuo was estimated at 36,933,000, which included approximately 1 million Japanese civilian and 500,000 Japanese military personnel. These figures exclude that of the Kwantung Leased Territory and Dalien, taeuber Irene B. and Beal, Edwin G. The Demographic Heritage of the Japanese Empire, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.237, World Population in Transition, pp
20.
Economic history of Japan
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Renaissance Europeans were quite admiring of Japan when they reached the country in the 16th century. Japan was to become an exporter of copper and silver during the period. Japan was also perceived as a feudal society with a high culture. It was densely populated and urbanized, prominent European observers of the time seemed to agree that the Japanese excel not only all the other Oriental peoples, they surpass the Europeans as well. Early European visitors were amazed by the quality of Japanese craftsmanship and this stems from the fact that Japan itself is rather poor in natural resources found commonly in Europe, especially iron. Thus, the Japanese were famously frugal with their consumable resources, the cargo of the first Portuguese ships that arrived in Japan consisted almost entirely of Chinese goods. The Japanese were very much looking forward to acquiring such goods, the Portuguese therefore found the opportunity to act as intermediaries in Asian trade. The carracks were very large ships, usually between 1000 and 1500 tons, about double or triple the size of a large galleon or junk and that trade continued with few interruptions until 1638, when it was prohibited on the ground that the ships were smuggling priests into Japan. The Dutch, who, rather than Nanban were called Kōmō by the Japanese, first arrived in Japan in 1600 and their pilot was William Adams, the first Englishman to reach Japan. In 1605, two of the Liefdes crew were sent to Pattani by Tokugawa Ieyasu, to invite Dutch trade to Japan, the head of the Pattani Dutch trading post, Victor Sprinckel, refused on the ground that he was too busy dealing with Portuguese opposition in Southeast Asia. In 1609 however, the Dutch Jacques Specx arrived with two ships in Hirado, and through Adams obtained trading privileges from Ieyasu. The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period, during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. Also during that period, the bakufu commissioned around 350 Red Seal Ships, three-masted and armed trade ships, Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, were active throughout Asia. In order to eradicate the influence of Christianization, Japan entered in a period of isolation called sakoku, during which its economy enjoyed stability, the construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, han authorities oversaw the agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts. By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of more than 1 million and Osaka, many other castle towns grew as well. Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food, Rice was the base of the economy, as the daimyo collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, about 40% of the harvest, the rice was sold at the fudasashi market in Edo
21.
Education in the Empire of Japan
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Overseas missions such as the Iwakura Mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. With the aid of foreign advisors, such as David Murray and Marion McCarrell Scott, other advisors, such as George Adams Leland, were recruited to create specific types of curriculum. However, they added a new curriculum which emphasized conservative, traditional ideals more reflective of Japanese values, confucian precepts were stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new Meiji state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education, along with highly centralized government control over education, in December,1885, the cabinet system of government was established, and Mori Arinori became the first Minister of Education of Japan. Mori, together with Inoue Kowashi created the foundation of the Empire of Japans educational system by issuing a series of orders from 1886 and these laws established an elementary school system, middle school system, normal school system and an imperial university system. Elementary school was compulsory from 1872, and was intended to create loyal subjects of the Emperor. With the increasing industrialization of Japan, demand increased for higher education, Inoue Kowashi, who followed Mori as Minister of Education established a state vocational school system, and also promoted womens education through a separate girls school system. Compulsory education was extended to six years in 1907, according to the new laws, textbooks could only be issued upon the approval of the Ministry of Education. All children of the same age learned each subject from the series of textbook. During the Taishō and early Shōwa periods, from 1912-1937, the system in Japan became increasingly centralized. From 1917-1919, the government created the Extraordinary Council on Education, one of the main emphases of the Council was in higher education. Prior to 1918, university was synonymous with imperial university, but as a result of the Council, the Council also introduced subsidies for families too poor to afford the tuitions for compulsory education, and also pushed for more emphasis on moral education. During this period, new social currents, including socialism, communism, anarchism, the New Educational Movement led to teachers unions and student protest movements against the nationalist educational curriculum. The government responded with increased repression, and adding some influences from the German system in an attempt to increase the patriotic spirit, the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors became compulsory reading for students during this period. Specialized schools for the blind and for the deaf were established as early as 1878, Blind people were encouraged toward vocations such as massage, acupuncture, physical therapy and piano tuning. The Seinen Gakkō also conducted classes at night for working boys and girls, Normal schools were renamed Specialized Schools, and were often affiliated with a university. The Senmon Gakkō taught medicine, law, economics, commerce, agricultural science, the aim of the Senmon Gakkō was to produce a professional class, rather than intellectual elite. In the pre-war period, all higher school for women were Senmon Gakkō, after the start of the Pacific War in 1941, nationalistic and militaristic indoctrination were further strengthened
22.
Japanese militarism
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The military had a strong influence on Japanese society from the Meiji Restoration. Almost all leaders in Japanese society during the Meiji period were ex-samurai or descendants of samurai, domestic issues within early Meiji Japan also called for a strong military. The early Meiji government was threatened by internal revolts, such as the Saga Rebellion and Satsuma Rebellion, Yamagata like many Japanese was strongly influenced by the recent striking success of Prussia in transforming itself from an agricultural state to a leading modern industrial and military power. He accepted Prussian political ideas, which favored military expansion abroad, in response to a Japanese request, Prussian Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke sent Meckel to Japan to become an O-yatoi gaikokujin. In Japan, Meckel worked closely with future Prime Ministers General Katsura Tarō and General Yamagata Aritomo, a bust of Meckel was sited in front of the Japanese Army Staff College from 1909 through 1945. Although his period in Japan was relatively short, Meckel had a impact on the development of the Japanese military. He is credited with having introduced Clausewitzs military theories and the Prussian concept of war games in a process of refining tactics. With a more aggressive policy, and victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War and over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. Due to the lack of resources in Japanese home islands, raw materials such as iron, oil, the success of Japan in securing Taiwan and Korea had brought Japan primarily agricultural colonies. In terms of resources, the Japanese military looked towards Manchurias iron and coal, Indochinas rubber, however, the army was at variance with the zaibatsu financial and industrial corporations on how to manage economic expansion, a conflict also affecting domestic politics. Also forming part of the basis for the growth of militarism was the freedom from civilian control enjoyed by the Japanese armed forces, in 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army established the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff office, modeled after the Prussian General Staff. This office was independent of, and equal to the Ministry of War of Japan in terms of authority, the Imperial Japanese Navy soon followed with the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff. These General Staff offices were responsible for the planning and execution of military operations, as the Chiefs of the General Staff were not cabinet ministers, they did not report to the Prime Minister of Japan, and were thus completely independent of any civilian oversight or control. The Army and the Navy also had decisive say on the formation of any civilian government, in reality, while this tactic was used only one time, the threat always loomed high when the military made any demands on the civilian leadership. Patriotic education also strengthened the sense of a hakko ichiu, or a mission to unify Asia under Japanese rule. A turning point came with the ratification of the London Naval Treaty of 1930, Prime Minister Osachi Hamaguchi and his Minseito party agreed to a treaty which would severely limit Japanese naval power. The Japanese system of party government finally met its demise with the May 15 Incident in 1932, Japan had been involved in the Asian continent continuously from the First Sino-Japanese War, Boxer Rebellion, Russo-Japanese War, World War I and the Siberian Intervention. During the term of Prime Minister Tanaka Giichi from 1927 to 1929, the Manchurian Incident of September 1931 did not fail, and it set the stage for the Japanese military takeover of all of Manchuria
23.
Japanese nationalism
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Japanese nationalism is the nationalism that asserts that the Japanese are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of the Japanese. Some prominent daimyō promoted the concept of fukko, while others promoted ōsei, the terms were not mutually exclusive, merging into the sonnō jōi concept, which in turn was a major driving force in starting the Meiji Restoration. The Meiji Constitution of 1889 defined allegiance to the State as the citizens highest duty, the extreme disparity in economic and military power between Japan and the Western colonial powers was a great cause for concern for the early Meiji leadership. The motto Fukoku kyōhei symbolized Meiji period nationalistic policies to provide government support to strengthen strategic industries, Government policies also laid the basis of later industrialist empires known as the zaibatsu. As a residue of its use in propaganda during the 19th century, military nationalism in Japan was often known as bushidō. An important early role was played by Yamaga Sokō in theorizing a Japanese military ethos, the Imperial Rescript for Seamen and Soldiers, presented Japan as a sacred nation protected by the gods. Sadao Araki played an important role in adapting a doctrine of seishin kyōiku as a backbone for army personnel. As Minister of Education, he supported the integration of the code into the national education system. This Restoration Shintōist Movement began with Motoori Norinaga in the 18th century, Motoori Norinaga, and later Hirata Atsutane, based their research on the Kojiki and other classic Shintō texts which teach the superiority of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. This formed the basis for State Shintōism, as the Japanese emperor claimed direct descent from Amaterasu, the emperor himself was therefore sacred, and all proclamations of the emperor had thus a religious significance. In 1890, the Imperial Rescript on Education was issued, the practice of emperor worship was further spread by distributing imperial portraits for esoteric veneration. The hakko ichiu philosophy became popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and this came to be regarded by militarists as a doctrine that the emperor was the center of the phenomenal world, lending religious impetus to ideas of Japanese territorial expansion. The principal educational emphasis from the Meiji period was on the importance of traditional national political values, religion. The Japanese state modernized organizationally, but preserved its national idiosyncrasies, the attitude reinforced from 1905 was that Japan was to be a powerful nation, equal at least to the Western powers. During the Shōwa period the system was used for supporting the militarized state. The government published official text books for all levels of student, emphasis on the texts such as the Kokutai-no-shugi in schools was intended to emphasize the uniqueness of Japan from ancient centuries. These cultural courses were supplemented with military and survival courses against foreign invasion, apart from indoctrination in nationalism and religion, children and school students received military drills. These were taken further by the Imperial Youth Federation, college students were trained, young women received first aid training
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State Shinto
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State Shintō describes Empire of Japans ideological use of the native folk traditions of Shinto. The state strongly encouraged Shinto practices to emphasize the Emperor as a divine being and this was exercised through control of finances and training regimes for priests. The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era, scholars believed that Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperors divine origins, not religious belief, and that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state. For the state, Shinto was seen as a moral tradition. Early Meiji-era attempts to unite Shinto and state failed, but this concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy. Shrines were defined as patriotic, not religious, institutions, which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead, the state also integrated local shrines into political functions, occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment. With fewer shrines financed by the state, nearly 80,000 closed or merged with neighbors, many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives, regardless of funding. By 1940, Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally religious Shinto ceremonies, Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto. US military leaders introduced the term State Shinto to differentiate the states ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive and that decree established Shinto as a religion, and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state. Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions, Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices, court manners, and spirit-worship which dates back to at least 600 AD. These beliefs were first unified as Shinto during the Meiji era, Shinto has no set of doctrines or founder, but draws from a set of creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki. The 1945 Shinto Directive of the United States General Headquarters introduced the State Shinto distinction as it began governing Japan after the world war. The State Shinto term was used to categorize, and abolish. By refusing to ban Shinto practices outright, Japans post-war constitution was thus able to preserve full Freedom of Religion, the definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term Shinto, which was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology. Most generally, State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into the national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868 and it is often described as any state-supported, Shinto-inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration, unity, and loyalty. State Shinto was not a designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period. This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect a State Shinto position without the control of the state. The extent of support for the actions categorized as State Shinto is the subject of debate
25.
Kazoku
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The Kazoku was the hereditary peerage of the Empire of Japan, which existed between 1869 and 1947. Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the ancient court nobility of Kyoto, at the time, the kuge and former daimyo consisted of a group of 427 families. All members of the kazoku without a government appointment in the provinces were initially obliged to reside in Tokyo. By the end of 1869, a system was adopted. The stipends promised by the government were replaced by government bonds. Thus, the heirs of the five regent houses of the Fujiwara dynasty all became princes, the heads of other kuge houses became marquesses. Also, the head of the Shō family, the royal family of the Ryūkyū Kingdom, was given the title of marquess. When the Korean Empire was annexed in 1910, the House of Yi was mediatized as an incorporated, the head of the Matsudaira branch was raised to the rank of marquess from the rank of count in 1888. In 1902, the former shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu was created a prince, the Mōri and Shimazu clans were both ennobled as princes in 1884 for their role in the Meiji Restoration, the Yamauchi clan was given the rank of marquess. The heads of the main Asano, Ikeda, Kuroda, Satake, Nabeshima, Hachisuka, Hosokawa, the head of the Date-Uwajima clan was raised to the rank of a marquess in 1891. Many of those who had significant roles in the Meiji Restoration, as in the British peerage, only the actual holder of a title and his consort were considered part of the kazoku. The holders of the top two ranks, prince and marquess, automatically became members of the House of Peers in the Diet of Japan upon their succession or upon majority. Counts, viscounts and barons elected up to 150 representatives from their ranks to sit in the House of Peers, a 1904 amendment to the 1889 Imperial Household Law allowed minor princes of the imperial family to renounce their imperial status and become peers or heirs to childless peers. Initially there were 11 non-imperial princes,24 marquesses,76 counts,324 viscounts and 74 barons, by 1928, through promotions and new creations, there were a total of 954 peers,18 non-imperial princes,40 marquesses,108 counts,379 viscounts and 409 barons. The kazoku reached a peak of 1016 families in 1944, the 1946 Constitution of Japan abolished the kazoku and ended the use of all titles of nobility or rank outside the immediate Imperial Family. Nonetheless, many descendants of former kazoku families continue to occupy prominent roles in Japanese society, austrian nobility, which was likewise abolished in the aftermath of World War I Monbatsu Jansen, Marius B. Above the Clouds, Status Culture of the Modern Japanese Nobility, berkeley, California, University of California Press. In Name Only, Imperial Sovereignty in Early Modern Japan, some Information on Nobility, Peerage and Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan — Information on Japanese nobility with additional sources
26.
Emperor Meiji
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Emperor Meiji, or Meiji the Great, was the 122nd Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from February 3,1867 until his death on July 30,1912. By the time of his death in 1912, Japan had undergone a political, social, and industrial revolution at home and emerged as one of the great powers on the world stage. The New York Times summed up this transformation at his funeral in 1912, with the words, before it went old Japan, after it came new Japan. Having ruled during the Meiji period, the Emperor is thus known as the Meiji Emperor or simply Emperor Meiji. His personal name, which is not used in any formal or official context, the Tokugawa shogunate had established itself in the early 17th century. Under its rule, the shogun governed Japan, about 180 lords, known as daimyō, ruled autonomous realms under the shogun, who occasionally called upon the daimyō for gifts, but did not tax them. The shogun controlled the daimyō in other ways, only the shogun could approve their marriages, and the shogun could divest a daimyō of his lands. In 1615, the first Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had retired from his position, and his son Tokugawa Hidetada. Under it, the Emperor was required to devote his time to scholarship, the Emperors under the shogunate appear to have closely adhered to this code, studying Confucian classics and devoting time to poetry and calligraphy. They were only taught the rudiments of Japanese and Chinese history, the shogun did not seek the consent or advice of the Emperor for his actions. Emperors almost never left their compound, or Gosho in Kyoto. Few Emperors lived long enough to retire, of the Meiji Emperors five predecessors, only his grandfather lived into his forties, dying aged forty-six. The Imperial Family suffered very high rates of infant mortality, all five of the Emperors brothers and sisters died as infants, soon after taking control in the early seventeenth century, shogunate officials ended much Western trade with Japan, and barred missionaries from the islands. In addition to the substantial Chinese trade, only the Dutch continued trade with Japan, however, by the early 19th century, European and American vessels appeared in the waters around Japan with increasing frequency. Prince Mutsuhito was born on November 3,1852 in a house on his maternal grandfathers property at the north end of the Gosho. At the time, a birth was believed to be polluting, so imperial princes were not born in the Palace, the boys mother, Nakayama Yoshiko, was a concubine to his father Emperor Kōmei, and was the daughter of the acting major counselor, Nakayama Tadayasu. The young prince was given the name Sachinomiya, or Prince Sachi, the young prince was born at a time of change for Japan. This change was symbolized dramatically when Commodore Matthew Perry and his squadron of what the Japanese dubbed the Black Ships, Perry sought to open Japan to trade, and warned the Japanese of military consequences if they did not agree
27.
Hirohito
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Emperor Shōwa was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from December 25,1926, until his death on January 7,1989. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito, upon his death, although better known outside Japan by his personal name Hirohito, in Japan, he is now referred to primarily by his posthumous name Emperor Shōwa. The word Shōwa is the name of the era that corresponded with the Emperors reign, the name Hirohito means abundant benevolence. He was the head of state under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan during Japans imperial expansion, militarization, born in Tokyos Aoyama Palace, Hirohito was the first son of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Crown Princess Sadako. He was the grandson of Emperor Meiji and Yanagihara Naruko and his childhood title was Prince Michi. At the age of 3, Hirohito and his brother Chichibu were returned to court when Kawamura died – first to the mansion in Numazu, Shizuoka. In 1908, he began studies at the Gakushūin. When his grandfather, Emperor Meiji, died on July 30,1912, Hirohitos father, Yoshihito, assumed the throne, in 1914, he was promoted to the ranks of lieutenant in the army and sub-lieutenant in the navy, then to captain and lieutenant in 1916. He was formally proclaimed Crown Prince and heir apparent on November 2,1916, Hirohito attended Gakushūin Peers School from 1908 to 1914 and then a special institute for the crown prince from 1914 to 1921. In 1920, Hirohito was promoted to the rank of Major in the army, in 1921, Hirohito took a six-month tour of Western Europe, including the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium. After his return to Japan, he became Regent of Japan on November 29,1921, in 1923, he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the army and Commander in the navy, and to army Colonel and Navy Captain in 1925. The Washington Naval Treaty was signed on February 6,1922, Japan withdrew troops from the Siberian Intervention on August 28,1922. The Great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo on September 1,1923, on December 27,1923, Daisuke Namba attempted to assassinate Hirohito in the Toranomon Incident but his attempt failed. During interrogation, he claimed to be a communist and was executed, the General Election Law was passed on May 5,1925, giving all men above age 25 the right to vote. Prince Hirohito married his distant cousin Princess Nagako Kuni, the eldest daughter of Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni and they had two sons and five daughters. On December 25,1926, Hirohito assumed the throne upon his father, Yoshihitos, the Crown Prince was said to have received the succession. The Taishō eras end and the Shōwa eras beginning were proclaimed, the deceased Emperor was posthumously renamed Emperor Taishō within days. Following Japanese custom, the new Emperor was never referred to by his name, but rather was referred to simply as His Majesty the Emperor
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Flag of Japan
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The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a red disc in the center. This flag is officially called Nisshōki in the Japanese language, but is commonly known as Hinomaru. The flag embodies Japans nickname as the Land of the Rising Sun, the Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem, which was promulgated and became effective on August 13,1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō-kan, the body of the early Meiji period. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No.57 of Meiji 3. Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the years of the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II. The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this importance of the sun. The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701, during the Meiji Restoration, both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride, in Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and these tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag. Public perception of the flag varies. Historically, both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese, since the end of World War II, the use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo has been a contentious issue for Japans public schools. Disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits, the flag is not frequently displayed in Japan due to its association with ultranationalism. To Okinawans, the flag represents the events of World War II, for some nations that have been occupied by Japan, the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism. The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation, asserting Japans dominance, several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru, including the sunrayed Naval Ensign. The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public, the exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown, but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century. In 607, a correspondence that began with from the Emperor of the rising sun was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui
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Rising Sun Flag
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The Rising Sun Flag design was originally used by feudal warlords in Japan during the Edo period. It is still used in Japan as a symbol of tradition and good fortune, the flag is currently flown by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force and a modified version is flown by the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force. The design is similar to the flag of Japan, which has a red circle in the center signifying the sun. The difference compared to the flag of Japan is that the Rising Sun Flag has extra sun rays exemplifying the name of Japan as The Land of the Rising Sun, the Imperial Japanese Army first adopted the Rising Sun Flag in 1870. The flag was used until Japans surrender in World War II during August 1945, after the establishment of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1954, the flag was re-adopted and approved by the GHQ. The flag with 16 rays is today the ensign of the Maritime Self-Defense Force while the Ground Self-Defense Force uses an 8-ray version, the Rising Sun Flag appears on commercial product labels, such as on the cans of one variety of Asahi Breweries lager beer. The design is incorporated into the logo of the Japanese newspaper Asahi Shimbun. Among fishermen, the tairyō-ki represents their hope for a catch of fish. The flag is used at sporting events by the supporters of Japanese teams. Some extreme right-wing groups display it at political protests. The flag is used by non-Japanese, for example, in the emblems of some U. S. military units based in Japan. Because of this, the use of the flag is considered to be controversial, although they complain about the rising sun flag, no country prohibits from using it by law. Moreover, the South Korean Navys position is that there are no problems with the carrying of the sun flag by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force warships. It would be an infringement of sovereignty if the Korean Navy requested to not carry the sun flag. Even China and South Korea, the countries that most often condemn the rising sun flag have hardly ever remarked about the use of the flag before the 2000s. In 2013, Sohn Yin-Choon, a member of the Congress in South Korea finally insisted that a law about the sun flag should be instituted. List of Japanese flags List of Japanese municipal flags Imperial Seal of Japan
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Imperial Seal of Japan
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It is a contrast to the Paulownia Seal used by the Japanese government. Therefore, each member of the Imperial family used a modified version of the seal. Shinto shrines either displayed the imperial seal or incorporated elements of the seal into their own emblems, the symbol is a yellow or orange chrysanthemum with black or red outlines and background. A central disc is surrounded by a front set of 16 petals, a rear set of 16 petals are half staggered in relation to the front set and are visible at the edges of the flower. An example of the chrysanthemum being used is in the badge for the Order of the Chrysanthemum, the Imperial Seal is also used on the standards of the Imperial Family. National seals of Japan Chrysanthemum Throne Imperial Seal of Korea Order of the Chrysanthemum
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Government Seal of Japan
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The Government Seal of Japan, one of the national seals, is an emblem of paulownia used by the Cabinet and the Government of Japan on official documents. It is one of various paulownia mon, collectively known as the Paulownia Seals or the Paulownia Flower Seals, the 5-7 Paulownia is used as the official emblem of the Prime Minister of Japan. It resembles a stylized paulownia with 5-7-5 flowers, before the Chrysanthemum Seal was used extensively, the Paulownia Seal originally was the private symbol of the Japanese Imperial Family, from as early as the twelfth century. The Toyotomi clan, led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, later adopted the Paulownia Seal for use as the crest of his clan, after the Meiji Restoration, the seal was eventually adopted as the emblem of the Japanese government. The most common one is the 5-3 Paulownia, consisting of three leaves and an inflorescence of 3-5-3 flowers and it is found in the emblem of the Ministry of Justice and the Imperial Guard Headquarters. According to a study by Nihon Kamon Kenkyukai, about 70% of the paulownia crests use Maru ni go-san kiri, the 5-7 Paulownia has been used by those in power and is the official emblem of the Prime Minister of Japan today. Mon National seals of Japan Order of the Paulownia Flowers University of Tsukuba Kamon Database by KamonDB, Kirimon Kamon Database by Studio Hata, Kirimon
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State Seal of Japan
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The Great Seal of Japan is one of the national seals of Japan and is used as the official seal of state. It is cubic, and its inscription 大日本國璽 is written in seal script and it is written vertically in two lines, with the right-hand side containing the characters 大日本, and the left-hand side containing the characters 國璽. The seal is made from gold, measures 3 sun. Abei Rekido, the Kyoto-based master-hand of the seal, was ordered to produce the seal, under the Meiji Constitution, the case where the Privy Seal or State Seal is used had been defined on the official note formula and the official formula code. However, the code was abolished with the enforcement of the Constitution of Japan, currently, the State Seal is only used for certificates of Japanese orders, given by the State. It is stored in a specially designated leather bag, when used, a special ruler is used to make sure the seal is imprinted correctly, and the cinnabar seal ink is specially made by the National Printing Bureau so that it will not bend or shift. If the State Seal or the Privy Seal are illegally reproduced, National seals of Japan Emperor Showa signing documents and using the State and Privy Seal of Japan
33.
Privy Seal of Japan
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The Privy Seal of Japan is one of the national seals and is the Emperor of Japans official seal. It is cubic, and its inscription 天皇御璽 is written in seal script and it has two lines of vertical writing, with the right-hand side containing the characters 天皇, and on the left-hand side containing the characters 御璽. The history of the Privy Seal of Japan dates back to the Nara period, although it was originally made from copper, it was manufactured from stone in 1868 and later, was made from pure gold. The present Privy Seal is pure gold and is about 3 sun in size, the master-hand of the seal was Abei Rekido, of Kyoto. He was commissioned to manufacture the State Seal of Japan within one year, when not in use, the seal is kept in a leather bag. The seal is used with special cinnabar seal ink specially made by the National Printing Bureau, National seals of Japan Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan Heirloom Seal of the Realm Emperor Showa signing documents and using the State and Privy Seal of Japan
34.
Kimigayo
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Kimigayo is the national anthem of Japan. Its lyrics are the oldest among the national anthems. Its lyrics are from a poem written in the Heian period. While the title Kimigayo is usually translated as His Imperial Majestys Reign, from 1888 to 1945 Kimigayo served as the national anthem of the Empire of Japan. When the Empire was dissolved following its surrender at the end of World War II and this successor state was a parliamentary democracy and the polity therefore changed from a system based on imperial sovereignty to one based on popular sovereignty. Emperor Shōwa was not dethroned, and Kimigayo was retained as the de facto national anthem, the passage of the Act on National Flag and Anthem in 1999 recognized it as the official national anthem. For example, the protagonist Hikaru Genji of the Tale of Genji is also called Hikaru no Kimi or Hikaru-gimi, but before Nara period, the emperor was often called ōkimi, so it is controversial whether the word kimi in kimigayo had meant emperor or not originally. In Kamakura period, Kimigayo was used as a festive song among samurai, in latter Edo period, Kimigayo was used in the Ōoku and Satsuma-han as a common festive new year song. In those contexts, kimi never meant the emperor but only the Tokugawa shogun, after the Meiji Restoration, samurai from Satsuma-han controlled the Imperial Japanese government and they adopted Kimigayo as the national anthem of Japan. From this time until the Japanese defeat in World War II, Kimigayo was understood to mean the long reign of the emperor. With the adoption of the Constitution of Japan in 1947, the emperor no longer a sovereign who ruled by divine right. The Ministry of Education did not give any new meanings for Kimigayo after the war, the Ministry also did not formally renounce the pre-war meaning of Kimigayo. In 1999, during the deliberations of the Act on National Flag and Anthem, and, the phrase Kimigayo indicates our State, Japan, which has the Emperor enthroned as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people by the consensus-based will of Japanese citizens. And it is reasonable to take the lyric of Kimigayo to mean the wish for the lasting prosperity and peace of such country of ours. Parties opposed to the Liberal Democratic Party, which was in control of the government at the time Obuchi was prime minister, strongly objected to the meaning of kimi. From the Democratic Party of Japan, members objected due to the lack of any ties to the meaning. Shii also objected to the use of the song as the anthem because for a democratic nation. The lyrics first appeared in the Kokin Wakashū, a poetry anthology, the poem was included in many anthologies, and was used in a later period as a celebration song of a long life by people of all social statures
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Meiji Constitution
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Enacted after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, it provided for a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy, based jointly on the Prussian and British models. Under the Meiji Constitution, the Prime Minister and his Cabinet were not necessarily chosen from the members of the Diet. Through the regular procedure for amendment of the Meiji Constitution, it was revised to become the Postwar Constitution on November 3,1946. The Diet primarily dictated domestic policy matters, the immediate consequence of the Constitution was the opening of the first Parliamentary government in Asia. The Meiji Constitution established clear limits on the power of the executive branch and it also created an independent judiciary. Civil rights and civil liberties were guaranteed, though in many cases they were subject to limitation by law, however, it was ambiguous in wording, and in many places self-contradictory. It was the struggle between these tendencies that dominated the government of the Empire of Japan, the Meiji Constitution was used as a model for the 1931 Ethiopian Constitution by the Ethiopian intellectual Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam. This was one of the reasons why the progressive Ethiopian intelligentsia associated with Tekle Hawariat were known as Japanizers, by the surrender in the World War II on 2 September 1945, the Empire of Japan was deprived of sovereignty by the Allies, and the Meiji Constitution was suspended. During the Occupation of Japan, the Meiji Constitution was replaced by a new document and this document—officially an amendment to the Meiji Constitution—replaced imperial rule with a form of Western-style liberal democracy. Prior to the adoption of the Meiji Constitution, Japan had in practice no written constitution, in theory the last ritsuryō code, the Yōrō Code enacted in 752, was still in force at the time of the Meiji Restoration. The high positions in the system remained as sinecures, and the emperor was de-powered and set aside as a symbolic figure who reigned. The idea of a constitution had been a subject of heated debate within. The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resembling democracy or republicanism with suspicion and trepidation, the Freedom and Peoples Rights Movement demanded the immediate establishment of an elected national assembly, and the promulgation of a constitution. The United States Constitution was rejected as too liberal, the French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism. The Reichstag and legal structures of the German Empire, particularly that of Prussia, influence was also drawn from the British Westminster system, although it was considered as being unwieldy and granting too much power to Parliament. He also rejected some notions as unfit for Japan, as they stemmed from European constitutional practice, the Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Itō as Prime Minister. The positions of Chancellor, Minister of the Left, and Minister of the Right, in their place, the Privy Council was established in 1888 to evaluate the forthcoming constitution, and to advise Emperor Meiji. After numerous drafts from 1886–1888, the version was submitted to Emperor Meiji in April 1888
