1.
Punishment (psychology)
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As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is determined by its effect on the rate that the behavior occurs, for example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals. Negative punishment, punishment by removal, or type II punishment, as with reinforcement, it is not usually necessary to speak of positive and negative in regard to punishment. Punishment is not an effect of reinforcement. Punishment is considered by some psychologists to be a primary process – a completely independent phenomenon of learning. Others see it as a category of negative reinforcement, creating a situation in which any punishment-avoiding behavior is reinforced, positive punishment occurs when a response produces a stimulus and that response decreases in probability in the future in similar circumstances. Example, A mother yells at a child when he or she runs into the street, if the child stops running into the street, the yelling ceases. The yelling acts as positive punishment because the mother presents an unpleasant stimulus in the form of yelling, example, A barefoot person walks onto a hot asphalt surface, creating pain, a positive punishment. When the person leaves the asphalt, the pain subsides, negative punishment occurs when a response produces the removal of a stimulus and that response decreases in probability in the future in similar circumstances. Example, A teenager comes home after curfew and the take away a privilege. If the frequency of the coming home late decreases, the privilege is gradually restored. The removal of the phone is negative punishment because the parents are taking away a pleasant stimulus, the table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment. Aversive stimulus, punisher, and punishing stimulus are somewhat synonymous, punishment may be used for an aversive stimulus or the occurrence of any punishing change or the part of an experiment in which a particular response is punished. However, some things considered aversive can become reinforcing, in addition, some things that are aversive may not be punishing if accompanying changes are reinforcing. A classic example would be mis-behavior that is punished by a teacher, pain, loud noises, foul tastes, bright lights, and exclusion are all things that would pass the caveman test as an aversive stimulus, and are therefore primary punishers. One variable affecting punishment is contingency, which is defined as the dependency of events, a behavior may be dependent on a stimulus or dependent on a response. For example, if a rat receives a stimulus, such as a shock each time it presses a lever. In this case, the punisher is contingent upon the appearance of the behavior, punishment is most effective when contingency is present between a behavior and a punisher
2.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
3.
Cold shoulder
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Cold shoulder is a phrase used to express dismissal or the act of disregarding someone. Its origin is attributed to both 19th-century literary works and as a result of folk etymology, where cauld is the equivalent of cold and shouther means shoulder, which is further supported by contextual usage in The Antiquary. Neither eating nor food is expressed in the passage, but the phrase is presented in a rather allusive way, the phrase also appears in one of Scotts later works, St. Ronans Well and after the 1820s it had traveled to America. Dated June 1839 in a letter to the editor in the New England newspaper The Bangor Daily Whig, eminent individuals and his cabinet advisers turned the cold shoulder to their ambassador, for his independent act upon this occasion. Another explanation is that the stems from a particular way to serve food to an unwanted guest. This acted as both a direct and subtle means to let the guest know that he or she was or had become unwelcome, regardless of a definitive etymology, the phrase cold shoulder has been used in many literary works, and has entered into the vernacular. It has been used as a description of aloofness and disdain, a look over ones shoulder. Overall, it widely popular as a phrase for describing the act of ignoring someone or something. A phrase also coined by Sir Walter Scott, lock, stock, helterbran, Valeri R. Exploring Idioms, A Critical-Thinking Resource for Grades 4-8. Maupin House Publishing, Inc. p.133, carnal Knowledge, A Navel Gazers Dictionary of Anatomy, Etymology, and Trivia. Jamieson, John, Johnstone, John, Longmuir, John, jamiesons Dictionary of the Scottish language. Food, a dictionary of literal and nonliteral terms, the works of Sir Walter Scott. James Ballantyne and Co. for Archibald Constable and Co, edinburgh, and Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, London,370
4.
Ostracism
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Ostracism was a procedure under the Athenian democracy in which any citizen could be expelled from the city-state of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly expressed popular anger at the citizen, ostracism was often used preemptively and it was used as a way of neutralizing someone thought to be a threat to the state or potential tyrant. It has been called an honourable exile by scholar P. J. Rhodes, the word ostracism continues to be used for various cases of social shunning. The name is derived from the ostraka, referring to the shards that were used as voting tokens. Broken pottery, abundant and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap paper, each year the Athenians were asked in the assembly whether they wished to hold an ostracism. The question was put in the sixth of the ten months used for business under the democracy. If they voted yes, then an ostracism would be two months later. The presiding officials counted the ostraka submitted and sorted the names into separate piles, according to a fragment of Philochorus, the winner of the ostracism must have obtained at least 6,000 votes. The person nominated had ten days to leave the city, if he attempted to return, the penalty was death. Notably, the property of the man banished was not confiscated, after the ten years, he was allowed to return without stigma. Similarly, Cimon, ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency, Ostracism was crucially different from Athenian law at the time, there was no charge, and no defence could be mounted by the person expelled. The two stages of the procedure ran in the order from that used under almost any trial system — here it is as if a jury are first asked Do you want to find someone guilty. And subsequently asked Whom do you wish to accuse, equally out of place in a judicial framework is perhaps the institutions most peculiar feature, that it can take place at most once a year, and only for one person. In this it resembles the Greek pharmakos or scapegoat — though in contrast, by contrast, an Athenian trial needed the initiative of a particular citizen-prosecutor. While prosecution often led to a counterattack, no response was possible in the case of ostracism as responsibility lay with the polity as a whole. In contrast to a trial, ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increased it, however, ten years of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. Ostracism was simply a measure, the concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply as it was a preventative measure. One curious window on the practicalities of ostracism comes from the cache of 190 ostraka discovered dumped in a next to the acropolis
5.
Social rejection
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Social rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or social interaction. The topic includes interpersonal rejection, romantic rejection and familial estrangement, a person can be rejected by individuals or an entire group of people. Furthermore, rejection can be active, by bullying, teasing, or ridiculing, or passive, by ignoring a person. The experience of being rejected is subjective for the recipient, the word ostracism is often used for the process. Although humans are social beings, some level of rejection is an part of life. Nevertheless, rejection can become a problem when it is prolonged or consistent, rejection by an entire group of people can have especially negative effects, particularly when it results in social isolation. The experience of rejection can lead to a number of psychological consequences such as loneliness, low self-esteem, aggression. It can also lead to feelings of insecurity and a sensitivity to future rejection. Rejection may be emotionally painful because of the nature of human beings. Abraham Maslow and other theorists have suggested that the need for love, according to Maslow, all humans, even introverts, need to be able to give and receive affection to be psychologically healthy. Psychologists believe that simple contact or social interaction with others is not enough to fulfill this need, instead, people have a strong motivational drive to form and maintain caring interpersonal relationships. People need both stable relationships and satisfying interactions with the people in those relationships, if either of these two ingredients is missing, people will begin to feel lonely and unhappy. Thus, rejection is a significant threat, in fact, the majority of human anxieties appear to reflect concerns over social exclusion. Being a member of a group is important for social identity. Mark Leary of Duke University has suggested that the purpose of self-esteem is to monitor social relations. In this view, self-esteem is a sociometer which activates negative emotions when signs of exclusion appear, Social psychological research confirms the motivational basis of the need for acceptance. Specifically, fear of rejection leads to conformity to peer pressure and our need for affiliation and social interaction appears to be particularly strong when we are under stress. Peer rejection has been measured using sociometry and other rating methods, one measure of rejection asks children to list peers they like and dislike
6.
Social exclusion
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Social exclusion, or social marginalization, is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. It is a term used widely in Europe and was first used in France. It is used across disciplines including education, sociology, psychology, such exclusionary forms of discrimination may also apply to people with a disability, minorities, LGBT people, drug users, institutional care leavers, the elderly and the young. Anyone who appears to deviate in any way from perceived norms of a population may thereby become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion. The outcome of social exclusion is that individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully in the economic, social. Most of the characteristics listed in this article are present together in studies of social exclusion, Social exclusion at the individual level results in an individuals exclusion from meaningful participation in society. An example is the exclusion of single mothers from the system prior to welfare reforms of the 1900s. A single mothers contribution to society is not based on formal employment, in some career contexts, caring work is devalued and motherhood is seen as a barrier to employment. Today the marginalization is primarily a function of class condition, more broadly, many women face social exclusion. Moosa-Mitha discusses the Western feminist movement as a reaction to the marginalization of white women in society. Women were excluded from the force and their work in the home was not valued. Feminists argued that men and women should equally participate in the force, in the public and private sector. They also focused on labor laws to increase access to employment as well as to recognize child-rearing as a form of labor. In some places today, women are marginalized from executive positions. Another example of marginalization is the exclusion of individuals with disabilities from the labor force. Cantor also discusses employer concern about the high cost of accommodating people with disabilities. There are also exclusions of lesbian-gay-bisexual-transgender and other people because of their sexual orientations. The Yogyakarta Principles require that the states and communities abolish any stereotypes about LGBT people as well as stereotyped gender roles, many communities experience social exclusion, such as racial and economic communities. One example is the Aboriginal community in Australia, marginalization of Aboriginal communities is a product of colonization
7.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
8.
Open Library
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Open Library is an online project intended to create one web page for every book ever published. It provides access to public domain and out-of-print books, which can be read online. Its book information is collected from the Library of Congress, other libraries, if books are available in digital form, a button labelled Read appears next to its catalog listing. Links to where books can be purchased or borrowed are also provided, tens of thousands of modern books were made available from four and then 150 libraries and publishers for ebook digital lending. Open Library began in 2006 with Aaron Swartz as the engineer and leader of Open Librarys technical team. The project was led by George Oates from April 2009 to December 2011, Oates was responsible for a complete site redesign during her tenure. In 2015, the project was continued by Giovanni Damiola and then Brenton Cheng, the site was redesigned and relaunched in May 2010. The site uses Infobase, its own database framework based on PostgreSQL, the source code to the site is published under the GNU Affero General Public License. The website was relaunched adding ADA compliance and offering over 1 million modern, under certain provisions of United States copyright law, libraries are sometimes able to reproduce copyrighted works in formats accessible to users with disabilities
9.
Bullying
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Bullying is the use of force, threat, or coercion to abuse, intimidate, or aggressively dominate others. The behavior is repeated and habitual. One essential prerequisite is the perception, by the bully or by others, of an imbalance of social or physical power, behaviors used to assert such domination can include verbal harassment or threat, physical assault or coercion, and such acts may be directed repeatedly towards particular targets. If bullying is done by a group, it is called mobbing, Bullying can be defined in many different ways. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has no definition of bullying. Bullying is divided into four types of abuse – emotional, verbal, physical. It typically involves subtle methods of coercion, such as intimidation, Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as peer abuse. Robert W. Fuller has analyzed bullying in the context of rankism, a bullying culture can develop in any context in which humans interact with each other. This includes school, family, the workplace, home, in a 2012 study of male adolescent American football players, the strongest predictor was the perception of whether the most influential male in a players life would approve of the bullying behavior. Bullying may thus be defined as the activity of repeated, aggressive behavior intended to hurt another individual, the Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus says bullying occurs when a person is exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons. He says negative actions occur when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, individual bullying is usually characterized by a person behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person. Individual bullying can be classified into four types, collective bullying is known as mobbing, and can include any of the individual types of bullying. Physical, verbal, and relational bullying are most prevalent in primary school and it is stated that Cyber-bullying is more common in secondary school than in primary school. Individual bullying tactics can be perpetrated by a person against a target or targets. This is any bullying that hurts someone’s body or damages their possessions, stealing, shoving, hitting, fighting, and destroying property all are types of physical bullying. Physical bullying is rarely the first form of bullying that a target will experience, often bullying will begin in a different form and later progress to physical violence. In physical bullying the main weapon the bully uses is their body when attacking their target. Sometimes groups of adults will target. This can quickly lead to a situation where they are being taunted, tortured, physical bullying can lead to a tragic ending and therefore must be stopped quickly to prevent any further escalation
10.
Cyberbullying
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Cyberbullying or cyberharassment is a form of bullying or harassment using electronic forms of contact. Cyberbullying has become common, especially among teenagers. Awareness in the United States has risen in the 2010s, due in part to high-profile cases, Bullying or harassment can be identified by repeated behavior and an intent to harm. Harmful bullying behavior can include posting rumors about a person, threats, sexual remarks, disclose victims personal information, several US states and other countries have laws specific to regulating cyberbullying. These laws are designed to specifically target teen cyberbullying, while others use laws extending from the scope of physical harassment, in cases of adult cyberharassment, these reports are usually filed beginning with local police. Research has demonstrated a number of consequences of cyberbullying victimization. Victims may have lower self-esteem, increased suicidal ideation, and a variety of responses, retaliating, being scared, frustrated, angry. Individuals have reported that cyberbullying can be more harmful than traditional bullying, Internet trolling is a common form of bullying over the Internet in an online community in order to elicit a reaction, disruption, or for their own personal amusement. Cyberstalking is another form of bullying or harassment that uses electronic communications to stalk a victim may pose a threat to the safety of the victim. Components such as the repetition of the behavior and the imbalance between the bully and victim, and their applicability to electronic harassment, are debated. Cyberbullying is often similar to traditional bullying, although there are some distinctions, victims of cyberbullying may not know the identity of their bully, or why the bully is targeting them. The victim is sometimes exposed to the harassment whenever they use technology. The terms cyberharassment and cyberbullying are sometimes used synonymously, though some people use cyberbullying specifically to refer to harassment among minors or in a school setting, cyberstalking is a form of online harassment in which the perpetrator uses electronic communications to stalk a victim. Cyberstalking is considered more dangerous than other forms of cyberbullying because it involves a credible threat to the safety of the victim. Cyberstalkers may send repeated messages intended to threaten or harass their victim and they may encourage others to do the same, either explicitly or by impersonating their victim and asking others to contact them. Internet trolls intentionally try to provoke or offend others in order to elicit a reaction, trolls and cyberbullies do not always have the same goals, while some trolls engage in cyberbullying, others may be engaged in comparatively harmless mischief. A troll may be either for their own amusement or because they are genuinely a combative person. Manuals to educate the public, teachers and parents summarize, Cyberbullying is being cruel to others by sending or posting harmful material using a phone or the internet
11.
Gay bashing
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A bashing may be a specific incident, and one could also use the verb to bash. A verbal gay bashing might use sexual slurs, expletives, intimidation and it also might take place in a political forum and include one or more common anti-gay slogans. Similar terms such as bullying, queer bullying, and queer bashing may also be formed. Gay bashing has occurred worldwide for many decades and continues today, as historian David K. Johnson explains, The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare. In popular discourse, communists and homosexuals were often conflated, both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed, and both groups were considered immoral and godless. Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government, using rumors collected by Drew Pearson, one Nevada publisher wrote in 1952 that both McCarthy and his chief counsel, Roy Cohn, were homosexuals. Bradlee said, There was a lot of time spent investigating these allegations, No reputable McCarthy biographer has accepted it as probable. Egale Canada conducted a survey of more than 3700 high school students in Canada between December 2007 and June 2009, 58% or about 1400 of the 2400 heterosexual students participating in EGALEs survey found homophobic comments upsetting. Further, EGALE found that students not directly affected by homophobia, biphobia or transphobia were less aware of it, EGALE, along with previous research has found teachers and school administration may be complicit in queer bullying through their silence and/or inaction. Graffiti found on school grounds and property, and its relative permanence, is another form of queer bullying, some researchers suggest including youth questioning their sexuality in any research on queer bullying because they may be as susceptible to its effects as queer students. Building on the notion of masculinity defining itself by what it is not and these intertwining issues were examined in 2007, when American sociologist CJ Pascoe described what she calls the fag discourse at an American high school in her book, Dude, Youre a Fag. Gay and lesbian youth are more likely to report bullying, in one study, boys who were bullied with taunts of being gay suffered more bullying and more negative effects compared with boys who were bullied with other categories of taunting. Queer bullying may make some victims feel sad and unsafe in the world, Bullying will affect a students experience of school. Some victims might feel paralyzed and withdraw socially as a coping mechanism, other victims of queer bullying may begin to live the effects of learned helplessness. Queer or questioning students may try to pass as heterosexual in order to avoid queer bullying, passing isolates the student from other queer or questioning students, potential allies, and support. Adults who try to pass also may feel the effects emotionally and psychologically, queer and questioning youth who experience bullying have a higher incidence of substance abuse and STI and HIV infection, which may carry through to adulthood. Teens face harassment, threats, and violence, a 1998 study in the US by Mental Health America found that students heard anti-gay slurs such as homo, faggot and sissy about 26 times a day on average, or once every 14 minutes
12.
Hazing
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Hazing is seen in many different types of social groups, including gangs, sports teams, schools, military units, and fraternities and sororities. The initiation rites can range from relatively benign pranks, to protracted patterns of behavior that rise to the level of abuse or criminal misconduct, Hazing is often prohibited by law or prohibited by institutions such as colleges and universities because they may comprise either physical or psychological abuse. It may also include nudity or sexual assault, in Australian English, hazing is called bastardisation. In Latvian, the word iesvētības, which literally means in-blessings, is used, also standing for religious rites of passage, in Swedish, the term used is nollning, literally zeroing. In Portugal, the term praxe, which literally means practice or habit, is used for initiation, in Brazil, its called trote and is usually practiced at universities by older students against newcomers in the first week of their first semester. In the Italian military, instead, the term used was nonnismo, from nonno, a similar equivalent term exists in the Russian military, where a hazing phenomenon knowing as Dedovshchina exists, meaning roughly grandfather or the slang term gramps. At education establishments in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, in Polish schools, hazing is known as kocenie (literally catting, coming from the noun kot - cat. It often features cat-related activities, like competitive milk drinking, other popular tasks include measuring a long distance with matches. In Israel, the practice is called zubur and exists primarily in Israeli Defense Force combat units, unlike hazing in many other places, zubur is typically used to mark the achievement of important milestones, such as after a pilots first solo flight. Hazing activities can involve forms of ridicule and humiliation within the group or in public, a snipe hunt is such a prank, when a newcomer or credulous person is given an impossible task. e. A variation of this is trading licks and this practice is also used in the military. The hazee may be humiliated by being hosed or by sprinkler, buckets or hoses, covered with dirt or with food, olive or baby oil may be used to show off the bare skin, for wrestling or just slipperiness, e. g. to complicate pole climbing. Cleaning may be limited to a dive into water, hosing down or even paddling the worst off and they may have to do tedious cleaning including swabbing the decks or cleaning the toilets with a toothbrush. In fraternities, pledges often must clean up a mess intentionally made by brothers which can include fecal matter, urine, servitude such as waiting on others or various other forms of housework, often with tests of obedience. In some cases, the hazee may be made to eat raw eggs, peppers, hot sauce, some hazing even includes eating or drinking vile things such as bugs or rotting food. The hazee may have to wear a piece of clothing, outfit. Examples include a uniform, a leash and/or collar, infantile and other humiliating dress, markings may also be made on clothing or bare skin. They are painted, written, tattooed or shaved on, sometimes forming a message or may receive tarring and feathering or branding
13.
School bullying
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School bullying is a type of bullying that occurs in an educational setting. Bullying without comprehensive definition, can be physical, sexual, verbal or emotional in nature and this can involve physical, emotional, verbal, and cyberbullying. For an act to be considered bullying it must meet certain criteria and this includes hostile intent, imbalance of power, repetition, distress, and provocation. Bullying can have a spectrum of effects on a student including anger, depression, stress. The person who is bullied is affected, and the bully can also grow up to different social disorders or have higher chances of engaging in criminal activity. If there is suspicion that a child is being bullied or is a bully, there are many programs and organizations worldwide which provide bullying prevention services or information on how to cope if a child has been bullied. The following two additional criteria have been proposed to complement the above-mentioned criteria, victim distress and provocation, some of these characteristics have been disputed, nevertheless, they remain widely established in the scientific literature. Karling gordon is an example of a school bully, in the long term, they may feel insecure, lack trust, exhibit extreme sensitivity, or develop a mental illness such as psychopathy, avoidant personality disorder or PTSD. They may also desire vengeance, sometimes leading them to torment others in return, anxiety, depression and psychosomatic symptoms are common among both bullies and their victims. Among these participants alcohol and substance abuse is seen later on in life. In the short term, being a bystander can produce feelings of anger, fear, guilt, bystanders who witness repeated victimization of peers can experience negative effects similar to the victimized children themselves. According to the American Psychological Association, 40% to 80% of school-age children experience bullying at some point during their school careers, various studies show that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds experience bullying more often than other students. A nationwide survey of bullying in first and second level schools conducted by Trinity College Dublin estimates that some 31% of primary, in a 1997 study of five Seattle high schools, students recorded their peers hallway and classroom conversations. It was discovered that the high school student hears about 25 anti-gay remarks a day. In a study conducted across 32 Dutch elementary schools,16. 2% of the 2,766 participating children reported being bullied regularly, at least 1 in 3 adolescent students in Canada has reported being bullied. 47% of Canadian parents report having a child who is a victim of bullying, students who are homosexual, bisexual, or transgender are five times as likely to miss school because they feel unsafe after being bullied due to their sexual orientation. According to the U. S.61. 1% of LGBT middle- or high-school students were more likely than their peers to feel unsafe or uncomfortable as a result of their sexual orientation. In a Canadian study that surveyed 2,186 students across 33 middle,33. 7% of the sample reported being the perpetrator of cyberbullying
14.
Blacklisting
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Blacklisting is the action of a group or authority, compiling a blacklist of people, countries or other entities to be avoided or distrusted as not being acceptable to those making the list. A blacklist can list people to be discriminated against, refused employment, as a verb, blacklist can mean to put an individual or entity on such a list. The English dramatist Philip Massinger used the black list in his 1639 tragedy The Unnaturall Combat. After the Restoration of the English monarchy brought Charles II of England to the throne in 1660, the first published reference to blacklisting of an employee dates from 1774. This became a significant employment issue in American mining towns and company towns, though the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 outlawed punitive blacklists against employees who supported trade unions or criticised their employers, the practice continued in common use. Since then, lawsuits for unfair dismissal have led to blacklisting being covert or informal, in the summer of 1940, the SS printed a secret list called Sonderfahndungsliste G. B. Blacklisting by multiple providers is an act by doctors to deny care to a certain patient or patients. It is done in ways for various reasons, blacklisting is not new. In 1907 the Transvaal Medical Union in South Africa blacklisted patients if they could not pay cash in advance, in this case, there was a physical list kept by the community of physicians. A physical list is not necessary to blacklist patients but the effect is the same, the United States Department of Health & Human Services found that reviewed hospitals did not generate incident reports for 93% of adverse events. The 7% of the time when they did generate reports, the information was inaccurate 63% of the time, problems causing harm to patients were reported accurately only 2% of the time. Those patients are further injured by not having the accurate record necessary for getting care for the injuries, in the US the list is called TMF/MATCH. In computing, a blacklist is a control system that denies entry to a specific list of users, programs. Many can expect to pay a price for a time to come. There has been controversy as to whether this is a response to the passage of Proposition 8 on the part of those opposed to it. The Suppression of Salt of the Earth, How Hollywood, Big Labor, and Politicians Blacklisted a Movie in Cold War America
15.
Bullying culture
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Bullying culture is the context or venue in which a bullying pattern of behavior is ordinary or routine. It is about an imbalance of social, physical or other power involving a person or group, the culture of bullying includes daily activities and the way people relate to each other. A bullying culture emphasizes a winner/loser way of thinking and it also encourages domination and aggression. Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as acceptable, when bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. In such situations, a scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create a climate of fear. When employees get the sense that bullies get away with it, an authoritarian style of leadership may create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered futile. In a study of public-sector union members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place
