1.
Syntax
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In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, specifically word order. The term syntax is used to refer to the study of such principles and processes. The goal of many syntacticians is to discover the syntactic rules common to all languages, in mathematics, syntax refers to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical systems, such as formal languages used in logic. The word syntax comes from Ancient Greek, σύνταξις coordination, which consists of σύν syn, together, and τάξις táxis, a basic feature of a languages syntax is the sequence in which the subject, verb, and object usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the sequence SOV, the other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last three of which are rare. In the West, the school of thought came to be known as traditional grammar began with the work of Dionysius Thrax. For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a known as grammaire générale. This system took as its premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought, the Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic. Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of Subject – Copula – Predicate, initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp. The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, there are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton, sees syntax as a branch of biology, other linguists take a more Platonistic view, since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system. Yet others consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages, the hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind. The goal of grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language. This model could be used to all human language and to predict the grammaticality of any given utterance. This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky, most generative theories assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence and this complex category is notated as instead of V. NP\S is read as a category that searches to the left for an NP and outputs a sentence. The category of verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs to form a sentence
2.
Tax
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A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
3.
Fiscal policy
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In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection and expenditure to influence the economy. According to Keynesian economics, when the government changes the levels of taxation and government spending, it influences aggregate demand, Fiscal policy often attempts to stabilize the economy over the course of the business cycle. Government spending is fully funded by tax revenue and overall the budget outcome has an effect on the level of economic activity. Expansionary fiscal policy involves government spending exceeding tax revenue, and is undertaken during recessions. It is also known as fiscal policy. Contractionary fiscal policy occurs when government spending is lower than tax revenue, therefore, for purposes of the above definitions, government spending and tax revenue are normally replaced by cyclically adjusted government spending and cyclically adjusted tax revenue. Thus, for example, a government budget that is balanced over the course of the cycle is considered to represent a neutral fiscal policy stance. Governments spend money on a variety of things, from the military and police to services like education and healthcare. These pay interest, either for a period or indefinitely. If the interest and capital requirements are too large, a nation may default on its debts, public debt or borrowing refers to the government borrowing from the public. For this to happen, the propensity to save needs to be strictly positive. Another possibility is that the government might decide to increase its own spending – say, the idea is that the additional government spending creates jobs and lowers the unemployment rate. Governments use fiscal policy to influence the level of demand in the economy, in an effort to achieve economic objectives of price stability, full employment. Keynesians argue this method be used in times of recession or low economic activity as an tool for building the framework for strong economic growth. In theory, the deficits would be paid for by an expanded economy during the boom that would follow. Governments can use a surplus to do two things, to slow the pace of strong economic growth, and to stabilize prices when inflation is too high. Keynesian theory posits that removing spending from the economy will reduce levels of demand and contract the economy. But economists still debate the effectiveness of fiscal stimulus, the argument mostly centers on crowding out, whether government borrowing leads to higher interest rates that may offset the stimulative impact of spending
4.
Tax policy
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Tax policy is the choice by a government as to what taxes to levy, in what amounts, and on whom. It has both microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects, the macroeconomic aspects concern the overall quantity of taxes to collect, which can inversely affect the level of economic activity, this is one component of fiscal policy. The microeconomic aspects concern issues of fairness and allocative efficiency, policymakers debate the nature of the tax structure they plan to implement and how they might affect individuals and businesses. The reason for such focus is economic efficiency as advisor to the Stuart King of England Richard Petty had noted that the government does not want to kill the goose that lays the golden egg, paradigmatic efficient taxes are those that are either nondistortionary or lump sum. However, economists define distortion only according to the substitution effect, one must also consider the income effect, which for tax policy purposes often needs to be assumed to cancel out in the aggregate. The efficiency loss is depicted on the curve and supply curve diagrams as the area inside Harbergers Triangle. The implementation of tax policy has always been a tricky business, a more recent American example is President George H. W. Bushs famous tax policy quote, Read my lips, no new taxes. Tax incidence Tax law Mirrlees, James, Adam, Stuart, Besley, Tim, et al
5.
Government revenue
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Government revenue is money received by a government. It is an important tool of the policy of the government and is the opposite factor of government spending
6.
Tax revenue
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Tax revenue is the income that is gained by governments through taxation. For example, in the UK, the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency collects vehicle excise duty, tax revenues on purchases come in two forms, tax itself is a percentage of the price added to the purchase, while duties are a fixed amount added to the purchase price. In order to calculate the tax raised from these sales. The effect of a change in taxation level on total tax revenue depends on the good being investigated, and in particular on its price elasticity of demand. Where goods have a low elasticity of demand, an increase in tax or duty will lead to a decrease in demand—not enough to offset the higher tax raised from each unit. Overall tax revenue will therefore rise, conversely, for price-elastic goods, an increase in tax rate or duty would lead to a fall in tax revenue. The Laffer curve theorises that, even for goods, there will be a tax revenue maximising point. A limiting factor in determining the government budget is the capacity to tax, per capita income is the most often used measure of relative fiscal capacity. But this measure fails to base tax capacity computation on other important tax bases like the sales and property tax, a representative tax system should assess the level of personal income, the value of retail sales and the value of property to compute fiscal capacity. To do so the tax rate for each base is computed by dividing the total revenue derived by the total value of the base. Thus, as an example, income taxes collected would be divided by total income to yield a rate of taxation, a state or communitys standing on these various bases may affect its ability to attract new industry. The resulting rates, high or low in comparison, can become targets for change, the mission of revenue administration is to provide prudent and innovative revenue, investment and risk management and to regulate the use of government capital. It is not always the case, however, that new developments, especially if not properly planned, economic development traditionally focuses on such things as job generation, the provision of affordable housing, and the creation of retail centers. Tax base expansion focuses primarily on maintaining and enhancing real estate values within the municipality, municipalities tend to pursue economic development with religious fervor and often do not think strategically about the overall real estate impacts of their economic development initiatives. Yet the existing tax base in almost every municipality throughout the United States is an important source of revenue for funding municipal, in addition to being responsible for managing the tax base, a community should also be responsible for helping to ensure economic prosperity for its citizens. Good tax base management may lead to better economic development, because investors. Instead of offering incentives to attract business, they may be willing to pay to come to a community because it’s a good place to live, work, shop, list of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP
7.
Non-tax revenue
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Non-tax revenue or non-tax receipts are government revenue not generated from taxes. The war reparations paid by the defeated Central Powers after the First World War offer a well-known example, an example are contracts for resource extraction collected privately under license from state-owned lands Fines collected and assets forfeitured as a penalty. Examples include parking fines, court costs levied on criminal offenders Fees for the granting or issuance of permits or licenses, user fees collected in exchange for the use of many public services and facilities. Tolls charged for the use of roads are an example Donations
8.
Tax law
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Tax law is an area of legal study dealing with the constitutional, common-law, statutory, tax treaty, and regulatory rules that constitute the law applicable to taxation. Primary taxation issues facing the world over include, Taxes on income. Taxation of capital gains versus labor income, ecotax refers to taxes intended to promote environmentally friendly activities via economic incentives. Tax evasion and avoidance leading to reduced government revenue, due to an Inefficient tax system in many underdeveloped countries, the majority of small businesses are not taxed. In law schools, tax law is a sub-discipline and area of specialist study, U. S. law schools require 30 semester credit hours of required courses,60 hours or more of electives and a combined total of at least 90 credit hours completed. Law students must choose available courses on which to focus before graduation with the J. D. degree in the United States. S, Master of Laws programs are offered in Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Netherlands and an increasing number of countries. Many of these focus on domestic and international taxation. In the United States, most LL. M, programs require that the candidate be a graduate of an American Bar Association-accredited law school. In other countries a graduate law degree is sufficient for admission to LL. M. in Taxation law programs, the Master of Laws program is an advanced legal study. General Requirements J. D. or First degree in law, an English proficiency test score for students with a native language besides English. The Juris Doctor program is offered by only a number of countries and these include, United States, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines, Singapore and the United Kingdom. The courses vary in duration of years, curriculum and whether or not further training is required, law School Admission Test - Required for law school admission in United States, Canada and a growing number of countries. A list of tax faculty ranked by publication downloads is maintained by Paul Caron at TaxProf Blog
9.
Tax bracket
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Tax brackets are the divisions at which tax rates change in a progressive tax system. Essentially, they are the values for taxable income — income past a certain point will be taxed at a higher rate. Imagine that there are three tax brackets, 10%, 20%, and 30%. The 10% rate applies to income from $1 to $10,000, the 20% rate applies to income from $10,001 to $20,000, and the 30% rate applies to all income above $20,000. Under this system, someone earning $10,000 would be taxed at a rate of 10%, someone earning $5,000 would pay $500, and so on. Meanwhile, someone earning $25,000 would face a more complicated calculation, the rate on the first $10,000 would be 10%, the rate from $10,001 to $20,000 would be 20%, and the rate above that would be 30%. $25,000 ×30 % − $3,000 = $7,500 − $3,000 = $4,500, financial years 2010-11, 2011-12 The above rates do not include the Medicare levy of 1. 5%. Financial year 2012-13 The above rates do not include the Medicare levy of 1. 5% Canadas federal government has the tax brackets for the 2012 tax year. Note that the basic amount of $15,527 effectively means that income up to this amount is not subject to tax. Each province except Québec adds their own tax on top of the federal tax, Québec has a completely separate income tax. All values in New Zealand dollars, with the ACC Earners levy not included, there will be a personal tax rebate of 20% granted for 2008, up to a maximum of $2,000. All figures are in Singapore dollars, the Minister of Finance announced new tax rates for the 2012–2013 tax year. They are as follows, Personal income tax is progressive in nature, the total rate does not usually exceed 40%. The Swiss Federal Tax Administration website provides an outline of the Swiss tax system. Financial year 2013 As of January 1,2013, the tax brackets have been updated, in 2013, Congress allowed the tax cut that was enacted during the Bush administration to expire for taxpayers making over $400K /$450K in taxable income. This results in changes to the personal income tax brackets even when the Federal income tax rates remain unchanged. For 2011, the deduction is $5,800 for single individuals and married individuals filing separately, $8,500 for heads of household. The dollar amount of personal and dependency exemption is $3,700
10.
Income tax threshold
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The income tax threshold is the income level at which a person begins paying income taxes. The income tax threshold equates to the, Personal allowance in the UK, which was £9,440 in 2013-14 and £10,000 in 2014-15, basic allowance in Germany, which was €8,004 in 2012. Income tax threshold in France, which was €6,088 in 2012, sum of the standard deduction and personal exemption in the US, which was $9,750 in 2012 for a single person. Basic personal amount in Canada, which was C$10,822 in 2012, tax-free threshold in Australia, which was A$18,200 in 2012-13. Tax-free threshold in Greece, which was €9,545 in 2016, tax-free threshold in Poland, which was €736 in 2013. Minimum wage in Israel, which is ₪4, 825/month, basic income guarantee Tax bracket Taxable income
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