Sorbitol

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Sorbitol
D-sorbitol.svg
Sorbitol-3D-balls.png
Names
IUPAC name
(2S,3R,4R,5R)-Hexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol
Other names
D-glucitol; L-Sorbitol; Sorbogem; Sorbo
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.056
E number E420 (thickeners, ...)
MeSH Sorbitol
UNII
Properties
C6H14O6
Molar mass 182.17 g/mol
Appearance White crystalline powder
Density 1.49 g/cm3[1]
Melting point 94–96 °C (201–205 °F; 367–369 K)[1]
2350 g/L[1]
log P -4.67[2]
-107.80·10−6 cm3/mol
Pharmacology
A06AD18 (WHO) A06AG07 (WHO) B05CX02 (WHO) V04CC01 (WHO)
Hazards
NFPA 704
Flammability code 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g., canola oilHealth code 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g., turpentineReactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g., liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no codeNFPA 704 four-colored diamond
1
1
0
Flash point >100 °C[1]
420 °C[1]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is ☑Y☒N ?)
Infobox references

Sorbitol (/ˈsɔːrbɪtɒl/), less commonly known as glucitol (/ˈɡluːsɪtɒl/), is a sugar alcohol with a sweet taste which the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, which changes the aldehyde group to a hydroxyl group. Most sorbitol is made from corn syrup, but it is also found in nature, for example in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes.[3] It is converted to fructose by sorbitol-6-phosphate 2-dehydrogenase. Sorbitol is an isomer of mannitol, another sugar alcohol; the two differ only in the orientation of the hydroxyl group on carbon 2.[4] While similar, the two sugar alcohols have very different sources in nature, melting points, and uses.

Synthesis[edit]

Sorbitol may be synthesised via a glucose reduction reaction[5] in which the aldehyde group is converted into a hydroxyl group. The reaction requires NADH and is catalyzed by aldose reductase. Glucose reduction is the first step of the polyol pathway of glucose metabolism, and is implicated in multiple diabetic complications.

Net reaction of glucose reduction reaction.png

The mechanism involves a tyrosine residue in the active site of aldehyde reductase. The hydrogen atom on NADH is transferred to the electrophilic aldehyde carbon atom; electrons on the aldehyde carbon-oxygen double bond are transferred to the oxygen that grabs the proton on tyrosine side chain to form the hydroxyl group. The role of aldehyde reductase tyrosine phenol group is to serve as a general acid to provide proton to the reduced aldehyde oxygen on glucose.

Mechanism of glucose reduction reaction.png
Glucose reduction is not the major glucose metabolism pathway in a normal human body, where the glucose level is in the normal range. However, in diabetic patients whose blood glucose level is high, up to 1/3 of their glucose could go through the glucose reduction pathway. This will consume NADH and eventually leads to cell damage.
Sorbitol also may be synthesized through a catalytic hydrogenation of d-glucose to form d-sorbitol.[6][not specific enough to verify] This reaction has a 100% yield of d-sorbitol when d-glucose is reacted with hydrogen in water at 120 degrees Celsius, under 150001.5 Torr, for 1 hour.[citation needed]

Uses[edit]

Sweetener[edit]

Sorbitol is a sugar substitute, and when used in food it has the INS number and E number 420. Sorbitol is about 60% as sweet as sucrose (table sugar).[7]

Sorbitol is referred to as a nutritive sweetener because it provides dietary energy: 2.6 kilocalories (11 kilojoules) per gram versus the average 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) for carbohydrates. It is often used in diet foods (including diet drinks and ice cream), mints, cough syrups, and sugar-free chewing gum.[8] Most bacteria are unable to use sorbitol for energy, but it can be slowly fermented in the mouth by streptococcus mutans, a species of bacteria that cause tooth decay unlike many other sugar alcohols such as isomalt and xylitol, which are considered to be non-acidogenic.[9][10]

It also occurs naturally in many stone fruits and berries from trees of the genus Sorbus.[11]

Medical applications[edit]

Laxative[edit]

As is the case with other sugar alcohols, foods containing sorbitol can cause gastrointestinal distress. Sorbitol can be used as a laxative when taken orally or as an enema. Sorbitol works as a laxative by drawing water into the large intestine, stimulating bowel movements.[12] Sorbitol has been determined safe for use by the elderly, although it is not recommended without the advice of a doctor.[13] Sorbitol is found in some dried fruits and may contribute to the laxative effects of prunes.[14] Sorbitol was first discovered in the fresh juice of mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) berries in 1872.[15] It is also found in the fruits of apples, plums, pears, cherries, dates, peaches and apricots.

Other medical applications[edit]

Sorbitol is used in bacterial culture media to distinguish the pathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 from most other strains of E. coli, because it is usually unable to ferment sorbitol, unlike 93% of known E. coli strains.[16]

A treatment for hyperkalaemia (elevated blood potassium) uses sorbitol and the ion-exchange resin sodium polystyrene sulfonate (tradename Kayexalate).[17] The resin exchanges sodium ions for potassium ions in the bowel, while sorbitol helps to eliminate it. In 2010, the U.S. FDA issued a warning of increased risk for GI necrosis with this combination.[18]

Sorbitol is also used in the manufacture of softgel capsules to store single doses of liquid medicines.[19]

Health care, food, and cosmetic uses[edit]

Sorbitol often is used in modern cosmetics as a humectant and thickener.[20] It is also used in mouthwash and toothpaste. Some transparent gels can be made only with sorbitol, because of its high refractive index.

Sorbitol is used as a cryoprotectant additive (mixed with sucrose and sodium polyphosphates) in the manufacture of surimi, a processed fish paste.[21] It is also used as a humectant in some cigarettes.[22]

Beyond its use as a sugar substitute in reduced-sugar foods, Sorbitol is also used as a humectant in cookies and low-moisture foods like peanut butter and fruit preserves.[23] In baking, it is also valuable because it acts as a plasticizer, and slows down the staling process.[23]

Miscellaneous uses[edit]

A mixture of sorbitol and potassium nitrate has found some success as an amateur solid rocket fuel.[24]

Sorbitol is identified as a potential key chemical intermediate[25] for production of fuels from biomass resources. Carbohydrate fractions in biomass such as cellulose undergo sequential hydrolysis and hydrogenation in the presence of metal catalysts to produce sorbitol.[26] Complete reduction of sorbitol opens the way to alkanes, such as hexane, which can be used as a biofuel. Hydrogen required for this reaction can be produced by aqueous phase catalytic reforming of sorbitol.[27]

19 C6H14O6 → 13 C6H14 + 36 CO2 + 42 H2O

The above chemical reaction is exothermic, and 1.5 moles of sorbitol generate approximately 1 mole of hexane. When hydrogen is co-fed, no carbon dioxide is produced.

Sorbitol based polyols are used in the production of polyurethane foam for the construction industry.

It is also added after electroporation of yeasts in transformation protocols, allowing the cells to recover by raising the osmolarity of the medium.

Medical importance[edit]

Aldose reductase is the first enzyme in the sorbitol-aldose reductase pathway[28] responsible for the reduction of glucose to sorbitol, as well as the reduction of galactose to galactitol. Too much sorbitol trapped in retinal cells, the cells of the lens, and the Schwann cells that myelinate peripheral nerves, is a frequent result of long-term hyperglycemia that accompanies poorly controlled diabetes. This can damage these cells, leading to retinopathy, cataracts and peripheral neuropathy, respectively. Aldose reductase inhibitors, which are substances that prevent or slow the action of aldose reductase, are currently being investigated as a way to prevent or delay these complications.[29]

Sorbitol is fermented in the colon and produces short- chain fatty acids, which are beneficial to overall colon health.[30]

Adverse medical effects[edit]

People with untreated celiac disease often present sorbitol malabsorption, as a result of the small bowel damage. Sorbitol malabsorption is an important cause for persisting symptoms in patients already on a gluten-free diet. The sorbitol hydrogen breath test has been suggested as a tool to detect celiac disease because of a strict correlation between cut-off value and intestinal lesions. Nevertheless, although it may be indicated for research purposes, it is not yet recommended as a diagnostic tool in clinical practice.[31]

It has been noted that the sorbitol added to sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS, used in the treatment of hyperkalemia) can cause complications in the GI tract, including bleeding, perforated colonic ulcers, ischemic colitis and colonic necrosis, particularly in patients with uremia. Risk factors for sorbitol-induced damage include immunosuppression, hypovolemia, postoperative setting, hypotension after hemodialysis, and peripheral vascular disease. SPS-sorbitol should therefore be used carefully in the management of hyperkalemia.[32]

Overdose effects[edit]

Ingesting large amounts of sorbitol can lead to abdominal pain, flatulence, and mild to severe diarrhea. Habitual sorbitol consumption of over 20 grams (0.7 oz) per day as sugar-free gum has led to severe diarrhea, causing unintended weight loss or even requiring hospitalization.[33] In early studies, a dose of 25g of sorbitol, eaten through the day, produced a laxative effect in only 5% of individuals.[34] As a result of large molecular weight of sorbitol, when large amounts of sorbitol are ingested, only a small amount of sorbitol is absorbed in the small intestine, and most of the sorbitol enters the colon, with consequent gastrointestinal effects.[30]

Compendial status[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e Record in the GESTIS Substance Database of the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
  2. ^ "Sorbitol_msds". 
  3. ^ Teo, G; Suzuki, Y; Uratsu, SL; Lampinen, B; Ormonde, N; Hu, WK; Dejong, TM; Dandekar, AM (2006). "Silencing leaf sorbitol synthesis alters long-distance partitioning and apple fruit quality". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (49): 18842–7. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10318842T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605873103. PMC 1693749 Freely accessible. PMID 17132742. 
  4. ^ Kearsley, M. W.; Deis, R. C. Sorbitol and Mannitol. In Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology; Ames: Oxford, 2006; pp 249-249-261.
  5. ^ "Reduction of Glucose". butane.chem.uiuc.edu. 
  6. ^ SRINIVASAN, K.; GUNDEKARI, S. India Patent WO2017/60922. April 13, 2017.
  7. ^ Sugar substitute
  8. ^ Campbell; Farrell (2011). Biochemistry (Seventh ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-1-111-42564-7. 
  9. ^ Hayes, C. (October 2001). "The effect of non-cariogenic sweeteners on the prevention of dental caries: a review of the evidence". Journal of Dental Education. 65 (10): 1106–1109. ISSN 0022-0337. PMID 11699985. 
  10. ^ Nicolas, Guillaume G.; Lavoie, Marc C. (January 2011). "[Streptococcus mutans and oral streptococci in dental plaque]". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 57 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1139/w10-095. ISSN 1480-3275. PMID 21217792. 
  11. ^ Nelson; Cox (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (Fourth ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. 
  12. ^ ACS :: Cancer Drug Guide: sorbitol Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine.
  13. ^ Lederle, FA (1995). "Epidemiology of constipation in elderly patients. Drug utilisation and cost-containment strategies". Drugs & aging. 6 (6): 465–9. doi:10.2165/00002512-199506060-00006. PMID 7663066. 
  14. ^ Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis, M; Bowen, PE; Hussain, EA; Damayanti-Wood, BI; Farnsworth, NR (2001). "Chemical composition and potential health effects of prunes: a functional food?". Critical reviews in food science and nutrition. 41 (4): 251–86. doi:10.1080/20014091091814. PMID 11401245. 
  15. ^ Panda, H. (2011). The Complete Book on Sugarcane Processing and By-Products of Molasses (with Analysis of Sugar, Syrup and Molasses). ASIA PACIFIC BUSINESS PRESS Inc. p. 416. ISBN 8178331446. 
  16. ^ Wells JG, Davis BR, Wachsmuth IK, et al. (September 1983). "Laboratory investigation of hemorrhagic colitis outbreaks associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 18 (3): 512–20. PMC 270845 Freely accessible. PMID 6355145. The organism does not ferment sorbitol; whereas 93% of E. coli of human origin are sorbitol positive 
  17. ^ Rugolotto S, Gruber M, Solano PD, Chini L, Gobbo S, Pecori S (April 2007). "Necrotizing enterocolitis in a 850 gram infant receiving sorbitol-free sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate): clinical and histopathologic findings". J Perinatol. 27 (4): 247–9. doi:10.1038/sj.jp.7211677. PMID 17377608. 
  18. ^ "Kayexalate (sodium polystyrene sulfonate) powder". fda.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2015. 
  19. ^ "Home – Catalent". catalent.com. Retrieved 12 July 2015. 
  20. ^ "Sorbitol 70%". bttcogroup.in. Retrieved 12 July 2015. 
  21. ^ Medina, J.R.; Garrote, R.L. (2002). "The effect of two cryoprotectant mixtures on frozen surubí surimi". Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering. 19 (4): 419–424. doi:10.1590/S0104-66322002000400010. ISSN 0104-6632. 
  22. ^ "Gallaher Group". gallaher-group.com. Retrieved 12 July 2015. 
  23. ^ a b Chemical and functional properties of food saccharides. Tomasik, Piotr,. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 2004. ISBN 9780203495728. OCLC 317752036. 
  24. ^ "Richard Nakka's Experimental Rocketry Web Site". nakka-rocketry.net. Retrieved 12 July 2015. 
  25. ^ Metzger, Jürgen O. (2006). "Production of Liquid Hydrocarbons from Biomass". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 45 (5): 696–698. doi:10.1002/anie.200502895. 
  26. ^ Shrotri, Abhijit; Tanksale, Akshat; Beltramini, Jorge Norberto; Gurav, Hanmant; Chilukuri, Satyanarayana V. (2012). "Conversion of cellulose to polyols over promoted nickel catalysts". Catalysis Science & Technology. 2 (9): 1852–1858. doi:10.1039/C2CY20119D. 
  27. ^ Tanksale, Akshat; Beltramini, Jorge Norberto; Lu, GaoQing Max (2010). "A review of catalytic hydrogen production processes from biomass". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14 (1): 166–182. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2009.08.010. 
  28. ^ Nishikawa, T; Edelstein, D; Du, XL; Yamagishi, S; Matsumura, T; Kaneda, Y; Yorek, MA; Beebe, D; et al. (2000). "Normalizing mitochondrial superoxide production blocks three pathways of hyperglycaemic damage". Nature. 404 (6779): 787–90. doi:10.1038/35008121. PMID 10783895. 
  29. ^ "FindArticles.com – CBSi". Archived from the original on 2012-07-10. 
  30. ^ a b Islam, M. S.; Sakaguchi, E (2006). "Sorbitol-based osmotic diarrhea: Possible causes and mechanism of prevention investigated in rats". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 12: 7635–7641. doi:10.3748/wjg.v12.i47.7635. 
  31. ^ Montalto M, Gallo A, Ojetti V, Gasbarrini A (2013). "Fructose, trehalose and sorbitol malabsorption" (PDF). Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci (Review). 17 (Suppl 2): 26–9. PMID 24443064. 
  32. ^ Mohamad Erfani, Yougandhar Akula, Touraj Zolfaghari, Hilary I. Hertan (2010). "Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate (SPS): Sorbitol-induced Colonic Necrosis" (PDF). Practical Gastroenterology (Case report). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 8, 2013. 
  33. ^ Kathleen Doheny (2008-01-10). "Sweetener Side Effects: Case Histories". WebMD Medical News. Retrieved 2008-01-10. 
  34. ^ Peters, Ronald; Lock, R. H. (1958-09-13). "Laxative Effect of Sorbitol". British Medical Journal. 2 (5097): 677–678. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5097.677. ISSN 0007-1447. PMC 2026423 Freely accessible. PMID 13572866. 
  35. ^ The United States Pharmacopeial Convention. "Revisions to FCC, First Supplement". Archived from the original on 5 July 2010. Retrieved 6 July 2009. 
  36. ^ Sigma Aldrich. "D-Sorbitol". Retrieved 6 July 2009. 
  37. ^ European Pharmacopoeia. "Index, Ph Eur" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2009. 
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  39. ^ National Institute of Health Sciences (2016). "The Japanese Pharmacopoeia, Seventeenth Edition" (PDF). Retrieved 17 August 2018. 

External links[edit]

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