1.
Plane (Unicode)
–
In the Unicode standard, a plane is a continuous group of 65,536 code points. There are 17 planes, identified by the numbers 0 to 16decimal, Plane 0 is the Basic Multilingual Plane, which contains most commonly-used characters. The higher planes 1 through 16 are called supplementary planes, or humorously astral planes, as of Unicode version 9.0, six of the planes have assigned code points, and four are named. The limit of 17 is due to the design of UTF-16, which can encode 16 supplementary planes and the BMP, to a value of 0x10FFFF. The encoding scheme used by UTF-8 was designed with a larger limit of 231 code points. Since Unicode limits the points to the 17 planes that can be encoded by UTF-16, code points above 0x10FFFF are invalid in UTF-8. The 17 planes can accommodate 1,114,112 code points, of these,2,048 are surrogates,66 are non-characters, and 137,468 are reserved for private use, leaving 974,530 for public assignment. Planes are further subdivided into Unicode blocks, which, unlike planes, the 273 blocks defined in Unicode 9.0 cover 24% of the possible code point space, and range in size from a minimum of 16 code points to a maximum of 65,536 code points. For future usage, ranges of characters have been mapped out for most known current and ancient writing systems. The first plane, plane 0, the Basic Multilingual Plane contains characters for almost all languages. A primary objective for the BMP is to support the unification of prior character sets as well as characters for writing, most of the assigned code points in the BMP are used to encode Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters. The High Surrogates and Low Surrogate codes are reserved for encoding characters in UTF-16 by using a pair of 16-bit codes, one High Surrogate. A single surrogate code point will never be assigned a character,65,408 of the 65,536 code points in this plane have been allocated to a Unicode block, leaving just 128 code points in unallocated ranges. As of Unicode 9.0, the BMP comprises the following 161 blocks, Plane 1, the Supplementary Multilingual Plane, contains historic scripts, scripts include Linear B, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and cuneiform scripts, and also reform orthographies like Shavian and Deseret. Symbols and notations include historic and modern musical notation, mathematical alphanumerics, Emoji and other sets, and game symbols for playing cards, Mah Jongg. Plane 3 is tentatively named the Tertiary Ideographic Plane, but as of version 9.0 there are no characters assigned to it and it is reserved for Oracle Bone script, Bronze Script, Small Seal Script, additional CJK unified ideographs, and other historic ideographic scripts. It is not anticipated that all these planes will be used in the foreseeable future, the number of possible symbol characters that could arise outside of the context of writing systems is potentially huge. At the moment, these 11 planes out of 17 are unused, Plane 14, the Supplementary Special-purpose Plane, currently contains non-graphical characters
2.
Script (Unicode)
–
In Unicode, a script is a collection of letters and other written signs used to represent textual information in one or more writing systems. Some scripts support one and only one writing system and language, for example, other scripts support many different writing systems, for example, the Latin script supports English, French, German, Italian, Vietnamese, Latin itself, and several other languages. Some languages make use of multiple alternate writing systems, thus also use several scripts, in Turkish, the Arabic script was used before the 20th century, but transitioned to Latin in the early part of the 20th century. For a list of languages supported by each script see the list of languages by writing system, more or less complementary to scripts are symbols and Unicode control characters. The unified diacritical characters and unified punctuation characters frequently have the common or inherited script property, Unicode 9.0 defines 135 separate scripts, including 84 modern scripts and 51 ancient or historic scripts. More scripts are in the process for encoding or have been allocated for encoding in roadmaps. When multiple languages make use of the script, there are frequently some differences, particularly in diacritics. For example, Swedish and English both use the Latin script, however, Swedish includes the character ‘å’ while English has no such character. Nor does English make use of the diacritic combining circle above for any character, in general the languages sharing the same scripts share many of the same characters. Despite these peripheral differences in the Swedish and English writing systems they are said to use the same Latin script, so the Unicode abstraction of scripts is a basic organizing technique. The differences between different alphabets or writing systems remain and are supported through Unicode’s flexible scripts, combining marks, writing system is sometimes treated as a synonym for script. However it also can be used as the specific writing system supported by a script. For example, the Vietnamese writing system is supported by the Latin script, a writing system may also cover more than one script, for example the Japanese writing system makes use of the Han, Hiragana and Katakana scripts. The term complex system is used to describe those where the admixture makes classification problematic. Unicode supports all of these types of writing systems through its numerous scripts, Unicode also adds further properties to characters to help differentiate the various characters and the ways they behave within Unicode text processing algorithms. In addition to explicit or specific script properties Unicode uses three values, Common Unicode can assign a character in the UCS to a single script only. However, many characters — those that are not part of a natural language writing system or are unified across many writing systems may be used in more than one script. For example, currency signs, symbols, numerals and punctuation marks, in these cases Unicode defines them as belonging to the common script
3.
Unicode
–
Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
4.
Interlinear gloss
–
In linguistics and pedagogy, an interlinear gloss is a gloss placed between lines, such as between a line of original text and its translation into another language. When glossed, each line of the original text acquires one or more lines of known as an interlinear text or interlinear glossed text —interlinear for short. Such glosses help the reader follow the relationship between the text and its translation, and the structure of the original language. In its simplest form, an interlinear gloss is simply a literal, Interlinear glosses have been used for a variety of purposes over a long period of time. One common usage has been to annotate bilingual textbooks for language education and this sort of interlinearization serves to help make the meaning of a source text explicit without attempting to formally model the structural characteristics of the source language. Such annotations have occasionally been expressed not through interlinear layout, but rather, through enumeration of words in the object, even so, this approach requires the readers to re-align the correspondences between source and target forms. In this style, the example might be rendered thus. Finally, modern linguists have adopted the practice of using abbreviated grammatical category labels, in computing, special text markers are provided in Specials to indicate the start and end of interlinear glosses. A semi-standardized set of parsing conventions and grammatical abbreviations is explained in the Leipzig Glossing Rules, goá iáu-boē koat-tēng tang-sî boeh tńg-khì. Goa1 iau1-boe3 koat2-teng3 tang7-si5 boeh2 tng1-khi3, goa2 iau2-boe7 koat4-teng7 tang1-si5 boeh4 tng2-khi3. I not-yet decide when want return, I have not yet decided when I shall return. In linguistics, it has become standard to align the words and that is, koat-tēng in line 1 above would either require a hyphenated two-word gloss, or be transcribed without a hyphen, for example as koattēng. Grammatical terms are commonly abbreviated and printed in SMALL CAPITALS to keep them distinct from translations, varying levels of analysis may be detailed. For example, in a Lezgian text using standard romanization, Here every Lezgian morpheme is set off with hyphens, since many of these are difficult to gloss in English, the roots are translated, but the grammatical suffixes are glossed with three-letter grammatical abbreviations. In interlinear morphological glosses, various forms of punctuation separate the glosses. Typically, the words are aligned with their glosses, within words and that is, there should be the same number of words separated with spaces in the text and its gloss, as well as the same number of hyphenated morphemes within a word and its gloss. This is the system, and can be applied universally. For example, Odadan hızla çıktım. FEM. PL. DAT to the houses, however, sometimes finer distinctions may be made
5.
Universal Character Set characters
–
The Unicode Consortium and the International Organisation for Standardisation collaborate on the Universal Character Set. The UCS is a standard to map characters used in natural language, mathematics, music. By creating this mapping, the UCS enables computer software vendors to interoperate, because it is a universal map, it can be used to represent multiple languages at the same time. UCS has a capacity to encode over 1 million characters. Each UCS character is represented by a code point, which is an integer between 0 and 1,114,111, used to represent each character within the internal logic of text processing software. The number of encoded characters is made up as follows,128,019 graphical characters 218 special purpose characters for control, ISO maintains the basic mapping of characters from character name to code point. Often the terms character and code point will get used interchangeably, however, when a distinction is made, a code point refers to the integer of the character, what one might think of as its address. Input methods can be through keyboard or a character palette. The UCS can be divided in various ways, such as by plane, block, character category, the x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any number of digits and may include leading zeros, the hhhh may mix uppercase and lowercase, though uppercase is the usual style. In contrast, an entity reference refers to a character by the name of an entity which has the desired character as its replacement text. The entity must either be predefined or explicitly declared in a Document Type Definition, the format is the same as for any entity reference, &name, where name is the case-sensitive name of the entity. Unicode and ISO divide the set of points into 17 planes. As of 2016 ISO and the Unicode Consortium has only allocated characters, the others remain empty and reserved for future use. Most characters are assigned to the first plane, the Basic Multilingual Plane. This is to ease the transition for legacy software since the Basic Multilingual Plane is addressable with just two octets. The characters outside the first plane usually have very specialized or rare use. Each plane corresponds with the value of the one or two hexadecimal digits preceding the four ones, hence U+24321 is in Plane 2, U+4321 is in Plane 0
6.
Endianness
–
Endianness refers to the sequential order used to numerically interpret a range of bytes in computer memory as a larger, composed word value. It also describes the order of transmission over a digital link. Little-endian format reverses the order of the sequence and stores the least significant byte at the first location with the most significant byte being stored last. The order of bits within a byte can also have endianness, however, both big and little forms of endianness are widely used in digital electronics. As examples, the IBM z/Architecture mainframes use big-endian while the Intel x86 processors use little-endian, the designers chose endianness in the 1960s and 1970s respectively. Big-endian is the most common format in data networking, fields in the protocols of the Internet protocol suite, such as IPv4, IPv6, TCP, for this reason, big-endian byte order is also referred to as network byte order. Little-endian storage is popular for microprocessors, in due to significant influence on microprocessor designs by Intel Corporation. Mixed forms also exist, for instance the ordering of bytes in a 16-bit word may differ from the ordering of 16-bit words within a 32-bit word, such cases are sometimes referred to as mixed-endian or middle-endian. There are also some bi-endian processors that operate in either little-endian or big-endian mode, big-endianness may be demonstrated by writing a decimal number, say one hundred twenty-three, on paper in the usual positional notation understood by a numerate reader,123. The digits are written starting from the left and to the right, with the most significant digit,1 and this is analogous to the lowest address of memory being used first. This is an example of a big-endian convention taken from daily life, the little-endian way of writing the same number, one hundred twenty-three, would place the hundreds-digit 1 in the right-most position,321. A person following conventional big-endian place-value order, who is not aware of this ordering, would read a different number. Endianness in computing is similar, but it applies to the ordering of bytes. The illustrations to the right, where a is a memory address, danny Cohen introduced the terms Little-Endian and Big-Endian for byte ordering in an article from 1980. Computer memory consists of a sequence of storage cells, each cell is identified in hardware and software by its memory address. If the total number of cells in memory is n. Computer programs often use data structures of fields that may consist of data than is stored in one memory cell. For the purpose of this article where its use as an operand of an instruction is relevant, in addition to that, it has to be of numeric type in some positional number system
7.
Text file
–
A text file is a kind of computer file that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. A text file exists within a file system. The end of a file is often denoted by placing one or more special characters. Such markers were required under the CP/M and MS-DOS operating systems, on modern operating systems such as Windows and Unix-like systems, text files do not contain any special EOF character. Text file refers to a type of container, while plain text refers to a type of content, Text files can contain plain text, but they are not limited to such. At a generic level of description, there are two kinds of files, text files and binary files. Because of their simplicity, text files are used for storage of information. They avoid some of the problems encountered with other formats, such as endianness, padding bytes. Further, when data corruption occurs in a file, it is often easier to recover. A disadvantage of text files is that usually have a low entropy. A simple text file needs no additional metadata to assist the reader in interpretation, and therefore may contain no data at all, the ASCII character set is the most common format for English-language text files, and is generally assumed to be the default file format in many situations. For accented and other characters, it is necessary to choose a character encoding. In many systems, this is chosen on the basis of the locale setting on the computer it is read on. Common character encodings include ISO 8859-1 for many European languages, because many encodings have only a limited repertoire of characters, they are often only usable to represent text in a limited subset of human languages. Unicode is an attempt to create a standard for representing all known languages. On most operating systems the name text file refers to file format that only plain text content with very little formatting. Such files can be viewed and edited on text terminals or in text editors. Text files usually have the MIME type text/plain, usually with additional information indicating an encoding, MS-DOS and Windows use a common text file format, with each line of text separated by a two-character combination, carriage return and line feed
