1.
Stepchild
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A stepfamily is a family where at least one parent has children that are not genetically related to the other spouse or partner. Either one parent may have children from a previous relationship, Children in a stepfamily may live with one biological parent, or they may live with each biological parent for a period of time. In addition, visitation rights mean that children in stepfamilies often have contact with both parents, even if they permanently live with only one. A child is referred to as the stepchild, stepdaughter or stepson of their parents new spouse. A stepfather is the husband of ones mother, and not ones biological father, a stepmother is the wife of ones father, and not ones biological mother. A step-grandmother is the stepmother of ones father or mother and wife of ones grandfather, a step-grandfather is the stepfather of ones father or mother and husband of ones grandmother, and not ones biological grandfather. Similarly, a stepbrother is the son of a stepparent who one is not biologically related to, a stepsister is the daughter of a stepparent to whom one is not biologically related. A step-grandson is the son of a stepbrother or stepsister who one is not biologically related to, a step-granddaughter is the daughter of a stepbrother or stepsister who one is not biologically related. A parents spouse of the sex may also count as a stepparent. The traditional and strictest definition of a stepfamily is a couple where one or both members of the couple have pre-existing children who live with them. More recently, the definition is expanded to include all cohabiting couples. Some people also apply the term to non-custodial relationships, where stepparent can refer to the partner of a parent with whom the child does not live. The term is not generally used to refer to the relationship with a child who never lived in the home with the parents new partner. A simple stepfamily is one in only one member of the couple has a prior child or children. If both members of the couple have children, those children are stepbrothers and stepsisters to one another. Any subsequent child born to the couple is a half-sibling of the respective members prior children, if a stepparent legally adopts the partners child or children, he or she becomes the childs legal parent. The most common form of a family is a mother and stepfather arrangement. One-third of all children entering stepfamilies were born to an unmarried mother, of the 60 million American children under the age of 13, half are currently living with one biological parent and that parents current partner
2.
Stepfather
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A stepfather or stepdad is the husband of ones biological mother, and not ones biological father. Though less common in literature than evil stepmothers, there are cases of evil stepfathers, such as in the fairy tales The Gold-Bearded Man. One type of such features a defeated villain who insists on marrying the heros mother and makes her help him trick the hero. As well as The Stepfather, films, the film, Sucker Punch features a sexually abusive stepfather. In a classic episode of South Park, Stan is advised, by Bill Cosby. In his opera La Cenerentola, Gioacchino Rossini inverted the tale of Cinderella to have her oppressed by her stepfather and his motive is made explicit, in that providing a dowry to Cenerentola would cut into what he can give to his own daughters. An analogous male figure may appear as a wicked uncle, like the stepmother, the fathers brother may covet the childs inheritance for his own children. Modern films, however, seem to cast stepfathers in a kinder light
3.
Stepmother
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A stepmother or stepmom is the wife of ones biological father, who is not ones biological mother. Step parents may also face some societal challenges due to the surrounding the evil stepmother character. Morello notes that the introduction of the evil character in the past is problematic to stepparents today. The presence of this stigma has had a powerful, negative impact on stepmothers self-esteems, in fiction, stepmothers are often portrayed as being wicked and evil. The character of the wicked stepmother features heavily in fairy tales, the most famous examples are Cinderella, Snow White, in some fairy tales, the stepdaughters escape by marrying does not free her from her stepmother. After the birth of the stepdaughters first child, the stepmother may attempt to murder the new mother and replace her with her own daughter—thus making her the stepmother to the next generation. Such a replacement occurs in The Wonderful Birch, Brother and Sister, in the Korean Folktale Janghwa Hongryeon jeon, the stepmother kills her own stepdaughters. In many stories with evil stepmothers, the hostility between the stepmother and the stepchild is underscored by having the child succeed through aid from the dead mother. The notion of the word stepmother being descriptive of an intrinsically unkind parent is suggested by peculiar wording in John Gambles An Irish Wake and he writes of a woman soon to die, who instructs her successor to be kind to my children. Gamble writes that the injunction was forgotten and that she proved a very step-mother, the Icelandic fairy tale The Horse Gullfaxi and the Sword Gunnfoder features a good stepmother, who indeed aids the prince like a fairy godmother, but this figure is very rare in fairy tales. The stepmother may be identified with other evils the characters meet and this hostility from the stepmother and tenderness from the true mother has been interpreted in varying ways. A psychological interpretation, by Bruno Bettelheim, describes it as splitting the actual mother in an ideal mother, in some fairy tales, such as The Juniper Tree, the stepmothers hostility is overtly the desire to secure the inheritance of her children. Stepmothers also make appearances in Chinese tales of family. In Classic of Filial Piety, Guo Jujing told the story of Min Ziqian and his stepmother had two more sons and saw to it that they were warmly dressed in winter but neglected her stepson. When her husband discovered this, he decided to divorce her and his son interceded, on the ground that she neglected only him, but when they had no mother, all three sons would be neglected. His father relented, and the stepmother henceforth took care of all three children, for this, he was held up as a model of filial piety. Conversely, the exemplary stepmother prefers the stepson to her own child, the ubiquity of the wicked stepmother has made it a frequent theme of revisionist fairy tale fantasy. More subtly, Piers Anthony depicted the Princess Threnody as being cursed by her stepmother in Crewel Lye, A Caustic Yarn, if she ever entered Castle Roogna, it would fall down
4.
Stepsibling
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A stepsibling or stepsib is the offspring of ones stepparent. This would constitute a stepsister and a stepbrother, in fairy tales, stepsiblings and half-siblings can but need not take after their mother. In Cinderella, the sisters are the main characters stepsisters. Many romance novels feature heroes who are the stepbrother of the heroine, the step-relationship generally stems from a marriage when the hero and heroine are at least in their adolescence. Some family films and television sitcoms feature a nuclear stepfamily including siblings as the center premise, in many cases, the stepfamily is large and full of children causing situations such as sibling rivalry, rooming, falling in love, and getting along amongst the children as popular plotlines. The stepfamily premise dates back as far as the 1968 film Yours, Mine and this film gave way to a classic family television sitcom about a blended family known as The Brady Bunch. The Life of Riley is a 2009 British comedy television series and it focuses on the lives of a blended family. Kevin and Kell is a strip that focuses on a blended family
5.
Sibling
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A sibling is one of two or more individuals having one or both parents in common. A male sibling is a brother, and a sibling is a sister. In most societies throughout the world, siblings often grow up together, the emotional bond between siblings is often complicated and is influenced by factors such as parental treatment, birth order, personality, and personal experiences outside the family. However, there are cases where siblings grow up in separate homes and it is known that both nature and nurture figure in development, researchers are attempting to ascertain just which one plays the larger role. Identical twins share 100% of their DNA, full siblings are first-degree relatives and, on average, share 50% of their genes out of those that vary among humans. Half-siblings are second-degree relatives and have, on average, a 25% overlap in their genetic variation. Full siblings have the same parents and are 50% related. Identical twins by definition are 100% related, there are two types of twins, identical and fraternal. Identical twins have exactly the same genes, fraternal twins are no more similar than regular siblings, often, twins with a close relationship will develop a twin language from infanthood, a language only shared and understood between the two. Studies suggest that identical twins appear to display more twin talk than fraternal twins, at about 3 years of age, twin talk usually ends. Researchers were interested in subjects who were in the years of life. They knew that past studies suggested that genetics played a role in ones personality in the earlier years of their life. However, they were curious about whether or not this was later on in life. They gathered subjects with an age of 59, who included 99 pairs of identical twins. They also gathered twins who were reared together,160 pairs of identical twins and they studied the most heritable traits in regard to personality, which are emotionality, activity level and sociability, also known as EAS. This study found that identical twins resembled each other twice as much as fraternal twins, furthermore, environment influences personality substantially, however, it has little to do with whether they are reared together or apart. This study also suggests that heritability is substantial, but not as substantial as for younger subjects, half-siblings are people who share one parent but not both. They may share the same mother but different fathers, or they may have the same father and they share only one parent instead of two as full siblings do and are on average 25% related
6.
Glossary
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A glossary, also known as a vocabulary or clavis, is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. Traditionally, a glossary appears at the end of a book and includes terms within that book that are newly introduced, uncommon. While glossaries are most commonly associated with books, in some cases. A bilingual glossary is a list of terms in one language defined in a language or glossed by synonyms in another language. In a general sense, a glossary contains explanations of concepts relevant to a field of study or action. In this sense, the term is related to the notion of ontology, automatic methods have been also provided that transform a glossary into an ontology or a computational lexicon. A core glossary is a glossary or defining dictionary that enables definition of other concepts. It contains a working vocabulary and definitions for important or frequently encountered concepts. Computational approaches to the extraction of glossaries from corpora or the Web have been developed in the recent years. These methods typically start from domain terminology and extract one or more glosses for each term of interest, glosses can then be analyzed to extract hypernyms of the defined term and other lexical and semantic relations
7.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
8.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
9.
Widow
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A widow is a woman whose spouse has died, while a widower is a man in that situation. The state of having lost ones spouse to death is termed widowhood and these terms are not applied to a person after he or she becomes divorced from their former spouse. The term widowhood can be used for sex, at least according to some dictionaries. Occasionally, the word viduity is used, the adjective form for either sex is widowed. When the death of a spouse occurs, it is said that an effect is to arise. This is a phenomenon that refers to the mortality rate after the death of a spouse. It is “strongest during the first three months after a death, when they had a 66-percent increased chance of dying”. Most widows and widowers suffer from this effect during the first 3 months of their spouses death, in societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute. The tendency for women generally to outlive men can compound this, in some patriarchal societies, widows may maintain economic independence. A woman would carry on her spouses business and be accorded certain rights, more recently, widows of political figures have been among the first women elected to high office in many countries, such as Corazón Aquino or Isabel Martínez de Perón. In 19th-century Britain, widows had greater opportunity for social mobility than in other societies. Along with the ability to ascend socio-economically, widows—who were presumably celibate—were much more able to challenge conventional sexual behaviour than married women in their society. Many immigrants from these cultures to the United States as recently as the 1970s have loosened this strict standard of dress to only two years of black garments. However, Orthodox Christian immigrants may wear black in the United States to signify their widowhood. In other cultures, however, widowhood is much stricter and unarguably more demeaning to womens rights, often, women are required to remarry within the family of their late husband after a period of mourning. As of 2004, women in United States who were widowed at younger ages are at greatest risk for economic hardship, similarly, married women who are in a financially unstable household are more likely to become widows because of the strong relationship between mortality and wealth. In underdeveloped and developing areas of the world, conditions for widows continue to be more severe. A variable that is deemed important and relative to the effects of widowhood is the gender of the widow
10.
Synonym
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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy, the word comes from Ancient Greek sýn and ónoma. An example of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence, words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses. For example, if one talks about a time or an extended time, long. Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason, feline is more formal than cat, long and extended are only synonyms in one usage, synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. In the figurative sense, two words are said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation. a widespread impression that. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy, as when, for example, thus a metonym is a type of synonym, and the word metonym is a hyponym of the word synonym. The analysis of synonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and hypernymy is inherent to taxonomy and it has applications in pedagogy and machine learning, because they rely on word-sense disambiguation and schema. Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the part of speech. Such like, he expired means the same as he died, in English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While Englands new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English, thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. For more examples, see the list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English, the purpose of a thesaurus is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words, these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being a word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings, for example, hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle, homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations
11.
Germanic language
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It is the third most spoken Indo-European subdivision, behind Italic and Indo-Iranian, and ahead of Balto-Slavic languages. Limburgish varieties have roughly 1.3 million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, the main North Germanic languages are Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The East Germanic branch included Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, the last to die off was Crimean Gothic, spoken in the late 18th century in some isolated areas of Crimea. The total number of Germanic languages throughout history is unknown, as some of them—especially East Germanic languages—disappeared during or after the Migration Period. Proto-Germanic, along all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic tribes moving south from Scandinavia in the 2nd century BC, to settle in the area of todays northern Germany, furthermore, it is the de facto language of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. It is also a language in Nicaragua and Malaysia. German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and Switzerland and has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by immigrant communities in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico, a German dialect, Pennsylvania Dutch, is still present amongst Anabaptist populations in Pennsylvania in the United States. Dutch is a language of Aruba, Belgium, Curaçao. The Netherlands also colonised Indonesia, but Dutch was scrapped as a language after Indonesian independence. Dutch was until 1925 an official language in South Africa, but evolved in and was replaced by Afrikaans, Afrikaans is one of the 11 official languages in South Africa and is a lingua franca of Namibia. It is used in other Southern African nations as well, low German is a collection of sometimes very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Scots is spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster, frisian is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark. Luxembourgish is mainly spoken in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, though it extends into small parts of Belgium, France. Limburgish varieties are spoken in the Limburg and Rhineland regions, along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with Finnish, and the only official language in the Åland Islands. Danish is also spoken natively by the Danish minority in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, Norwegian is the official language of Norway. Icelandic is the language of Iceland, and is spoken by a significant minority in the Faroe Islands
12.
Old High German
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Old High German is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 700 to 1050. Coherent written texts do not appear until the half of the 8th century. There are, however, a number of Elder Futhark inscriptions dating to the 6th century, as well as single words, during the migration period, the Elbe Germanic tribes settled in what became Alamannia, the Duchy of Bavaria and the Kingdom of Lombardy. Old High German comprises the dialects of these groups which underwent the Second Sound Shift during the 6th Century, namely all of Elbe Germanic, in the south, the Langobards, who had settled in Northern Italy, maintained their dialect until their conquest by Charlemagne in 774. This area did not become German-speaking again until the German eastward expansion of the early 12th century, though there was some attempt at conquest, Old High German literacy is a product of the monasteries, notably at St. Gallen, Reichenau and Fulda. Its origins lie in the establishment of the German church by Boniface in the mid 8th century, einhard tells how Charlemagne himself ordered that the epic lays should be collected for posterity. It was the neglect or religious zeal of later generations that led to the loss of these records, thus, it was Charlemagnes weak successor, Louis the Pious, who destroyed his fathers collection of epic poetry on account of its pagan content. Hrabanus Maurus, a student of Alcuins and abbot at Fulda from 822, was an important advocate of the cultivation of German literacy, among his students were Walafrid Strabo and Otfrid of Weissenburg. Notker Labeo towards the end of the Old High German period was among the greatest stylists in the language, the main difference between Old High German and the West Germanic dialects from which it developed is that it underwent the High German consonant shift. This is generally dated approximately to the late 5th and early 6th centuries—hence dating its start to around 500, the result of this sound change is that the consonantal system of German remains different from all other West Germanic languages, including English and Low German. Grammatically, however, Old High German remained very similar to Old English, Old Dutch, by the mid 11th century the many different vowels found in unstressed syllables had all been reduced to /ə/. Since these vowels were part of the endings in the nouns and verbs. For these reasons,1050 is seen as the start of the Middle High German period, for this reason the dialects may be termed monastery dialects. It declined after the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by the Franks in 774 and it is classified as Upper German on the basis of evidence of the Second Sound Shift. The continued existence of a West Frankish dialect in the Western, claims that this might have been the language of the Carolingian court or that it is attested in the Ludwigslied, whose presence in a French manuscript suggests bilingualism, are controversial. The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of the East Franconian dialect in the 9th century and this is the dialect of the monastery of Fulda, and specifically of the Old High German Tatian. Old High German had five long vowels and six phonemic short vowels. Both occurred in stressed and unstressed syllables, notes, All back vowels likely had front-vowel allophones as a result of Umlaut
13.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
14.
Institution
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Institutions are stable, valued, recurring patterns of behavior. As structures or mechanisms of social order, they govern the behaviour of a set of individuals within a given community, Institutions are identified with a social purpose, transcending individuals and intentions by mediating the rules that govern living behavior. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions such as the family that are enough to encompass other institutions. As structures and mechanisms of social order, institutions are an object of study in social sciences such as political science, anthropology, economics. Institutions are also a concern for law, the formal mechanism for political rule-making. That is, institutions arise, develop and function in a pattern of social self-organization beyond conscious intentions of the individuals involved, as mechanisms of social interaction, institutions manifest in both formal organizations, such as the U. S. Formal institutions are set forth by a relevant authority and informal institutions are generally unwritten societal rules, norms. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions that encompass many other institutions, both formal and informal (e. g. the family, government, the economy, education, most important institutions, considered abstractly, have both objective and subjective aspects, examples include money and marriage. The subjective experience of money is so pervasive and persuasive that economists talk of the illusion and try to disabuse their students of it. Examples of institutions include, Family, The family is the center of the childs life, the family teaches children cultural values and attitudes about themselves and others - see sociology of the family. Children learn continuously from the environment that adults create, Children also become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to each class accordingly. Religion, Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations. Parental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization—more so than religious peers or religious beliefs, see sociology of religion and civil religion. Peer groups, A peer group is a group whose members have interests, social positions. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships on their own, the influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence. Capitalist society may encourage the growth of centralization and interdependence under the control of an elite, socialism encourages democratic, bottom-up control by the people and their communities. Legal systems, Children are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or norms of the group/community, parents’ attitudes toward legal systems influence children’s views as to what is legally acceptable. For example, children whose parents are continually in jail are more accepting of incarceration, see jurisprudence, philosophy of law, sociology of law
15.
Culture
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Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
16.
Social status
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Social status is the position or rank of a person or group, within the society. Status can be determined in two ways, one can earn their social status by their own achievements, which is known as achieved status. Alternatively, one can be placed in the system by their inherited position. An embodied status is one that is generated by physical characteristics located within our physical selves, the status that is the most important for an individual at a given time is called master status. Ascribed statuses can also be defined as those that are fixed for an individual at birth, ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, race, ethnic group and family background. For example, a born into a wealthy family characterized by traits such as popularity, talents. Therefore, they are given and taught many social roles as they are positioned into a family becoming equipped with all these traits. Achieved status means also what the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, Social status is used in many parts of the world. Hierarchy can be conveyed and detected through voice, Status refers to the relative rank that an individual holds, this includes attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honor or prestige. Status has two different types that come along with it, achieved, and ascribed, the word status refers to social stratification on a vertical scale. In society, pariah status groups are regarded with disdain or treated as outcasts by the majority of the population, the term derives from the Paraiyar, members of which are treated as outcasts in Hindu society. In modern societies, occupation is thought of as the main determinant of status. Achieved status is when people are placed in the structure based on their individual merits or achievements. This status can be achieved through education, occupation, and marital status and their place within the stratification structure is determined by societys bar, which often judges them on success, success being financial, academic, political and so on. America most commonly uses this form of status with jobs, the higher you are in rank the better off you are and the more control you have over your co-workers. In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied, in some cases it can be quite rigid and class based, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, in these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wifes mother quite seriously, all societies have a form of social status
17.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
18.
Community
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A community is a small or large social unit who have something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity. Often - but not always - communities share a sense of place that is situated in a geographical area. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, people tend to define those social ties as important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions like family, home, work, government, society, or humanity, at large. The word community derives from the Old French comuneté, which comes from the Latin communitas community, human communities may share intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Community studies is an academic field drawing on both sociology and anthropology and the research methods of ethnography and participant observation in the study of community. In academic settings around the world, community studies is variously a sub-discipline of anthropology or sociology and it is often interdisciplinary and geared toward practical applications rather than purely theoretical perspectives. Community studies is sometimes combined with other fields, i. e. Urban and Community Studies, Health and Community Studies, or Family, while studies of the Internet are now widespread across academic disciplines, there is a growing collaboration among these investigations. On the research side, Internet studies intersects with studies of cyberculture, human–computer interaction, Urban sociologists contest the significance of place in shaping community. The anonymity and impersonal characterizing life in modern city spaces tend to be devoid of the collective connectedness associated with the idea of community”. The philosophy of science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences, such as sociology, anthropology. Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant, a variety of methods are involved in cultural anthropological, including participant observation, interviews, and surveys. The term civilization later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with forming an umbrella term. Anthropologists have argued that culture is human nature, and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, since humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, people living in different places or different circumstances develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local and the global. Colonialism and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with primitive others, the umbrella term socio-cultural anthropology draws upon both cultural and social anthropology traditions. In archaeological studies of communities the term community is used in two ways, paralleling usage in other areas. The first is a definition of community as a place where people used to live
19.
Consensus
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Consensus decision-making is a group decision-making process in which group members develop, and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the whole. Consensus may be defined professionally as a resolution, one that can be supported. Consensus is defined by Merriam-Webster as, first, general agreement and it has its origin in the Latin word cōnsēnsus, which is from cōnsentiō meaning literally feel together. It is used to both the decision and the process of reaching a decision. Consensus decision-making is thus concerned with the process of deliberating and finalizing a decision, as a decision-making process, consensus decision-making aims to be, Agreement Seeking, A consensus decision making process attempts to generate as much agreement as possible. Collaborative, Participants contribute to a proposal and shape it into a decision that meets the concerns of all group members as much as possible. Cooperative, Participants in a consensus process should strive to reach the best possible decision for the group and all of its members. Egalitarian, All members of a consensus decision-making body should be afforded, as much as possible, All members have the opportunity to present, and amend proposals. Inclusive, As many stakeholders as possible should be involved in the consensus decision-making process, participatory, The consensus process should actively solicit the input and participation of all decision-makers. Consensus decision-making is an alternative to commonly practiced group decision-making processes, roberts Rules of Order, for instance, is a guide book used by many organizations. This book allows the structuring of debate and passage of proposals that can be approved through majority vote and it does not emphasize the goal of full agreement. Critics of such a process believe that it can involve adversarial debate and these dynamics may harm group member relationships and undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious decision. Consensus decision-making attempts to address the beliefs of such problems, proponents claim that outcomes of the consensus process include, Better decisions, Through including the input of all stakeholders the resulting proposals may better address all potential concerns. Better implementation, A process that includes and respects all parties, Better group relationships, A cooperative, collaborative group atmosphere can foster greater group cohesion and interpersonal connection. The level of agreement necessary to finalize a decision is known as a decision rule and these groups use the term consensus to denote both the discussion process and the decision rule. Other groups use a process to generate as much agreement as possible. In this case, someone who has a strong objection must live with the decision, Giving consent does not necessarily mean that the proposal being considered is one’s first choice. Group members can vote their consent to a proposal because they choose to cooperate with the direction of the group, sometimes the vote on a proposal is framed, “Is this proposal something you can live with. ”This relaxed threshold for a yes vote can achieve full consent
20.
Parenting
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Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship, governments and society may have a role in child-rearing as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations, others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent, the English pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott described the concept of good-enough parenting in which a minimum of prerequisites for healthy child development are met. Views on the characteristics that one a good or good-enough parent vary from culture to culture. Social class, wealth, culture and income have a strong impact on what methods of child rearing are used by parents. Cultural values play a role in how a parent raises their child. A familys social class plays a role in the opportunities and resources that will be made available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, a parenting style is the overall emotional climate in the home. Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early development, authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style and these four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand and demand and control on the other. Recent research has found that style is significantly related to childrens subsequent mental health. In particular, authoritative parenting is positively related to health and satisfaction with life. Authoritative parenting Described by Baumrind as the just right style, in combines a medium level demands on the child, authoritative parents rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Parents are more aware of a childs feelings and capabilities and support the development of an autonomy within reasonable limits. There is a give-and-take atmosphere involved in communication and both control and support are balanced. Research shows that this style is more beneficial than the too-hard authoritarian style or the too-soft permissive style, an example of authoritative parenting would be the parents talking to their child about their emotions. Authoritarian parenting styles Authoritarian parents are very rigid and strict and they place high demands on the child, but are not responsive to the child
21.
Etiquette
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Etiquette is a code of behavior that delineates expectations for social behavior according to contemporary conventional norms within a society, social class, or group. The French word étiquette, literally signifying a tag or label, was used in a sense in English around 1750. Etiquette has changed and evolved over the years, in the 3rd millennium BC, Ptahhotep wrote The Maxims of Ptahhotep. The Maxims were conformist precepts extolling such civil virtues as truthfulness, self-control, learning by listening to everybody and knowing that human knowledge is never perfect are a leitmotif. Avoiding open conflict wherever possible should not be considered weakness, stress is placed on the pursuit of justice, although it is conceded that it is a gods command that prevails in the end. Some of the maxims refer to ones behaviour when in the presence of the great, how to choose the right master, others teach the correct way to lead through openness and kindness. Greed is the base of all evil and should be guarded against, while generosity towards family, confucius was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher whose philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. Baldassare Castiglione, count of Casatico, was an Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissance author, who is probably most famous for his authorship of The Book of the Courtier. The work was an example of a book, dealing with questions of the etiquette and morality of the courtier, and was very influential in 16th century European court circles. ”During the Enlightenment era. Upwardly mobile middle class bourgeoisie increasingly tried to identify themselves with the elite through their adopted artistic preferences and their standards of behaviour. They became preoccupied with precise rules of etiquette, such as when to show emotion, influential in this new discourse was a series of essays on the nature of politeness in a commercial society, penned by the philosopher Lord Shaftesbury in the early 18th century. Its stated goal was to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality, the allied notion of civility – referring to a desired social interaction which valued sober and reasoned debate on matters of interest – also became an important quality for the polite classes. Established rules and procedures for proper behaviour as well as conventions, were outlined by gentlemens clubs. Periodicals, including The Tatler and The Spectator, infused politeness into English coffeehouse conversation, as their explicit purpose lay in the reformation of English manners and morals. It was Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield who first used the word etiquette in its meaning, in his Letters to His Son on the Art of Becoming a Man of the World. This work comprised over 400 letters written from 1737 or 1738 and continuing until his sons death in 1768, the letters were first published by his sons widow Eugenia Stanhope in 1774. Chesterfield endeavoured to decouple the issue of manners from conventional morality, the Letters were full of elegant wisdom and perceptive observation and deduction. Frequent and loud laughter is the characteristic of folly and ill-manners, it is the manner in which the mob express their joy at silly things
22.
Adoption
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Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. Adoption for the well-born While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, the Code of Hammurabi, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of adoption in ancient Rome is well documented in the Codex Justinianus, the use of adoption by the aristocracy is well documented, many of Romes emperors were adopted sons. Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare, abandoned children were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empires slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families, although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called alumni, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them. Other ancient civilizations, notably India and China, used some form of adoption as well, evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices, in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. China had a idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of ancestor worship. The practice of adopting the children of members and close friends was common among the cultures of Polynesia including Hawaii where the custom was referred to as hānai. Adoption and commoners The nobility of the Germanic, Celtic, in medieval society, bloodlines were paramount, a ruling dynasty lacking a natural-born heir apparent was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption, english Common Law, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, for example, in the year 737, in a charter from the town of Lucca, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Europes cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption, without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the Church, initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Churchs innovation, however, was the practice of oblation, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and this created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europes abandoned and orphaned children became alumni of the Church, oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward institutionalization, eventually bringing about the establishment of the foundling hospital and orphanage. This system of apprenticeship and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the Boston Female Asylum is a good example, adopting to create a family The next stage of adoptions evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the American Civil War resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages, Charles Loring Brace, a Protestant minister became appalled by the legions of homeless waifs roaming the streets of New York City
23.
Abandonment (legal)
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Such intentional action may take the form of a discontinuance or a waiver. This broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law, in common law jurisdictions, both common law abandonment and statutory abandonment of property may be recognized. By contrast, an example of statutory abandonment is the abandonment by a trustee under 11 U. S. C. Intentional abandonment is also referred to as dereliction, and something voluntarily abandoned by its owner with the intention of not retaking it is a derelict, someone that holds the property or to whom property rights have been relinquished is an abandonee. An item that has been abandoned is termed an abandum, a res nullius abandoned by its owner, leaving it vacant, belongs to no one. Occurs when one ceases to reside permanently in a former domicile, the presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each case. In the United States, a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent, the landlord must then send notice of the intent to seize the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it. How long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property, the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment, the rest must be set aside for the former tenant, should she or he eventually return. Abandonment occurs when the insured surrenders to the insurer all rights to damaged or lost property, sometimes, this is permitted only when damage constitutes constructive total loss. In marine insurance parlance, abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer, Abandonment can also mean refusal to accept from a delivering carrier a shipment so damaged in transit as to be worthless. Abandonment is recognized as the release of material by a copyright holder into the public domain. However, statutory abandonment is legally a tricky issue which has little relevant case precedent to establish how an artist can abandon their copyright during their lifetime, the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright. Copyright protection attaches to a work as soon as it is fixed in a tangible medium, before the Copyright Act of 1976 an artist could abandon or forfeit their copyright by neglecting to comply with the relevant formalities. Difficulty arises when one tries to apply the doctrine of abandonment to present-day concerns regarding the abandonment or gifting of a work to the public domain. Despite this test, the current legal environment towards protectionism is so strong that a court might disregard an author’s statements regarding their intent. Abandonment is relinquishment by an inventor of the right to secure a patent, Abandonment is permission sought by or granted to a carrier by a state or federal agency to cease operation of all or part of a route or service. Likewise, in the United States, the Surface Transportation Board grants permission to abandon railway lines and it can involve desertion of a spouse with the intention of creating a permanent separation. Desertion of one spouse by the other without just cause is called malicious abandonment, child abandonment is often recognized as a crime, in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment
24.
Wednesday Martin
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Wendy Wednesday Martin is an American author and cultural critic who writes on parenting, step-parenting, and popular culture. As of 2015, she is the author of three books, Marlene Dietrich, Stepmonster, A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel and Act the Way We Do, and Primates of Park Avenue. She has written for The New York Times, The Atlantic, Psychology Today, The Huffington Post, Harpers Bazaar and she has also been a commentator on step-parenting, parenting, and motherhood. Martin was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan and grew up in Grand Rapids and she did her undergraduate work at the University of Michigan where she studied anthropology and received a doctorate in comparative literature and cultural studies from Yale University. Her doctoral work examined early psychoanalysis and anthropology, Martin has taught literature and cultural studies at Yale, The New School, and Baruch College. Martin is the author of Marlene Dietrich, Stepmonster, A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel and Act the Way We Do, and Primates of Park Avenue. In May 2009, Martins memoir about her experience as a stepmother called Stepmonster, A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel and Act the Way We Do was published. After Martin moved to the Upper East Side neighborhood of Manhattan with her family in 2004, she began researching and documenting her experiences there for her next book, simon & Schuster released the book in June 2015. In June 2015, MGM studios purchased the rights to Primates of Park Avenue from Martin. In addition to her books, Martin has written for Psychology Today, The Daily Telegraph, The New York Times, The Huffington Post, and The Atlantic. In May 2013, several articles were published about the practice of hiring disabled guides to avoid lines at Disney World, which Martin uncovered during her research for Primates of Park Avenue. On May 16,2015, The New York Times published an essay by Martin in the Sunday Review section, following the essay, commentary appeared in the New York Post and Page Six, arguing against Martin’s account of wife bonuses. The New York Times characterized Martins description of wife bonuses as “disputed”, in The New York Times review of the book, Martins writing was called confident and evocative. The book received positive reviews from the San Francisco Chronicle, The Economist. An article published by The New York Post outlined discrepancies between Martins published account and public records, the Washington Post cast additional doubt on some of the books assertions. Martin said that she had changed details in the book for privacy concerns and told The Washington Post that “I stand by what I wrote, absolutely 100 percent”. Karen Heller of The Washington Post recapped the negative coverage in July 2015 and noted that the copious coverage and social media chatter about the book. could possibly fill another book. Martin is married to Joel Moser, a lawyer, financier, chief officer and adjunct professor at Columbia University
25.
Canadian English
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Canadian English is the set of varieties of the English language native to Canada. A larger number,28 million people, reported using English as their dominant language, 82% of Canadians outside the province of Quebec reported speaking English natively, but within Quebec the figure was just 7. 7% as most of its residents are native speakers of Quebec French. Canadian English contains elements of British English and American English, as well as many Canadianisms, the construction of identities and English-language varieties across political borders is a complex social phenomenon. The term Canadian English is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857, Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare, yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged, an overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically-relevant work, is Dollinger. Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the language-external history, an exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis et als Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, offered real-time historical data though its quotations. Recently, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English on historical linguistic data, dCHP-1 is now available in open access. )Most notably, Dollinger pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE and offers a developmental scenario for 18th and 19th century Ontario. Recently, Reuter, with a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario, has confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger, Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions. Words such as realize and paralyze are usually spelled with -ize or -yze rather than -ise or -yse, french-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such as color or center, often retain British spellings. While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling defense and offense, some nouns, as in British English, take -ice while matching verbs take -ise – for example, practice and licence are nouns while practise and license are the respective corresponding verbs. Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling consonants when adding suffixes to words even when the syllable is not stressed. Compare Canadian travelled, counselling, and marvellous to American traveled, counseling, in American English, such consonants are only doubled when stressed, thus, for instance, controllable and enthralling are universal. In other cases, Canadians and Americans differ from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like curb and tire, Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canadas trade history. For instance, the British spelling of the word cheque probably relates to Canadas once-important ties to British financial institutions, Canadas political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canadas first prime minister, John A. Macdonald, once directed the Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style, a contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada. Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, often along with the chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English, and, throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, color as opposed to the British-based colour. Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger, the use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agencys inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II. The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the days of printing in which movable type was set manually
26.
Family Relations (journal)
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Family Relations is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the National Council on Family Relations. It covers applied research on family studies and social work, the journal was established in 1952 as The Coordinator, renamed The Family Life Coordinator in 1960, and renamed again in 1970 to The Family Coordinator before obtaining its current title in 1980.912. Official website National Council on Family Relations
27.
Marina Warner
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Dame Marina Sarah Warner, DBE, FRSL, FBA is a British novelist, short story writer, historian and mythographer. She is known for her many books relating to feminism. She has written for publications, including The London Review of Books. She has been a professor, given lectures and taught on the faculties of many universities. In 2017 she was elected president of the Royal Society of Literature and she was born in London to an English father and Italian mother. Her paternal grandfather was the English cricketer Sir Pelham Warner and she was brought up in Cairo, Brussels and in Berkshire, England, where she studied at St Marys School, Ascot. She studied French and Italian at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, while at Oxford she was the editor of Isis, a magazine for Oxford University. In 1971, she married William Shawcross, with whom she had a son and these were followed by Joan of Arc, The Image of Female Heroism and Monuments & Maidens, The Allegory of the Female Form. Warners novel The Lost Father was on the Booker Prize shortlist in 1988 and her non-fiction book From the Beast to the Blonde, On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers won a Mythopoeic Award in 1996. The companion study of the male figure, No Go the Bogeyman, On Scaring, Lulling. Warners other novels include The Leto Bundle and Indigo and her book Phantasmagoria traces the ways in which the spirit has been represented across different mediums, from waxworks to cinema. In December 2012, she presented a programme on BBC Radio Four about the Brothers Grimm, a collection of her writings about art was published Violette Editions in 2014 under the title The Symbol Gives Rise to Thought. She was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1984 and she gave the 1994 Reith Lectures on Managing Monsters and was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2008 Birthday Honours for services to literature. She received a doctorate from the University of Oxford on 21 June 2006. She was a professor in the Department of Literature, Film and she took up a Chair in English and Creative Writing at Birkbeck College, University of London in September 2014. She is currently a Fellow of All Souls College Oxford and Chair of the judges of the Man Booker International Prize 2015. In March 2017, Warner was elected as the Royal Society of Literatures 19th — and first female — president, the Reith Lectures, Managing Monster 1994. The Symbol Gives Rise to Thought, Writings on Art by Marina Warner Volume 1, VioletteEditions. com, Marina Warner profile, theguardian. com, accessed 31 December 2014
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
DMOZ
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DMOZ was a multilingual open-content directory of World Wide Web links. The site and community who maintained it were known as the Open Directory Project. It was owned by AOL but constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors, DMOZ used a hierarchical ontology scheme for organizing site listings. Listings on a similar topic were grouped into categories which included smaller categories. It was announced on February 28,2017 that DMOZ would close down on March 14,2017, DMOZ was founded in the United States as Gnuhoo by Rich Skrenta and Bob Truel in 1998 while they were both working as engineers for Sun Microsystems. Skrenta had developed TASS, an ancestor of tin, the popular threaded Usenet newsreader for Unix systems, the original category structure of the Gnuhoo directory was based loosely on the structure of Usenet newsgroups then in existence. The Gnuhoo directory went live on June 5,1998, then objected to the use of Hoo in the name, prompting a proposed name change, to ZURL. Prior to switching to ZURL, NewHoo was acquired by Netscape Communications Corporation in October 1998, Netscape released Open Directory data under the Open Directory License. Netscape was acquired by AOL shortly thereafter and DMOZ was one of the assets included in the acquisition, by the time Netscape assumed stewardship, the Open Directory Project had about 100,000 URLs indexed with contributions from about 4500 editors. On October 5,1999, the number of URLs indexed by DMOZ reached one million, according to an unofficial estimate, the URLs in DMOZ numbered 1.6 million in April 2000, surpassing those in the Yahoo. DMOZ achieved the milestones of indexing two million URLs on August 14,2000, three million listings on November 18,2001 and four million on December 3,2003. As of April,2013 there were 5,169,995 sites listed in over 1,017,500 categories, on October 31,2015, there were 3,996,412 sites listed in 1,026,706 categories. In January 2006, DMOZ began publishing reports to inform the public about the development of the project. The first report covered the year 2005, monthly reports were issued subsequently until September 2006. These reports gave greater insight into the functioning of the directory than the statistics provided on the front page of the directory. The number of listings and categories cited on the front page included Test and Bookmarks categories, there were about 7330 active editors during August 2006. 75,151 editors had contributed to the directory as of March 31,2007, as of April 2013, the number of contributing editors had increased to 97,584. On October 20,2006, DMOZs main server suffered a failure that prevented editors from working on the directory until December 18,2006
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Family
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In the context of human society, a family is a group of people affiliated either by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence or some combination of these. Members of the family may include spouses, parents, brothers, sisters, sons. Members of the family may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces. Sometimes these are considered members of the immediate family, depending on an individuals specific relationship with them. In most societies, the family is the institution for the socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, anthropologists generally classify most family organizations as matrifocal, conjugal, avuncular, sexual relations among the members are regulated by rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo. The word family can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, global village, the field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. Family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics, one of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production and reproduction of persons, biologically and/or socially. This can occur through the sharing of material substances, the giving and receiving of care and nurture, jural rights and obligations, thus, ones experience of ones family shifts over time. From the perspective of children, the family is a family of orientation, from the point of view of the parent, the family is a family of procreation, the goal of which is to produce and enculturate and socialize children. Christopher Harris notes that the conception of family is ambiguous. Diverse data from ethnography, history, law and social statistics, reveal the human family as a social institution, the different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Sociologists have a special interest in the function and status of family forms in stratified societies, much sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the understanding of this variation, and of changes in the family that form over time. Levitan claims, Times have changed, it is acceptable and encouraged for mothers to work. The way roles are balanced between the parents will help children grow and learn life lessons. There is great importance of communication and equality in families, in order to avoid role strain, the term nuclear family is commonly used, especially in the United States of America, to refer to conjugal families. A conjugal family includes only the husband, the wife, sociologists distinguish between conjugal families and nuclear families. Other family structures, such as blended parents, single parents, a matrifocal family consists of a mother and her children
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History of the family
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The history of the family is a branch of social history that concerns the sociocultural evolution of kinship groups from prehistoric to modern times. The family has a universal and basic role in all societies, research on the history of the family crosses disciplines and cultures, aiming to understand the structure and function of the family from many viewpoints. For example, sociological, ecological or economical perspectives are used to view the interrelationships between the individual, their relatives, and the historical time, the study of family history has shown that family systems are flexible, culturally diverse and adaptive to ecological and economical conditions. Family defined as the co-residence and the organization by kinship are both integral in the development of the concept of the family. A co-residential group that makes up a household may share general survival goals and a residence, the history of the family emerged as a separate field of history in the 1970s, with close ties to anthropology and sociology. The trend was especially pronounced in the U. S. and it emphasizes demographic patterns and public policy. It is quite separate from genealogy, although, it draws on the same primary sources such as censuses. According to a pioneering study in 1978 called, Women, Work. It has considered the interaction of production and reproduction in an analysis of the wage labor and thus helped to bring together labor. Much work has been done on the dichotomy in womens lives between the sphere and the public. For a recent worldwide overview covering 7000 years see Maynes and Waltner, the history of childhood is a growing subfield. Early scholars of family history applied Darwins biological theory of evolution in their theory of the evolution of family systems. American anthropologist, Lewis H. Morgan, published Ancient Society in 1877, Morgans book was the inspiration for Friedrich Engels book, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, published in 1884. Engels expanded Morgans hypothesis that economic factors caused the transformation of primitive community into a class-divided society, Engels theory of resource control and later that of Karl Marx was used to explain the cause and effect of the change in family structure and function. The popularity of this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, the book, Centuries of Childhood by Philippe Ariès, published in France in 1960, had a great influence on the revival of the field of family history studies. Ariès used the analysis of data to draw the conclusion that the concept of childhood was a concept that emerged in modern nuclear families. Since the early 20th century, scholars have begun to unify methods of gathering data, one notable book by W. I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, Polish Peasant in Europe and America, was influential in establishing the precedence of a systematic longitudinal data analysis. Studies of current family systems additionally employ qualitative observations, interviews, focus groups, in most cultures of the world, the beginning of family history is set in creation myths
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Nuclear family
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A nuclear family, elementary family or conjugal family is a family group consisting of two parents and their children. It is in contrast to a single-parent family, to the extended family. Nuclear families typically center on a couple, the nuclear family may have any number of children. Family structures of a couple and their children were present in Western Europe and New England in the 17th century, influenced by church. With the emergence of proto-industrialization and early capitalism, the family became a financially viable social unit. The term nuclear family first appeared in the twentieth century. Little is known about how parental behavior and identification processes work, historians have found that nuclear families have been a primary arrangement in England since the 13th century. In England multi-generational households were uncommon because young adults would save money to move out. Sociologist Brigitte Berger argued, the nuclear family had to be flexible and mobile as it searched for opportunity and property. Forced to rely on their own ingenuity, its members also needed to plan for the future and develop bourgeois habits of work, berge also mentions that this could be one of the reasons why the Industrial Revolution begun in England, and other Northwest European countries. As a fertility factor, single family households generally have a higher number of children than co-operative living arrangements according to studies from both the Western world and India. There have been studies done that shows a difference in the number of children wanted per household according to where they live, families that live in rural areas wanted to have more kids than families in urban areas. A study done in Japan between October 2011 and February 2012 further researched the affect of are of residence on mean desired number of children. Researchers of the came to the conclusion that the women living in rural areas with larger families were more likely to want more children. Merriam-Webster dates the term back to 1947, while the Oxford English Dictionary has a reference to the term from 1925, in its most common usage, the term nuclear family refers to a household consisting of a father, a mother and their children all in one household dwelling. George Murdock, an observer of families, offered a description, The family is a social group characterized by common residence. It contains adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. Many individuals are part of two families in their lives, the family of origin in which they are offspring
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Extended family
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An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same household. An example is a couple that lives with either the husband or the wifes parents. The family changes from immediate household to extended household, in some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in one household, near relatives in addition to an immediate family, an example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age. However, it may refer to a family unit in which several generations live together within a single household. In some cultures, the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family, in these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable property. In an extended family, parents and their childrens families may often live under a single roof and this type of joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different meanings, for instance, in India, the family is a patriarchal society, with the sons families often staying in the same house. In the joint family set-up, the workload is shared among the members, the roles of women are often restricted to housewives and this usually involves cooking, cleaning, and organizing for the entire family. The patriarch of the family lays down the rules and arbitrates disputes, other senior members of the household babysit infants in case their mother is working. They are also responsible in teaching the children their mother tongue, manners. Grandparents often take the roles because they have the most experience with parenting and maintaining a household. The second most popular is a grandparent moving in with a childs family, usually for care-giving reasons. She noted that 2.5 million grandparents say they are responsible for the needs of the grandchild living with them. The house often has a reception area and a common kitchen. Each family has their own bedroom, the members of the household also look after each other when a member is ill. Particularly in working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own households within the general area as their parents, aunts, uncles. These extended family members tend to gather often for events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one another
