1.
Proton
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A proton is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with masses of one atomic mass unit, are collectively referred to as nucleons. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number. Since each element has a number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number. The word proton is Greek for first, and this name was given to the nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In previous years, Rutherford had discovered that the nucleus could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by atomic collisions. Protons were therefore a candidate to be a particle, and hence a building block of nitrogen. In the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are hadrons, and like neutrons, although protons were originally considered fundamental or elementary particles, they are now known to be composed of three valence quarks, two up quarks and one down quark. The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1% of a protons mass, the remainder of a protons mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. At sufficiently low temperatures, free protons will bind to electrons, however, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei, the result is a protonated atom, which is a chemical compound of hydrogen. In vacuum, when electrons are present, a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron, becoming a neutral hydrogen atom. Such free hydrogen atoms tend to react chemically with other types of atoms at sufficiently low energies. When free hydrogen atoms react with other, they form neutral hydrogen molecules. Protons are spin-½ fermions and are composed of three quarks, making them baryons. Protons have an exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm. Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the atom is a lone proton
2.
Electric charge
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Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract, an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. An object is charged if it has an excess of electrons. The SI derived unit of charge is the coulomb. In electrical engineering, it is common to use the ampere-hour. The symbol Q often denotes charge, early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that dont require consideration of quantum effects. The electric charge is a conserved property of some subatomic particles. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields, the interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. 602×10−19 coulombs. The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e, the study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics. Charge is the property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the charge e. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge, robert Millikans oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. By convention, the charge of an electron is −1, while that of a proton is +1, charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, quarks have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but free-standing quarks have never been observed. The electric charge of an object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. An ion is an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net charge, or that has gained one or more electrons
3.
Standard Model
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The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, as well as classifying all the elementary particles known. It was developed throughout the half of the 20th century. The current formulation was finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks, since then, discoveries of the top quark, the tau neutrino, and the Higgs boson have given further credence to the Standard Model. Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results and it does not incorporate the full theory of gravitation as described by general relativity, or account for the accelerating expansion of the Universe. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations, the development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. For theorists, the Standard Model is a paradigm of a field theory. The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashows discovery in 1961 of a way to combine the electromagnetic, in 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashows electroweak interaction, giving it its modern form. The Higgs mechanism is believed to rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, the W± and Z0 bosons were discovered experimentally in 1983, and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the Standard Model predicted. The theory of the interaction, to which many contributed, acquired its modern form around 1973–74. At present, matter and energy are best understood in terms of the kinematics, to date, physics has reduced the laws governing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of matter and energy to a small set of fundamental laws and theories. The Standard Model includes members of classes of elementary particles. All particles can be summarized as follows, The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin known as fermions. According to the theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion principle. Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle, the fermions of the Standard Model are classified according to how they interact. There are six quarks, and six leptons, pairs from each classification are grouped together to form a generation, with corresponding particles exhibiting similar physical behavior. The defining property of the quarks is that they carry color charge, a phenomenon called color confinement results in quarks being very strongly bound to one another, forming color-neutral composite particles containing either a quark and an antiquark or three quarks
4.
Particle physics
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Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. By our current understanding, these particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model, in more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by a field theory called the Standard Model. The Standard Model, as formulated, has 61 elementary particles. Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is a description of nature. In recent years, measurements of mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model. The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC, in the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of particles were found in collisions of particles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred to informally as the particle zoo, the current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, the species of gauge bosons are the gluons, W−, W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the constituents of all matter, finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson, the worlds major particle physics laboratories are, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and it is the worlds first heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider. Its main projects are now the electron-positron colliders VEPP-2000, operated since 2006 and its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider, which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions and its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage, which collides electrons and positrons with protons
5.
Elementary particle
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In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle whose substructure is unknown, thus, it is unknown whether it is composed of other particles. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a composite particle, soon, subatomic constituents of the atom were identified. As the 1930s opened, the electron and the proton had been observed, along with the photon, via quantum theory, protons and neutrons were found to contain quarks—up quarks and down quarks—now considered elementary particles. And within a molecule, the three degrees of freedom can separate via wavefunction into three quasiparticles. Yet a free electron—which, not orbiting a nucleus, lacks orbital motion—appears unsplittable. Meanwhile, an elementary boson mediating gravitation—the graviton—remains hypothetical, all elementary particles are—depending on their spin—either bosons or fermions. These are differentiated via the theorem of quantum statistics. Particles of half-integer spin exhibit Fermi–Dirac statistics and are fermions, Particles of integer spin, in other words full-integer, exhibit Bose–Einstein statistics and are bosons. In the Standard Model, elementary particles are represented for predictive utility as point particles, though extremely successful, the Standard Model is limited to the microcosm by its omission of gravitation and has some parameters arbitrarily added but unexplained. According to the current models of big bang nucleosynthesis, the composition of visible matter of the universe should be about 75% hydrogen. Neutrons are made up of one up and two down quark, while protons are made of two up and one down quark. Since the other elementary particles are so light or so rare when compared to atomic nuclei. Therefore, one can conclude that most of the mass of the universe consists of protons and neutrons. Some estimates imply that there are roughly 1080 baryons in the observable universe, the number of protons in the observable universe is called the Eddington number. Other estimates imply that roughly 1097 elementary particles exist in the universe, mostly photons, gravitons. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a theory rather than a truly fundamental one. The 12 fundamental fermionic flavours are divided into three generations of four particles each, six of the particles are quarks. The remaining six are leptons, three of which are neutrinos, and the three of which have an electric charge of −1, the electron and its two cousins, the muon and the tau
6.
Quantum field theory
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QFT treats particles as excited states of the underlying physical field, so these are called field quanta. In quantum field theory, quantum mechanical interactions among particles are described by interaction terms among the corresponding underlying quantum fields and these interactions are conveniently visualized by Feynman diagrams, which are a formal tool of relativistically covariant perturbation theory, serving to evaluate particle processes. The first achievement of quantum theory, namely quantum electrodynamics, is still the paradigmatic example of a successful quantum field theory. Ordinarily, quantum mechanics cannot give an account of photons which constitute the prime case of relativistic particles, since photons have rest mass zero, and correspondingly travel in the vacuum at the speed c, a non-relativistic theory such as ordinary QM cannot give even an approximate description. Photons are implicit in the emission and absorption processes which have to be postulated, for instance, the formalism of QFT is needed for an explicit description of photons. In fact most topics in the development of quantum theory were related to the interaction of radiation and matter. However, quantum mechanics as formulated by Dirac, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger in 1926–27 started from atomic spectra, as soon as the conceptual framework of quantum mechanics was developed, a small group of theoreticians tried to extend quantum methods to electromagnetic fields. A good example is the paper by Born, Jordan & Heisenberg. The basic idea was that in QFT the electromagnetic field should be represented by matrices in the way that position. The ideas of QM were thus extended to systems having a number of degrees of freedom. The inception of QFT is usually considered to be Diracs famous 1927 paper on The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation, here Dirac coined the name quantum electrodynamics for the part of QFT that was developed first. Employing the theory of the harmonic oscillator, Dirac gave a theoretical description of how photons appear in the quantization of the electromagnetic radiation field. Later, Diracs procedure became a model for the quantization of fields as well. These first approaches to QFT were further developed during the three years. P. Jordan introduced creation and annihilation operators for fields obeying Fermi–Dirac statistics and these differ from the corresponding operators for Bose–Einstein statistics in that the former satisfy anti-commutation relations while the latter satisfy commutation relations. The methods of QFT could be applied to derive equations resulting from the treatment of particles, e. g. the Dirac equation, the Klein–Gordon equation. Schweber points out that the idea and procedure of second quantization goes back to Jordan, in a number of papers from 1927, some difficult problems concerning commutation relations, statistics, and Lorentz invariance were eventually solved. The first comprehensive account of a theory of quantum fields, in particular
7.
Gauge theory
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In physics, a gauge theory is a type of field theory in which the Lagrangian is invariant under a continuous group of local transformations. An invariant is a model that holds no matter the mathematical procedure applied to it. This is the concept behind gauge invariance, the idea of fields as described by Michael Faraday in his study of electromagnetism led to the postulate that fields could be described mathematically as scalars and vectors. When a field is transformed, but the result is not, applying gauge theory creates a unification which describes mathematical formulas or models that hold good for all fields of the same class. The term gauge refers to any specific mathematical formalism to regulate redundant degrees of freedom in the Lagrangian, the transformations between possible gauges, called gauge transformations, form a Lie group—referred to as the symmetry group or the gauge group of the theory. Associated with any Lie group is the Lie algebra of group generators, for each group generator there necessarily arises a corresponding field called the gauge field. Gauge fields are included in the Lagrangian to ensure its invariance under the local group transformations, when such a theory is quantized, the quanta of the gauge fields are called gauge bosons. If the symmetry group is non-commutative, the theory is referred to as non-abelian. Many powerful theories in physics are described by Lagrangians that are invariant under some symmetry transformation groups, when they are invariant under a transformation identically performed at every point in the spacetime in which the physical processes occur, they are said to have a global symmetry. Local symmetry, the cornerstone of gauge theories, is a stricter constraint, in fact, a global symmetry is just a local symmetry whose groups parameters are fixed in spacetime. Gauge theories are important as the field theories explaining the dynamics of elementary particles. Quantum electrodynamics is a gauge theory with the symmetry group U and has one gauge field. The Standard Model is a gauge theory with the symmetry group U×SU×SU and has a total of twelve gauge bosons. Gauge theories are important in explaining gravitation in the theory of general relativity. Its case is unusual in that the gauge field is a tensor. Theories of quantum gravity, beginning with gauge gravitation theory, also postulate the existence of a gauge boson known as the graviton, both gauge invariance and diffeomorphism invariance reflect a redundancy in the description of the system. An alternative theory of gravitation, gauge theory gravity, replaces the principle of covariance with a true gauge principle with new gauge fields. Historically, these ideas were first stated in the context of classical electromagnetism, however, the modern importance of gauge symmetries appeared first in the relativistic quantum mechanics of electrons – quantum electrodynamics, elaborated on below
8.
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
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Spontaneous symmetry breaking is a spontaneous process of symmetry breaking, by which a physical system in a symmetrical state ends up in an asymmetrical state. In particular, it can describe systems where the equations of motion or the Lagrangian obey symmetries, in explicit symmetry breaking, if we consider two outcomes, the probability of a pair of outcomes can be different. By definition, spontaneous symmetry breaking requires the existence of a symmetrical probability distribution--any pair of outcomes has the same probability, in other words, the underlying laws are invariant under a symmetry transformation. The system as a whole changes under such transformations, phases of matter, such as crystals, magnets, and conventional superconductors, as well as simple phase transitions can be described by spontaneous symmetry breaking. Notable exceptions include topological phases of matter like the fractional quantum Hall effect, consider a symmetrical upward dome with a trough circling the bottom. If a ball is put at the peak of the dome. But the ball may spontaneously break this symmetry by rolling down the dome into the trough, afterward, the ball has come to a rest at some fixed point on the perimeter. The dome and the ball retain their individual symmetry, but the system does not, in the simplest idealized relativistic model, the spontaneously broken symmetry is summarized through an illustrative scalar field theory. The relevant Lagrangian, which dictates how a system behaves, can be split up into kinetic and potential terms. An example of a potential, due to Jeffrey Goldstone is illustrated in the graph at the right and this potential has an infinite number of possible minima given by for any real θ between 0 and 2π. The system also has a vacuum state corresponding to Φ =0. This state has a U symmetry, however, once the system falls into a specific stable vacuum state, this symmetry will appear to be lost, or spontaneously broken. For ferromagnetic materials, the laws are invariant under spatial rotations. Here, the parameter is the magnetization, which measures the magnetic dipole density. Above the Curie temperature, the parameter is zero, which is spatially invariant. Below the Curie temperature, however, the magnetization acquires a constant nonvanishing value, the residual rotational symmetries which leave the orientation of this vector invariant remain unbroken, unlike the other rotations which do not and are thus spontaneously broken. The laws describing a solid are invariant under the full Euclidean group, the displacement and the orientation are the order parameters. Similar comments can be made about the microwave background
9.
Higgs mechanism
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In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property mass for gauge bosons. Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons would be massless, but measurements show that the W+, W−, the Higgs field resolves this conundrum. The simplest description of the mechanism adds a quantum field that permeates all space, below some extremely high temperature, the field causes spontaneous symmetry breaking during interactions. The breaking of symmetry triggers the Higgs mechanism, causing the bosons it interacts with to have mass, in the Standard Model, the phrase Higgs mechanism refers specifically to the generation of masses for the W±, and Z weak gauge bosons through electroweak symmetry breaking. The Higgs mechanism was incorporated into modern particle physics by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, in the standard model, at temperatures high enough that electroweak symmetry is unbroken, all elementary particles are massless. At a critical temperature, the Higgs field becomes tachyonic, the symmetry is broken by condensation. Fermions, such as the leptons and quarks in the Standard Model, can acquire mass as a result of their interaction with the Higgs field. In the standard model, the Higgs field is an SU doublet, the Higgs field, through the interactions specified by its potential, induces spontaneous breaking of three out of the four generators of the gauge group U. This is often written as SU × U, because the phase factor also acts on other fields in particular quarks. Three out of its four components would ordinarily amount to Goldstone bosons, the gauge group of the electroweak part of the standard model is SU × U. The group SU is the group of all 2-by-2 unitary matrices with unit determinant, rotating the coordinates so that the second basis vector points in the direction of the Higgs boson makes the vacuum expectation value of H the spinor. The generators for rotations about the x, y, and z axes are by half the Pauli matrices σx, σy, while the Tx and Ty generators mix up the top and bottom components of the spinor, the Tz rotations only multiply each by opposite phases. This phase can be undone by a U rotation of angle 1/2θ, consequently, under both an SU Tz-rotation and a U rotation by an amount 1/2θ, the vacuum is invariant. This combination of generators preserves the vacuum, and defines the unbroken gauge group in the standard model, the part of the gauge field in this direction stays massless, and amounts to the physical photon. In spite of the introduction of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the mass terms preclude chiral gauge invariance, for these fields the mass terms should always be replaced by a gauge-invariant Higgs mechanism. The quantities γμ are the Dirac matrices, and Gψ is the already-mentioned Yukawa coupling parameter, already now the mass-generation follows the same principle as above, namely from the existence of a finite expectation value | ⟨ ϕ ⟩ |, as described above. Again, this is crucial for the existence of the property mass, spontaneous symmetry breaking offered a framework to introduce bosons into relativistic quantum field theories. However, according to Goldstones theorem, these bosons should be massless, the only observed particles which could be approximately interpreted as Goldstone bosons were the pions, which Yoichiro Nambu related to chiral symmetry breaking
10.
Electroweak interaction
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In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature, electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 246 GeV, thus, if the universe is hot enough, then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force. During the electroweak epoch, the electroweak force separated from the strong force, during the quark epoch, the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak force. In 1999, Gerardus t Hooft and Martinus Veltman were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the theory is renormalizable. Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an SU × U gauge group, the corresponding gauge bosons are the three W bosons of weak isospin from SU, and the B boson of weak hypercharge from U, respectively, all of which are massless. In the Standard Model, the W± and Z0 bosons, UY and Uem are different copies of U, the generator of Uem is given by Q = Y/2 + I3, where Y is the generator of UY, and I3 is one of the SU generators. The spontaneous symmetry breaking makes the W3 and B bosons coalesce into two different bosons – the Z0 boson, and the photon, = Where θW is the mixing angle. The axes representing the particles have essentially just been rotated, in the plane and this also introduces a mismatch between the mass of the Z0 and the mass of the W± particles, M Z = M W cos θ W. The W1 and W2 bosons, in turn, combine to give massive charged bosons W ± =12, the Lagrangian for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before electroweak symmetry breaking L E W = L g + L f + L h + L y. The L g term describes the interaction between the three W particles and the B particle, L f is the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions. The interaction of the bosons and the fermions are through the gauge covariant derivative. The h term describes the Higgs field F. L h = | D μ h |2 − λ2 The y term gives the Yukawa interaction that generates the masses after the Higgs acquires a nonzero vacuum expectation value. The Lagrangian reorganizes itself after the Higgs boson acquires a vacuum expectation value, due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows. The neutral current L N and charged current L C components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons, the charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by L C = − g 2 W μ + + h. c. L H contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms, L H = − g m H24 m W H3 − g 2 m H232 m W2 H4 L H V contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons. L H V = L W W V contains the gauge three-point self interactions. L Y = − ∑ f g m f 2 m W f ¯ f H Note the 1 − γ52 factors in the weak couplings and this is why electroweak theory is commonly said to be a chiral theory
11.
Quantum chromodynamics
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QCD is a type of quantum field theory called a non-abelian gauge theory with symmetry group SU. The QCD analog of electric charge is a property called color, gluons are the force carrier of the theory, like photons are for the electromagnetic force in quantum electrodynamics. The theory is an important part of the Standard Model of particle physics, a large body of experimental evidence for QCD has been gathered over the years. QCD enjoys two peculiar properties, Confinement, which means that the force between quarks does not diminish as they are separated. Although analytically unproven, confinement is widely believed to be true because it explains the consistent failure of free quark searches, asymptotic freedom, which means that in very high-energy reactions, quarks and gluons interact very weakly creating a quark–gluon plasma. This prediction of QCD was first discovered in the early 1970s by David Politzer, Frank Wilczek, for this work they were awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics. The phase transition temperature between two properties has been measured by the ALICE experiment to be well above 160 MeV. Below this temperature, confinement is dominant, while above it, american physicist Murray Gell-Mann coined the word quark in its present sense. It originally comes from the phrase Three quarks for Muster Mark in Finnegans Wake by James Joyce, Gell-Mann, however, wanted to pronounce the word to rhyme with fork rather than with park, as Joyce seemed to indicate by rhyming words in the vicinity such as Mark. Gell-Mann got around that by supposing that one ingredient of the line Three quarks for Muster Mark was a cry of Three quarts for Mister, earwickers pub, a plausible suggestion given the complex punning in Joyces novel. The three kinds of charge in QCD are usually referred to as color charge by loose analogy to the three kinds of color perceived by humans, other than this nomenclature, the quantum parameter color is completely unrelated to the everyday, familiar phenomenon of color. Since the theory of charge is dubbed electrodynamics, the Greek word χρῶμα chroma color is applied to the theory of color charge. With the invention of bubble chambers and spark chambers in the 1950s, experimental particle physics discovered a large and it seemed that such a large number of particles could not all be fundamental. First, the particles were classified by charge and isospin by Eugene Wigner and Werner Heisenberg, then, in 1953, according to strangeness by Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima. To gain greater insight, the hadrons were sorted into groups having similar properties and masses using the way, invented in 1961 by Gell-Mann. The problem considered in this preprint was suggested by Nikolay Bogolyubov, in the beginning of 1965, Nikolay Bogolyubov, Boris Struminsky and Albert Tavkhelidze wrote a preprint with a more detailed discussion of the additional quark quantum degree of freedom. This work was presented by Albert Tavchelidze without obtaining consent of his collaborators for doing so at an international conference in Trieste. A similar mysterious situation was with the Δ++ baryon, in the quark model, han and Nambu noted that quarks might interact via an octet of vector gauge bosons, the gluons
12.
Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
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This article describes the mathematics of the Standard Model of particle physics, a gauge quantum field theory containing the internal symmetries of the unitary product group SU × SU × U. The theory is viewed as containing the fundamental set of particles – the leptons, quarks, gauge bosons. Therefore, in a field theory context, it is seen as an effective field theory. This article requires some background in physics and mathematics, but is designed as both an introduction and a reference, the standard model is a quantum field theory, meaning its fundamental objects are quantum fields which are defined at all points in spacetime. These fields are the fields, ψ, which account for matter particles, the electroweak boson fields W1, W2, W3, and B, the gluon field, Ga. That these are rather than classical fields has the mathematical consequence that they are operator-valued. In particular, values of the fields generally do not commute, as operators, they act upon the quantum state. The dynamics of the state and the fundamental fields are determined by the Lagrangian density L. While it would be possible to derive a system of equations governing the fields from the Langrangian. The standard model is furthermore a gauge theory, which there are degrees of freedom in the mathematical formalism which do not correspond to changes in the physical state. The gauge group of the model is SU × SU × U, where U acts on B and φ, SU acts on W and φ. The fermion field ψ also transforms under these symmetries, although all of them some parts of it unchanged. In classical mechanics, the state of a system can usually be captured by a set of variables. In classical field theory, the field is part of the state of the system, so in order to describe it completely one effectively introduces separate variables for every point in spacetime. In quantum mechanics, the variables are turned into operators, but these do not capture the state of the system. The formula as such does not contain any information about the state of the system. Quantum fields relate to quantum mechanics as classical fields do to classical mechanics, there is no variation in strength of the fields between different points in spacetime, the variation that happens is rather one of phase factors. Mathematically it may look as though all of the fields are vector-valued, since all have several components, can be multiplied by matrices
13.
Hierarchy problem
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In theoretical physics, the hierarchy problem is the large discrepancy between aspects of the weak force and gravity. There is no consensus on why, for example, the weak force is 1024 times as strong as gravity. This happens because the value is related to the fundamental value by a prescription known as renormalization. Hierarchy problems are related to fine-tuning problems and problems of naturalness, studying renormalization in hierarchy problems is difficult, because such quantum corrections are usually power-law divergent, which means that the shortest-distance physics are most important. Because we do not know the details of the shortest-distance theory of physics. Therefore, researchers are led to postulate new physical phenomena that resolve hierarchy problems without fine tuning, in particle physics, the most important hierarchy problem is the question that asks why the weak force is 1024 times as strong as gravity. Both of these forces involve constants of nature, Fermis constant for the weak force and it should be remarked that the problem cannot even be formulated in the strict context of the Standard Model, for the Higgs mass cannot be calculated. In a sense, the amounts to the worry that a future theory of fundamental particles, in which the Higgs boson mass will be calculable. One proposed solution, popular amongst many physicists, is that one may solve the problem via supersymmetry. Supersymmetry can explain how a tiny Higgs mass can be protected from quantum corrections and this still leaves open the mu problem, however. Currently the tenets of supersymmetry are being tested at the LHC, each particle that couples to the Higgs field has a Yukawa coupling λf. The coupling with the Higgs field for fermions gives an interaction term L Y u k a w a = − λ f ψ ¯ H ψ, with ψ being the Dirac Field and H the Higgs Field. Also, the mass of a fermion is proportional to its Yukawa coupling, meaning that the Higgs boson will couple most to the most massive particle and this means that the most significant corrections to the Higgs mass will originate from the heaviest particles, most prominently the top quark. By applying the Feynman rules, one gets the quantum corrections to the Higgs mass squared from a fermion to be, the Λ U V is called the ultraviolet cutoff and is the scale up to which the Standard Model is valid. If we take this scale to be the Planck scale, then we have the quadratically diverging Lagrangian, however, suppose there existed two complex scalars such that, λS= |λf|2. Then by the Feynman rules, the correction is, Δ m H2 =2 × λ S16 π2 and this gives a total contribution to the Higgs mass to be zero if we include both the fermionic and bosonic particles. Supersymmetry is an extension of this that creates superpartners for all Standard Model particles and this section adapted from Stephen P. Martins A Supersymmetry Primer on arXiv. Without supersymmetry, a solution to the problem has been proposed using just the Standard Model
14.
Neutrino oscillation
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Neutrino oscillation is a quantum mechanical phenomenon whereby a neutrino created with a specific lepton flavor can later be measured to have a different flavor. The probability of measuring a particular flavor for a neutrino varies periodically as it propagates through space, first predicted by Bruno Pontecorvo in 1957, neutrino oscillation has since been observed by a multitude of experiments in several different contexts. Notably, the existence of neutrino oscillation resolved the solar neutrino problem. Neutrino oscillation is of theoretical and experimental interest, as the precise properties of the process can shed light on several properties of the neutrino. In particular, it implies that the neutrino has a non-zero mass, a great deal of evidence for neutrino oscillation has been collected from many sources, over a wide range of neutrino energies and with many different detector technologies. The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics was shared by Takaaki Kajita, mcDonald for their early pioneering observations of these oscillations. Neutrino oscillation is a function of the ratio L/E, where L is the distance traveled and E is the neutrinos energy. Neutrino sources and detectors are far too large to move, but all available sources produce a range of energies, the preferred distance depends on the most common energy, but the exact distance is not critical as long as it is known. The limiting factor in measurements is the accuracy with which the energy of each observed neutrino can be measured, because current detectors have energy uncertainties of a few percent, it is satisfactory to know the distance to within 1%. This gave rise to the Solar neutrino problem, Solar neutrinos have energies below 20 MeV. Following the theories that were proposed in the 1970s suggesting unification of weak, strong and Electromagnetic forces, large detectors such as IMB, MACRO, and Kamiokande II have observed a deficit in the ratio of the flux of muon to electron flavor atmospheric neutrinos. Many experiments have searched for oscillation of electron anti-neutrinos produced at nuclear reactors, such oscillations give the value of the parameter θ13. Neutrinos produced in nuclear reactors have energies similar to solar neutrinos, the baselines of these experiments have ranged from tens of meters to over 100 km. In 2012, the Daya Bay experiment announced a discovery that θ13 ≠0 with a significance of 5. 2σ, Neutrino beams produced at a particle accelerator offer the greatest control over the neutrinos being studied. Many experiments have taken place that study the same oscillations as in atmospheric neutrino oscillation using neutrinos with a few GeV of energy, the MINOS, K2K, and Super-K experiments have all independently observed muon neutrino disappearance over such long baselines. Data from the LSND experiment appear to be in conflict with the parameters measured in other experiments. Results from the MiniBooNE appeared in Spring 2007 and contradicted the results from LSND, although they could support the existence of a fourth neutrino type, the sterile neutrino. In 2010, the INFN and CERN announced the observation of a tau particle in a neutrino beam in the OPERA detector located at Gran Sasso,730 km away from the source in Geneva
15.
Physics beyond the Standard Model
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Despite being the most successful theory of particle physics to date, the Standard Model is not perfect. The Standard Model is inherently an incomplete theory, there are fundamental physical phenomena in nature that the Standard Model does not adequately explain, Gravity. The standard model does not explain gravity, the approach of simply adding a graviton to the Standard Model does not recreate what is observed experimentally without other modifications, as yet undiscovered, to the Standard Model. Moreover, instead, the Standard Model is widely considered to be incompatible with the most successful theory of gravity to date, cosmological observations tell us the standard model explains about 5% of the energy present in the universe. About 26% should be dark matter, which would behave just like other matter, yet, the Standard Model does not supply any fundamental particles that are good dark matter candidates. The rest should be energy, a constant energy density for the vacuum. Attempts to explain dark energy in terms of energy of the standard model lead to a mismatch of 120 orders of magnitude. According to the model, neutrinos are massless particles. However, neutrino oscillation experiments have shown that neutrinos do have mass, mass terms for the neutrinos can be added to the standard model by hand, but these lead to new theoretical problems. The universe is made out of mostly matter, yet, no mechanism sufficient to explain this asymmetry exists in the Standard Model. No experimental result is accepted as definitively contradicting the Standard Model at the five sigma level. In each case, physicists seek to determine if a result is a statistical fluke or experimental error on the one hand. More statistically significant results cannot be mere statistical flukes but can result from experimental error or inaccurate estimates of experimental precision. Frequently, experiments are tailored to be sensitive to experimental results that would distinguish the Standard Model from theoretical alternatives. Anomalous magnetic dipole moment of muon – the experimentally measured value of muons anomalous magnetic moment is significantly different from the Standard Model prediction. BaBar data suggests possible flaws in the Standard Model – results from a BaBar experiment may suggest a surplus over Standard Model predictions of a type of particle decay. In this, an electron and positron collide, resulting in a B meson and an antimatter B meson, which decays into a D meson. In 2015, LHCb reported observing a 2.1 sigma excess in the ratio of branching fractions
16.
Ernest Rutherford
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Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, FRS was a New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics. Encyclopædia Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday and this work was done at McGill University in Canada. Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester in the UK, Rutherford performed his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. He conducted research that led to the first splitting of the atom in 1917 in a reaction between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered the proton. Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919, after his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newtons tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium was named after him in 1997, Ernest Rutherford was the son of James Rutherford, a farmer, and his wife Martha Thompson, originally from Hornchurch, Essex, England. James had emigrated to New Zealand from Perth, Scotland, to raise a little flax, Ernest was born at Brightwater, near Nelson, New Zealand. His first name was mistakenly spelled Earnest when his birth was registered, Rutherfords mother Martha Thompson was a schoolteacher. He studied at Havelock School and then Nelson College and won a scholarship to study at Canterbury College, University of New Zealand, in 1898 Thomson recommended Rutherford for a position at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. He was to replace Hugh Longbourne Callendar who held the chair of Macdonald Professor of physics and was coming to Cambridge, in 1901 he gained a DSc from the University of New Zealand. In 1907 Rutherford returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester, during World War I, he worked on a top secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection by sonar. In 1916 he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal, in 1919 he returned to the Cavendish succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and Director. Between 1925 and 1930 he served as President of the Royal Society, in 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, set up by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research. For some time before his death, Rutherford had a hernia, which he had neglected to have fixed. Despite an emergency operation in London, he died four days afterwards of what physicians termed intestinal paralysis, after cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, he was given the high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton and other illustrious British scientists. At Cambridge, Rutherford started to work with J. J. Thomson on the effects of X-rays on gases. Hearing of Becquerels experience with uranium, Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity, continuing his research in Canada, he coined the terms alpha ray and beta ray in 1899 to describe the two distinct types of radiation. He then discovered that thorium gave off a gas which produced an emanation which was itself radioactive and he found that a sample of this radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay – its half-life
17.
J. J. Thomson
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He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in 1884. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of an element in 1913. His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry, Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Seven of his students, including his son George Paget Thomson and his record is comparable only to that of the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Joseph John Thomson was born 18 December 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire and his mother, Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran a bookshop founded by a great-grandfather. He had a two years younger than he was, Frederick Vernon Thomson. J. J. Thomson was a devout Anglican and his early education was in small private schools where he demonstrated outstanding talent and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College at the young age of 14. His parents planned to enroll him as an engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co, a locomotive manufacturer. He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1876, in 1880 he obtained his BA in mathematics. He applied for and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1881, Thomson received his MA in 1883. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884, on 22 December 1884 Thomson was chosen to become Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that such as Richard Glazebrook were older. Thomson was known for his work as a mathematician, where he was recognized as an exceptional talent. In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB and they had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one daughter, Joan Paget Thomson. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, in recognition of the merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases. He was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912, in 1914 he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on The atomic theory
18.
James Chadwick
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Sir James Chadwick, CH, FRS was an English physicist who was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron in 1932. In 1941, he wrote the draft of the MAUD Report. He was the head of the British team that worked on the Manhattan Project during the Second World War and he was knighted in England in 1945 for his achievements in physics. Chadwick graduated from the Victoria University of Manchester in 1911, where he studied under Ernest Rutherford, at Manchester, he continued to study under Rutherford until he was awarded his MSc in 1913. The same year, Chadwick was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and he elected to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger in Berlin. Using Geigers recently developed Geiger counter, Chadwick was able to demonstrate that beta radiation produced a continuous spectrum, still in Germany when the First World War broke out in Europe, he spent the next four years in the Ruhleben internment camp. Chadwick followed his discovery of the neutron by measuring its mass and he anticipated that neutrons would become a major weapon in the fight against cancer. During the Second World War, Chadwick carried out research as part of the Tube Alloys project to build a bomb, while his Liverpool lab. When the Quebec Agreement merged his project with the American Manhattan Project, he part of the British Mission. He surprised everyone by earning the almost-complete trust of project director Leslie R. Groves, for his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945. In July 1945, he viewed the Trinity nuclear test, after this, he served as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. Uncomfortable with the trend toward Big Science, Chadwick became the Master of Gonville, James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant. He was named James after his paternal grandfather, in 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents. Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester and he now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert, a sister had died in infancy. At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them, Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908. He meant to study maths, but enrolled in physics by mistake, like most students, he lived at home, walking the 4 miles to the university and back each day. At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics, the idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of 1 gram of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie. Rutherfords suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, the results became Chadwicks first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912
19.
Satyendra Nath Bose
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Satyendra Nath Bose, FRS was an Indian physicist from Bengal specialising in theoretical physics. He is best known for his work on mechanics in the early 1920s, providing the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics. A Fellow of the Royal Society, he was awarded Indias second highest civilian award, the class of particles that obey Bose–Einstein statistics, bosons, was named after Bose by Paul Dirac. A self-taught scholar and a polymath, he had a range of interests in varied fields including physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, mineralogy, philosophy, arts, literature. He served on many research and development committees in sovereign India, Bose was born in Calcutta, the eldest of seven children. He was the son, with six sisters after him. His ancestral home was in village Bara Jagulia, in the district of Nadia and his schooling began at the age of five, near his home. When his family moved to Goabagan, he was admitted to the New Indian School, in the final year of school, he was admitted to the Hindu School. He passed his examination in 1909 and stood fifth in the order of merit. Naman Sharma and Meghnad Saha, from Dacca, joined the college two years later. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis and Sisir Kumar Mitra were few years senior to Bose, Bose chose mixed mathematics for his BSc and passed the examinations standing first in 1913 and again stood first in the MSc mixed mathematics exam in 1915. It is said that his marks in the MSc examination created a new record in the annals of the University of Calcutta, after completing his MSc, Bose joined the University of Calcutta as a research scholar in 1916 and started his studies in the theory of relativity. It was an era in the history of scientific progress. Quantum theory had just appeared on the horizon and important results had started pouring in and his father, Surendranath Bose, worked in the Engineering Department of the East Indian Railway Company. In 1914, at age 20, Satyendra Nath Bose married Ushabati Ghosh and they had nine children, two of whom died in early childhood. When he died in 1974, he left behind his wife, as a polyglot, Bose was well versed in several languages such as Bengali, English, French, German and Sanskrit as well as the poetry of Lord Tennyson, Rabindranath Tagore and Kalidasa. He could play the esraj, an instrument similar to a violin. He was actively involved in running night schools that came to be known as the Working Mens Institute and he came in contact with teachers such as Jagadish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray and Naman Sharma who provided inspiration to aim high in life
20.
E. C. George Sudarshan
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Ennackal Chandy George Sudarshan is an Indian theoretical physicist and a professor at the University of Texas. His contributions include also relations between east and west, philosophy and religion, George Sudarshan was born in Pallam, Kottayam district, Kerala, India. Despite being raised in a Syrian Christian family, he left the religion in large part due to marrying, Lalita. They were married from 1954 to 1990 and have three sons, Alexander, Arvind and Ashok and he mentions disagreements with the Churchs view on God and lack of spiritual experience as reasons why he left the Church. He studied at CMS College Kottayam, and graduated with honors from the Madras Christian College in 1951 and he obtained his masters degree at the University of Madras in 1952. He moved to Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and worked there for a period with Homi Bhabha as well as others. Subsequently, he moved to University of Rochester in New York to work under Robert Marshak as a graduate student, in 1958, he received his Ph. D. degree from the University of Rochester. At this point he moved to Harvard University to join Julian Schwinger as a postdoctoral fellow, Sudarshan has made significant contributions to several areas of physics. He was the originator of the V-A theory of the weak force, feynman acknowledged Sudarshans contribution in 1963 stating that the V-A theory was discovered by Sudarshan and Marshak and publicized by Gell-Mann and himself. He also developed a representation of coherent light later known as Sudarshan–Glauber representation. Sudarshans most significant work might be his contribution to the field of quantum optics and his theorem proves the equivalence of classical wave optics to quantum optics. The theorem makes use of the Sudarshan representation and this representation also predicts optical effects that are purely quantum, and cannot be explained classically. Sudarshan was also the first to propose the existence of tachyons and he developed formalism called dynamical maps that is one of the most fundamental formalism to study the theory of open quantum system. He, in collaboration with Baidyanath Misra, also proposed the quantum Zeno effect, Sudarshan and collaborators initiated the Quantum theory of charged-particle beam optics, by working out the focusing action of a magnetic quadrupole using the Dirac equation. He has taught at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, University of Rochester, Syracuse University, from 1969 onwards, he has been a professor of Physics at The University of Texas at Austin and a senior professor at the Indian Institute of Science. He worked as the director of the Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai, India, during his tenure, he transformed it into a centre of excellence. He also met and held discussions with philosopher J. Krishnamurti. He was felicitated on his 80th birthday, at IMSc Chennai on 16th Sept,2011 and his areas of interest include elementary particle physics, quantum optics, quantum information, quantum field theory, gauge field theories, classical mechanics and foundations of physics
21.
Masatoshi Koshiba
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Masatoshi Koshiba is a Japanese physicist. He jointly won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002 and he is now Senior Counselor of International Center for Elementary Particle Physics and Emeritus Professor of University of Tokyo. He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1951 and received a Ph. D. in physics at the University of Rochester, New York, in 1955. At the University of Tokyo he became Associate Professor in March 1963 and then Professor in March 1970 in the Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, from 1987 to 1997, Koshiba taught at Tokai University. In 2002, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering contributions to astrophysics. Koshibas award-winning work centred on neutrinos, subatomic particles that had long perplexed scientists, since the 1920s it had been suspected that the Sun shines because of nuclear fusion reactions that transform hydrogen into helium and release energy. Later, theoretical calculations indicated that countless neutrinos must be released in these reactions and, consequently, because neutrinos interact weakly with matter, however, only one in a trillion is stopped on its way to Earth. Neutrinos thus developed a reputation as being undetectable, in the 1980s, Koshiba, drawing on the work done by Raymond Davis Jr, constructed an underground neutrino detector in a zinc mine in Japan. Called Kamiokande II, it was a water tank surrounded by electronic detectors to sense flashes of light produced when neutrinos interacted with atomic nuclei in water molecules. Koshiba was able to confirm Daviss results—that the Sun produces neutrinos, in 1987 Kamiokande also detected neutrinos from a supernova explosion outside the Milky Way. In 2003, he was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics, Koshiba is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. He is a fellow of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences In commemoration of the Nobel Prize-winning by Masatoshi Koshiba, Koshiba hall was established at the University of Tokyo. Koshiba, M. Fukuda, Y, et al, evidence for Oscillation of Atmospheric Neutrinos. Koshiba, M. Fukuda, Y, et al, constraints on Neutrino Oscillation Parameters from the Measurement of Day-Night Solar Neutrino Fluxes at Super-Kamiokande. Kamioka Observatory Institute for Cosmic Ray Research List of Japanese Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Tokyo Prof. Koshiba has won the Nobel prize
22.
Raymond Davis Jr.
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Raymond Davis Jr. was an American chemist, physicist, and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate. Davis was born in Washington, D. C. where his father was a photographer for the National Bureau of Standards and he spent several years as a choirboy to please his mother, although he could not carry a tune. He enjoyed attending the concerts at the Watergate before air traffic was loud enough to drown out the music and his brother Warren,14 months younger than he, was his constant companion in boyhood. He received his B. S. from the University of Maryland in 1938 in chemistry, which is part of the University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences. He also received a degree from that school and a Ph. D. from Yale University in physical chemistry in 1942. In 1948, he joined Brookhaven National Laboratory, which was dedicated to finding uses for nuclear power. Davis investigated the detection of neutrinos by beta decay, the process by which a neutrino brings enough energy to a nucleus to make certain stable isotopes into radioactive ones. Using barrels and tanks of carbon tetrachloride as detectors, Davis characterized the rate of the production of argon-37 as a function of altitude and he deployed a detector containing chlorine atoms at the Brookhaven Reactor in 1954 and later one of the reactors at Savannah River. Detecting neutrinos proved considerably more difficult than not detecting antineutrinos, Davis was the lead scientist behind the Homestake Experiment, the large-scale radiochemical neutrino detector which first detected evidence of neutrinos from the sun. He was 88 years old when awarded the prize, Davis met his wife Anna Torrey at Brookhaven and together they built a 21-foot wooden sailboat, the Halcyon. They had five children and lived in the house in Blue Point. He died in Blue Point, New York from Alzheimers Disease, – Non-detection of antineutrinos with chlorine Davis, Raymond Jr. – Proposal for Homestake Experiment Cleveland, B. T. et al, measurement of the solar electron neutrino flux with the Homestake chlorine detector. – final results of Homestake Experiment Davis, R. Jr. & D. S. Harmer, search for Neutrinos from the Sun, Brookhaven National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy. Report on the Brookhaven Solar Neutrino Experiment, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Davis, R. Jr. Evans, J. C. & B. T. Cleveland. Solar Neutrino Problem, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Davis, R. Jr. Cleveland, B. T. & J. K. Rowley. Variations in the Solar Neutrino Flux, Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics at University of Pennsylvania, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Brookhaven National Laboratory
23.
Carl David Anderson
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Carl David Anderson was an American physicist. He is best known for his discovery of the positron in 1932, an achievement for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics, Anderson was born in New York City, the son of Swedish immigrants. He studied physics and engineering at Caltech, under the supervision of Robert A. This discovery, announced in 1932 and later confirmed by others, Anderson first detected the particles in cosmic rays. He then produced more conclusive proof by shooting gamma rays produced by the natural radioactive nuclide ThC into other materials, for this work, Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics with Victor Hess. Anderson and Neddermeyer at first believed that they had seen the pion, when it became clear that what Anderson had seen was not the pion, the physicist I. I. Rabi, puzzled as to how the discovery could fit into any logical scheme of particle physics. The muon was the first of a long list of particles whose discovery initially baffled theoreticians who could not make the confusing zoo fit into some tidy conceptual scheme. Anderson spent all of his academic and research career at Caltech, during World War II, he conducted research in rocketry there. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and he died on January 11,1991, and his remains were interred in the Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. His wife Lorraine died in 1984, the Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives. The Strange Case of the Cosmic Rays,1983 Audio Interview with Carl Anderson by Martin Sherwin Voices of the Manhattan Project American National Biography, vol. Annotated bibliography for Carl David Anderson from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Carl David Anderson
24.
Enrico Fermi
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Enrico Fermi was an Italian physicist, who created the worlds first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called the architect of the age and the architect of the atomic bomb. He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally and he made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermis first major contribution was to statistical mechanics, today, particles that obey the exclusion principle are called fermions. Later Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay. Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle and his theory, later referred to as Fermis interaction and still later as weak interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon and he emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi led the team designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, at Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Tellers thermonuclear Super bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, after the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 and he was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimers behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latters security clearance. Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on 29 September 1901 and he was the third child of Alberto Fermi, a division head in the Ministry of Railways, and Ida de Gattis, an elementary school teacher. His only sister, Maria, was two years older than he was, and his brother Giulio was a year older, after the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed, Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half. Although he was baptised a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents wishes, his family was not particularly religious, as a young boy he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio, building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys. Giulio died during the administration of an anesthetic for an operation on a throat abscess in 1915, one of Fermis first sources for his study of physics was a book he found at the local market at Campo de Fiori in Rome. Published in 1840, the 900-page Elementorum physicae mathematicae, was written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa and it covered mathematics, classical mechanics, astronomy, optics, and acoustics, insofar as these disciplines were understood when the book was written. Fermis interest in physics was encouraged by his fathers colleague Adolfo Amidei, who gave him several books on physics and mathematics. Fermi graduated from school in July 1918 and, at Amideis urging
25.
Paul Dirac
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Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac OM FRS was an English theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to the early development of both quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. Among other discoveries, he formulated the Dirac equation which describes the behaviour of fermions, Dirac shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in Physics with Erwin Schrödinger for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory. He also made significant contributions to the reconciliation of general relativity with quantum mechanics and he was regarded by his friends and colleagues as unusual in character. Albert Einstein said of him This balancing on the path between genius and madness is awful. He is regarded as one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century, Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac was born at his parents home in Bristol, England, on 8 August 1902, and grew up in the Bishopston area of the city. His father, Charles Adrien Ladislas Dirac, was an immigrant from Saint-Maurice, Switzerland and his mother, Florence Hannah Dirac, née Holten, the daughter of a ships captain, was born in Cornwall, England, and worked as a librarian at the Bristol Central Library. Paul had a sister, Béatrice Isabelle Marguerite, known as Betty, and an older brother, Reginald Charles Félix, known as Felix. Dirac later recalled, My parents were terribly distressed, I didnt know they cared so much I never knew that parents were supposed to care for their children, but from then on I knew. Charles and the children were officially Swiss nationals until they became naturalised on 22 October 1919, Diracs father was strict and authoritarian, although he disapproved of corporal punishment. Dirac had a relationship with his father, so much so that after his fathers death, Dirac wrote, I feel much freer now. Charles forced his children to speak to him only in French, when Dirac found that he could not express what he wanted to say in French, he chose to remain silent. Dirac was educated first at Bishop Road Primary School and then at the all-boys Merchant Venturers Technical College, the school was an institution attached to the University of Bristol, which shared grounds and staff. It emphasised technical subjects like bricklaying, shoemaking and metal work and this was unusual at a time when secondary education in Britain was still dedicated largely to the classics, and something for which Dirac would later express his gratitude. Dirac studied electrical engineering on a City of Bristol University Scholarship at the University of Bristols engineering faculty, shortly before he completed his degree in 1921, he sat the entrance examination for St Johns College, Cambridge. He passed, and was awarded a £70 scholarship, but this short of the amount of money required to live. Instead he took up an offer to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics at the University of Bristol free of charge and he was permitted to skip the first year of the course owing to his engineering degree. In 1923, Dirac graduated, once again with first class honours, along with his £70 scholarship from St Johns College, this was enough to live at Cambridge. From 1925 to 1928 he held an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and he completed his PhD in June 1926 with the first thesis on quantum mechanics to be submitted anywhere
26.
Richard Feynman
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For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Sinichirō Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. Feynman developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of subatomic particles, during his lifetime, Feynman became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World he was ranked as one of the ten greatest physicists of all time. Along with his work in physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing. Tolman professorship in physics at the California Institute of Technology. They were not religious, and by his youth, Feynman described himself as an avowed atheist, like Albert Einstein and Edward Teller, Feynman was a late talker, and by his third birthday had yet to utter a single word. He retained a Brooklyn accent as an adult and that accent was thick enough to be perceived as an affectation or exaggeration – so much so that his good friends Wolfgang Pauli and Hans Bethe once commented that Feynman spoke like a bum. The young Feynman was heavily influenced by his father, who encouraged him to ask questions to challenge orthodox thinking, from his mother, he gained the sense of humor that he had throughout his life. As a child, he had a talent for engineering, maintained a laboratory in his home. When he was in school, he created a home burglar alarm system while his parents were out for the day running errands. When Richard was five years old, his mother gave birth to a brother, Henry Philips. Four years later, Richards sister Joan was born, and the moved to Far Rockaway. Though separated by nine years, Joan and Richard were close and their mother thought that women did not have the cranial capacity to comprehend such things. Despite their mothers disapproval of Joans desire to study astronomy, Richard encouraged his sister to explore the universe, Joan eventually became an astrophysicist specializing in interactions between the Earth and the solar wind. Feynman attended Far Rockaway High School, a school in Far Rockaway, Queens, upon starting high school, Feynman was quickly promoted into a higher math class. A high-school-administered IQ test estimated his IQ at 125—high, but merely respectable according to biographer James Gleick and his sister Joan did better, allowing her to claim that she was smarter. Years later he declined to join Mensa International, saying that his IQ was too low, physicist Steve Hsu stated of the test, I suspect that this test emphasized verbal, as opposed to mathematical, ability. Feynman received the highest score in the United States by a margin on the notoriously difficult Putnam mathematics competition exam
27.
Carlo Rubbia
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Rubbia studied physics at the University of Pisa and Scuola Normale in Pisa. He graduated on cosmic ray experiments in 1957 with Marcello Conversi, Rubbia obtained his Italian doctoral degree in 1958 from the University of Pisa. This was the first of a series of experiments that Rubbia has performed in the field of weak interactions. In 1960 he moved back to Europe, attracted by the newly founded CERN, CERN had just commissioned a new type of accelerator, the Intersecting Storage Rings, using counter-rotating beams of protons colliding against each other. Rubbia and his collaborators conducted experiments there, again studying the weak force, the main results in this field were the observation of the structure in the elastic scattering process and the first observation of the charmed baryons. These experiments were crucial in order to perfect the techniques needed later for the discovery of more exotic particles in a different type of particle collider. In 1976, he suggested adapting CERNs Super Proton Synchrotron to collide protons and antiprotons in the same ring, the weak force also plays a fundamental role in the nucleosynthesis of the elements, as studied in theories of stars evolution. These particles have a mass almost 100 times greater than the proton and they proposed to use a beam of protons and a beam of antiprotons, their antimatter twins, counter rotating in the vacuum pipe of the accelerator and colliding head-on. The idea of creating particles by colliding beams of more ordinary particles was not new, however, by the late 1970s / early 1980s those could not approach the needed energies in the centre of mass to explore the W/Z region predicted by theory. Since decreasing the divergence of the beam meant to reduce all velocity components other than those of the beam itself, without van den Meers technique, UA1 would never have had the sufficient high-intensity anti-protons it needed. Without Rubbias realisation of its usefulness, stochastic cooling would have been the subject of a few publications, instead, the W and Z particles are among the heaviest particles so far produced in a particle accelerator. The electroweak theory attempts to unite two of the four forces of nature—the weak and the electromagnetic forces—under the same set of equations. In 1970 Rubbia was appointed Higgins Professor of Physics at Harvard University, in 1989, he was appointed Director-General of the CERN Laboratory. The experiment seeks evidence that would disprove the belief that matter is stable. The most widely accepted version of the field theories predicts that protons do not last forever. In 2009–2010 he was Special Adviser for Energy to the Secretary General of ECLAC, in June 2010 Carlo Rubbia has been appointed Scientific Director of the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies in Potsdam. In December 1984, Rubbia was nominated Cavaliere di Gran Croce OMRI, on 30 August 2013, Rubbia was appointed to the Senate of Italy as a Senator for Life by President Giorgio Napolitano. Rubbia has a total of 27 honorary degrees, asteroid 8398 Rubbia is named in his honor
28.
Murray Gell-Mann
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Murray Gell-Mann is an American physicist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles. Gell-Mann has spent several periods at CERN, among others as a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellow in 1972 and he introduced, independently of George Zweig, the quark—constituents of all hadrons—having first identified the SU flavor symmetry of hadrons. This symmetry is now understood to underlie the light quarks, extending isospin to include strangeness and he developed the V−A theory of the weak interaction in collaboration with Richard Feynman. In the 1960s, he introduced current algebra as a method of systematically exploiting symmetries to extract predictions from quark models, Gell-Mann, along with Maurice Lévy, developed the sigma model of pions, which describes low-energy pion interactions. In 1969 he received the Nobel Prize in physics for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions. He is also known to have played a role in keeping string theory alive through the 1970s and early 1980s. Gell-Mann is a proponent of the consistent histories approach to understanding quantum mechanics, Gell-Mann was born in lower Manhattan into a family of Jewish immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His parents were Pauline and Arthur Isidore Gell-Mann, who taught English as a Second Language, at Yale, he participated in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition and was on the team representing Yale University that won the second prize in 1947. Gell-Mann earned a degree in physics from Yale in 1948. His supervisor at MIT was Victor Weisskopf, in 1958, Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, in parallel with the independent team of George Sudarshan and Robert Marshak, discovered the chiral structures of the weak interaction in physics. This work followed the discovery of the violation of parity by Chien-Shiung Wu, as suggested by Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee. Gell-Manns work in the 1950s involved recently discovered cosmic ray particles that came to be called kaons and hyperons, classifying these particles led him to propose that a quantum number called strangeness would be conserved by the strong and the electromagnetic interactions, but not by the weak interactions. Another of Gell-Manns ideas is the Gell-Mann-Okubo formula, which was, initially, a based on empirical results. Gell-Mann and Abraham Pais were involved in explaining several puzzling aspects of the physics of these particles, in 1961, this led him to introduce a classification scheme for hadrons, elementary particles that participate in the strong interaction. This scheme is now explained by the quark model, Gell-Mann referred to the scheme as the Eightfold Way, because of the octets of particles in the classification. In 1964, Gell-Mann and, independently, George Zweig went on to postulate the existence of quarks, particles of which the hadrons of this scheme are composed. The name was coined by Gell-Mann and is a reference to the novel Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce Zweig had referred to the particles as aces, quarks, antiquarks, and gluons were soon established as the underlying elementary objects in the study of the structure of hadrons. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in physics in 1969 for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions
29.
Henry Way Kendall
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Kendall grew up in Sharon, Massachusetts and attended Deerfield Academy. Merchant Marine Academy in 1945, and served on a transport on the North Atlantic in the winter of 1945 -1946. In 1946, he enrolled at Amherst College where he majored in mathematics, while at Amherst, he operated a diving and marine salvage company during two summers. He co-authored two books, one on shallow water diving and the other on underwater photography and he did graduate research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, involving an experimental study of positronium, and he obtained his PhD in 1955. He then spent then next two years as a fellow at Brookhaven National Laboratory. He developed a working relationship with Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky at Stanford. He then returned to the MIT Physics Department, where he remained for the rest of his life, in the late 60s and early 70s, Kendall worked in collaboration with researchers at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center including Friedman and Taylor. These experiments involved scattering high-energy beams of electrons from protons and deuterons, at lower energies, it had already been found that the electrons would only be scattered through low angles, consistent with the idea that the nucleons had no internal structure. However, the SLAC-MIT experiments showed that higher energy electrons could be scattered through much higher angles, the experiments also provided the first evidence for the existence of gluons. Kendall was not only a very accomplished physicist, but also a skilled mountaineer and photographer. He did extensive rock climbing in Yosemite Valley, followed by expeditions to the Andes, Himalaya and Antarctica and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1982. On April 7,2012, the American Alpine Club inducted Kendall into its Hall of Mountaineering Excellence at a ceremony in Golden. Kendall was one of the members of the Union of Concerned Scientists in 1969. He served as Chairman of the UCS from 1974 until his death in 1999 and his public policy interests included avoiding nuclear war, the Strategic Defense Initiative, the B2 bomber, nuclear reactor safety and global warming. He was also a member of the JASON Defense Advisory Group, Kendall died while diving the cave at the Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park, Florida as a part of the Wakulla 2 Project. He by-passed two pre-dive checklists for his Cis-Lunar MK-5P Mixed Gas rebreather and entered the basin without his dive buddy from the National Geographic Society. Kendall missed turning the oxygen supply to his rebreather and lost consciousness, the autopsy revealed a physiological issue that led to his disregarding the protocols
30.
Richard E. Taylor
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Richard Edward Taylor, CC FRS FRSC is a Nobel Prize–winning professor emeritus at Stanford University. Born in Medicine Hat, Alberta, Taylor studied for his BSc and MSc degrees at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, newly married, he applied to work for a PhD degree at Stanford University, where he joined the High Energy Physics Laboratory. His PhD thesis was on an experiment using polarized gamma rays to study pion production, after 3 years at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris and a year at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in California, Taylor returned to Stanford. Construction of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center was beginning, the experiments run at SLAC in the late 1960s and early 1970s involved scattering high-energy beams of electrons from protons and deuterons and heavier nuclei. At lower energies, it had already found that the electrons would only be scattered through low angles. However, the SLAC-MIT experiments showed that higher energy electrons could be scattered through much higher angles, the experiments also provided the first evidence for the existence of gluons. Taylor, Friedman and Kendall were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1990 for this work, Taylor has received numerous awards and honours including
31.
Jerome Isaac Friedman
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Jerome Isaac Friedman is an American physicist. He is Institute Professor and Professor of Physics, Emeritus, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and he won the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics along with Henry Kendall and Richard Taylor, for work showing an internal structure for protons later known to be quarks. Dr. Friedman currently sits on the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, born in Chicago, Illinois to Lillian and Selig Friedman, a sewing machine salesman, Friedmans Jewish parents emigrated to the U. S. from Russia. Jerome Friedman excelled in art but became interested in physics after reading a book on relativity written by Albert Einstein and he turned down a scholarship to the Art Institute of Chicago in order to study physics at the University of Chicago. Whilst there he worked under Enrico Fermi, and eventually received his Ph. D in physics in 1956, in 1960 he joined the physics faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. For this, Friedman, Kendall and Taylor shared the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics and he is an Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Prof. Friedman is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, in 2008, Friedman received an honorary Ph. D from the University of Belgrade. He is a professor at the University of Belgrades Faculty of Physics. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto, Experimental Search for a Heavy Electron, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States Department of Energy September 1967. Deep Inelastic Electron Scattering, Experimental, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun List of Jewish Nobel laureates Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, Richard E, opinion by Jerome Friedman, American Institute of Physics
32.
C. F. Powell
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Following this he attended Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, graduating in 1925 in the natural sciences. After completing his bachelors degree he worked at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, wilson and Lord Rutherford, conducting research into condensation phenomena, and gaining his Ph. D. in Physics in 1927. In 1928 he took up a post as Research Assistant to A. M, tyndall in the H. H. Wills Physical Laboratory at the University of Bristol, later being appointed lecturer, and in 1948 appointed Melville Wills Professor of Physics. In 1932 Powell married Isobel Artner, and the couple had two daughters, in 1936 he took part in an expedition to the West Indies as part of a study of volcanic activity, and where he appears on a stamp issued in Grenada. Muirhead and young Brazilian physicist César Lattes and this work led in 1946 to the discovery of the pion, which proved to be the hypothetical particle proposed in 1935 by Yukawa Hideki in his theory of nuclear physics. In 1949 Powell became a Fellow of the Royal Society and received the societys Hughes Medal the same year, in 1950 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method. From 1952 Powell was appointed director of several expeditions to Sardinia, as Rotblat put it, Cecil Powell has been the backbone of the Pugwash Movement. He gave it coherence, endurance and vitality, Powell chaired the meetings of the Pugwash Continuing Committee, often standing in for Bertrand Russell, and attended meetings until 1968. Powell died on 9 August 1969, whilst out walking in the foothills of the Alps near the Valsassina region of Italy, a bench with commemorative plaque was erected near the site of his death. The Cecil F. Powell Memorial Medal was named in his honour by the European Physical Society, marietta Blau Page on Powell on the Nobel site, including biography, speeches, and lecture Portrait photograph of Powell at the American Institute of Physics
33.
Philip Warren Anderson
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Philip Warren Anderson is an American physicist and Nobel laureate. Anderson was born in Indianapolis, Indiana and grew up in Urbana and he graduated from University Laboratory High School in Urbana in 1940. Afterwards, he went to Harvard University for undergraduate and graduate work, in graduate school he studied under John Hasbrouck van Vleck. From 1949 to 1984 he was employed by Bell Laboratories in New Jersey and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. From 1967 to 1975, Anderson was a professor of physics at Cambridge University. Co-researchers Sir Nevill Francis Mott and John van Vleck shared the award with him, in 1982, he was awarded the National Medal of Science. He retired from Bell Labs in 1984 and is currently Joseph Henry Professor of Physics, andersons writings include Concepts of Solids, Basic Notions of Condensed Matter Physics and The Theory of Superconductivity in the High-Tc Cuprates. Anderson currently serves on the board of advisors of Scientists and Engineers for America and he is a certified first degree-master of the Chinese board game Go. Anderson has also made important conceptual contributions to the philosophy of science through his explication of emergent phenomena. He was awarded the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize in 1964 and he was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1982. Anderson is an atheist and was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto, Anderson, Philip W. Notes on theory of magnetism. Anderson, Philip W. Concepts in solids, lectures on the theory of solids, singapore River Edge, New Jersey, World Scientific. Anderson, Philip W. Basic notions of condensed matter physics, Anderson, Philip W. Arrow, Kenneth J. Pines, David, eds. The economy as a complex system, the proceedings of the Evolutionary Paths of the Global Economy Workshop, held September,1987 in Santa Fe. Redwood City, California, Addison-Wesley Pub. Co, World Scientific Series in 20th Century Physics, volume 35. Singapore Hackensack, New Jersey, World Scientific Pub. Co, the theory of superconductivity in the high-TC cuprates. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, more and different notes from a thoughtful curmudgeon. Singapore Hackensack, New Jersey, World Scientific, Anderson, Philip W. Absence of diffusion in certain random lattices
34.
Sheldon Glashow
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Sheldon Lee Glashow is a Nobel Prize winning American theoretical physicist. Sheldon Lee Glashow was born in New York City, to Jewish immigrants from Russia, Bella and Lewis Gluchovsky and he graduated from Bronx High School of Science in 1950. Glashow was in the graduating class as Steven Weinberg, whose own research, independent of Glashows. Glashow received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Cornell University in 1954, afterwards, Glashow became a NSF fellow at NORDITA and joined the University of California, Berkeley where he was an associate professor from 1962 to 1966. He joined the Harvard physics department as a professor in 1966, Glashow has been a visiting scientist at CERN, and professor at the University of Marseilles, MIT, Brookhaven Laboratory, Texas A&M, the University of Houston, and Boston University. In 1961, Glashow extended electroweak unification models due to Schwinger by including a short range neutral current, the resulting symmetry structure that Glashow proposed, SU × U, forms the basis of the accepted theory of the electroweak interactions. For this discovery, Glashow along with Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics, in collaboration with James Bjorken, Glashow was the first to predict a fourth quark, the charm quark, in 1964. This was at a time when 4 leptons had been discovered, in 1973, Glashow and Howard Georgi proposed the first grand unified theory. They discovered how to fit the gauge forces in the model into an SU group. This work was the foundation for all future unifying work, Glashow shared the 1977 J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize with Feza Gürsey. Glashow is a skeptic of Superstring theory due to its lack of experimentally testable predictions and he had campaigned to keep string theorists out of the Harvard physics department, though the campaign failed. Glashow is married to the former Joan Shirley Alexander, lynn Margulis was Joans sister, making Carl Sagan his former brother-in-law. Daniel Kleitman, who was also a student of Julian Schwinger, is his brother-in-law, through Joans other sister. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto
35.
John Iliopoulos
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John Iliopoulos is a Greek physicist and the first person to present the Standard Model of particle physics in a single report. He is best known for his prediction of the charm quark with Sheldon Lee Glashow, Iliopoulos is also known for the Fayet-Iliopoulos D-term formula, which was introduced in 1974. He is currently a member of Laboratory of theoretical physics of École Normale Supérieure. Iliopoulos graduated from National Technical University of Athens in 1962 as an Mechanical-Electrical Engineer. He continued his studies in the field of Theoretical Physics in University of Paris, and in 1963 he obtained the D. E. A, in 1965 the Doctorat 3e Cycle, between the years 1966 and 1968 he was a scholar at CERN, Geneva. From 1969 till 1971 he was a Research Associate in Harvard University, in 1971 he returned in Paris and began working at CNRS. He also held the position of the Laboratory of Theoretical Physics of Ecole Normale Superieure between the years 1991-1995 and 1998-2002. Iliopoulos and Maiani were jointly awarded the 1987 Sakurai Prize for theoretical particle physics
36.
Luciano Maiani
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Luciano Maiani is a San Marino citizen physicist best known for his prediction of the charm quark with Sheldon Lee Glashow and John Iliopoulos. In 1964 Luciano Maiani received his degree in physics and he became an associate at the Istituto Superiore di Sanità in Italy. During that same year he collaborated with R. Gattos theoretical physics group at the University of Florence and he crossed the Atlantic in 1969 to do a post-doctoral fellowship at Harvards Lyman Laboratory of Physics. Maiani also took an interest in the direction of particle physics research start on CERNs Scientific Policy Committee from 1984 to 1991, then, in 1993, he became president of Italys Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare. From 1993 to 1996 Maiani served as a delegate in CERN council. Thereafter he became general of CERN, serving from 1 January 1999 through the end of 2003. From 1995-1997 Maiani chaired the Italian Comitato Tecnico Scientifico, Fondo Ricerca Applicata, however he became the President of CNR since 2008. Luciano Maiani has authored over 100 scientific publications on the theory of elementary particles often with several co-authors. In 1970 he predicted the charmed quark in a paper with Glashow and Iliopoulos which was discovered at SLAC and Brookhaven in 1974. Working with Guido Altarelli in 1974 they explained that the observed octet enhancement in weak non-leptonic decays was due to a leading gluon exchange effect in quantum chromodynamics. They later extended this effect to describe the weak decays of charm and bottom quarks as well. In 1976 Maiani analyzed the CP violation in the six-quark theory, in the 1980s he started using the numerical simulation of lattice QCD and this led to the first prediction of the decay constant of pseudoscalar charmed mesons and of B mesons. A proponent of supersymmetry, Maiani once said that the search for it was primary goal of particle physics. He has not confined his interest to the side of physics either, with involvement in ALPI, EUROBALL, DAFNE, VIRGO
37.
Simon van der Meer
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One of four children, Simon van der Meer was born and grew up in The Hague, the Netherlands, in the family of teachers. He was educated at the gymnasium, graduating in 1943 during the German occupation of the Netherlands. He studied Technical Physics at the Delft University of Technology, after working for Philips Research in Eindhoven on high-voltage equipment for electron microscopy for a few years, he joined CERN in 1956 where he stayed until his retirement in 1990. He married Catharina M. Koopman in the mid-1960s, they had two children, Esther van der Meer and Mathijs van der Meer and he also had a sister, Ge van der Meer, and a granddaughter. Simon’s contributions to CERN and accelerator physics speak for themselves and these started with magnet design in the 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron era in the 1950s and the 1961 invention of a pulsed focusing device, known as the ‘van der Meer horn’. Such devices are necessary for long-base-line neutrino facilities and are used even today and that was followed in the 1960s by the design of a small storage ring for a physics experiment studying the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon. Soon after and in the decade, he did some very innovative work on the regulation and control of powersupplies for the Intersecting Storage Rings and, later. His ISR Collider days in the 1970s led to his technique for luminosity calibration of colliding beams, first used at the ISR and still used today at the LHC, as well as in other colliders. Last, but not the least was the Nobel Prize-winning idea behind stochastic cooling, measurements of the main magnet currents were introduced only later, when the SPS had to run as a storage ring for the SPS p–pbar collider. The AA and AC pbar source complex machines remained from 1987 to 1996 the most highly automated set of machines in CERN’s repertoire of accelerators, Van der Meer invented the technique of stochastic cooling of particle beams. Such collisions produced W and Z bosons which could be detected for the first time in 1983 by the UA1 experiment, the W and Z bosons had been theoretically predicted some years earlier, and their experimental discovery was considered a significant success for CERN. Van der Meer and Rubbia shared the 1984 Nobel Prize for their contributions to the project. Without Van der Meer, particle physics would have taken a very different course over the 1980s, 1990s. Van der Meer and Ernest Lawrence are the only two accelerator physicists who have won the Nobel prize, apart from his Nobel Prize Van der Meer also became a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1984
38.
Clyde Cowan
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Clyde Lorrain Cowan Jr was an American physicist, the co-discoverer of the neutrino along with Frederick Reines. The discovery was made in 1956 in the neutrino experiment, Frederick Reines received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 in both their names. Born the oldest of four children in Detroit, Michigan, Cowans family moved to St. Louis, Missouri, Cowan was a captain in the United States Army Air Forces, where he earned a bronze star in World War II. From 1936–1940 he was in the Reserve Officers Training Corps, Cowan joined the U. S. Army Chemical Warfare Service with the rank of Second Lieutenant when America joined World War II in 1941. In August 1942, he was transferred to Eisenhowers Eighth Air Force stationed in London, in 1943 he designed and built an experimental cleaning unit to be used in case of gas attack. In the following year, he joined the staff of the British Branch of the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in 1945 he was a liaison officer with the Royal Air Force, working to expedite transmittal of technical information and equipment. He returned to the United States in 1945, and worked at Wright Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton and he left active duty in 1946. Bill, Cowan attended Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, receiving a Masters Degree, and he then joined the staff of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico, where he met Frederick Reines. In 1951 Reines and Cowan began their search for the neutrino and their work was completed at the Savannah River Plant in Aiken, South Carolina, in 1956. Cowan began his career in 1957 as a Professor of Physics at George Washington University in Washington. The following year he left GWU and joined the faculty of The Catholic University of America in Washington and he also acted at various times as a consultant to the U. S. Cowan died in Bethesda, Maryland on May 24,1974, Riordon, Marian Jane, who married Charles M. Kriston, and George Langstroth, who married Justine Allen, then Kim Borkowitz. Seven other children died in infancy, and he had two adopted sons, David Lorrain and Michael Lorrain and his family has blossomed to include 11 grandchildren and 8 great-grandchildren. His granddaughter Barbara Riordon Maher earned her MS in Emergency Management in 2006 and she is currently the Emergency Preparedness Coordinator for Dare County North Carolina Department of Public Health. She is a retired Maryland State Police Trooper/Flight Paramedic and her publications include articles in plant physiology as well as medical nuclear, biological, chemical, and explosive response for the Department of Defense. She has obtained the rank of Major in the Maryland Army National Guard and her two sons, Joseph and Patrick, are college students seeking degrees in biology and emergency services. Joseph is currently serving in the Maryland Army National Guard as a 15P, Cowan was a direct descendant of L. L. Langstroth, the Father of Modern Beekeeping, and a distant relative of Katherine Drexel, a Catholic saint. A biography can be found in The National Cyclopedia of American Biography Vol.58 published by James T. White & Company Clifton, Neutrino history Cowan Reines Neutrino Experiment Nobel Prize in Physics 1995 Press Release The Neutrino with Dr. Clyde L. Cowan on YouTube
39.
Yoichiro Nambu
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Yoichiro Nambu was a Japanese-born American physicist, a professor at the University of Chicago. Nambu was born in Tokyo, Japan, in 1921, after graduating from the then Fukui Secondary High School in Fukui City, he enrolled in the Imperial University of Tokyo and studied physics. He received his Bachelor of Science in 1942 and Doctorate of Science in 1952, in 1949 he was appointed to associate professor at the Osaka City University and promoted to professorship the next year at the age of 29. In 1952, he was invited by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, United States and he moved to the University of Chicago in 1954 and was promoted to professor in 1958. From 1974 to 1977 he was also Chairman of the Department of Physics and he became a United States citizen in 1970. He was accounted as one of the founders of string theory, after more than fifty years as a professor, he was Henry Pratt Judson Distinguished Service Professor emeritus at the University of Chicagos Department of Physics and Enrico Fermi Institute. The Nambu-Goto action in string theory is named after Nambu and Tetsuo Goto, also, massless bosons arising in field theories with spontaneous symmetry breaking are sometimes referred to as Nambu–Goldstone bosons. Nambu died on 5 July 2015 at the age of 94 in Osaka due to a myocardial infarction. His funeral and memorial services were held among close relatives and he was awarded one-half of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics. D. Nambu passing by former student Dr. Madhusree Mukerjee
40.
Owen Chamberlain
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Owen Chamberlain was an American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics for his discovery, with collaborator Emilio Segrè, of the antiproton, a sub-atomic antiparticle. Born in San Francisco, California, Chamberlain graduated from Germantown Friends School in Philadelphia in 1937 and he studied physics at Dartmouth College, where he was a member of Theta Chi Fraternity, and at the University of California, Berkeley. He remained in school until the start of World War II, and joined the Manhattan Project in 1942 and he married Beatrice Babette Copper in 1943, with whom he had four children. In 1946, after the war, Chamberlain continued with his studies at the University of Chicago under legendary physicist Enrico Fermi. Chamberlain officially received his Ph. D. from the University of Chicago in 1949, in 1948, having completed his experimental work, Chamberlain returned to Berkeley as a member of its faculty, where he, Segrè, and other physicists investigated proton-proton scattering. In 1955, a series of proton scattering experiments at Berkeleys Bevatron led to the discovery of the anti-proton, chamberlains later research work included the time projection chamber, and work at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Chamberlain was also active on issues of peace and social justice. He was a member of Scientists for Sakharov, Orlov, and Shcharansky, in the 1980s, he helped found the nuclear freeze movement. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto, Chamberlain was diagnosed with Parkinsons disease in 1985, and retired from teaching in 1989. He died of complications from the disease on February 28,2006, Chamberlain plays a central role in Jacob M. Appels Sherwood Anderson Award-winning short story, Measures of Sorrow. Chamberlain, Owen, Segre, Emilio, Wiegand, Clyde, Ypsilantis, Chamberlain, Owen, Segre, Emilio, Wiegand, Clyde. Chamberlain, Owen, Keller, Donald V. Mermond, Ronald, Segre, Emilio, Steiner, Herbert M. Ypsilantis, personal History of Nucleon Polarization Experiments, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory predecessor to the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy
41.
Nicola Cabibbo
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Nicola Cabibbo was an Italian physicist, best known for his work on the weak interaction. Cabibbo, son of a Sicilian lawyer, was born in Rome and he graduated in theoretical physics at the Università di Roma “Sapienza University of Rome” in 1958 under the supervision of Bruno Touschek. In 1963, while working at CERN, Cabibbo found the solution to the puzzle of the decays of strange particles. Formulating what came to be known as Cabibbo universality, in 1967 Nicola settled back in Rome where he taught theoretical physics and created a large school with younger colleagues and brilliant students. He was president of the INFN from 1983 to 1992, during which time the Gran Sasso Laboratory was inaugurated. He was also president of the Italian energy agency, ENEA, from 1993 to 1998, in 2004, Cabibbo spent a year at CERN as guest professor. He addressed the issue with a mixing angle θC, between the down and strange quarks. Modern measurements show that θC =13. 04°, before the discovery of the third generation of quarks, this work was extended by Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa to the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix. In 2008, Kobayashi and Maskawa shared one half of the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work, some physicists had bitter feelings that the Nobel Prize committee failed to reward Cabibbo for his vital part. Asked for a reaction on the prize, Cabibbo preferred to no comment. According to sources close to him, however, he was embittered, later, Cabibbo researched applications of supercomputers to address problems in modern physics with the experiments APE100 and APE1000. After his death in 2011, the Franklin Institute awarded him with the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics and he died from respiratory problems in a Rome hospital on August 16,2010 at the age of 75. For his credits in physics, after his death, the hall of the Physics Department Enrico Fermi of La Sapienza has been nominated after him in his honour. Cabibbo biography from the Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza Parisi, Giorgio
42.
Melvin Schwartz
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Melvin Schwartz was an American physicist. He grew up in New York City in the Great Depression and his interest in physics began there at the age of 12. He earned his B. A. and Ph. D. at Columbia University, Rabi was the head of the physics department. Schwartz became an assistant professor at Columbia in 1958 and he was promoted to associate professor in 1960 and full professor in 1963. Tsung-Dao Lee, a Columbia colleague who had won the Nobel prize at age 30. Schwartz and his colleagues performed the experiments led to their Nobel Prize in the early 1960s. The experiment was carried out at the nearby Brookhaven National Laboratory, in 1966, after 17 years at Columbia, he moved west to Stanford University, where SLAC, a new accelerator, was just being completed. In the 1970s he founded and became president of Digital Pathways, in 1991, he became Associate Director of High Energy and Nuclear Physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory. At the same time, he rejoined the Columbia faculty as Professor of Physics, Rabi Professor of Physics in 1994 and retired as Rabi Professor Emeritus in 2000. He spent his retirement years in Ketchum, Idaho, and died August 28,2006 at a Twin Falls, Idaho, nursing home after struggling with Parkinsons disease and hepatitis C. Samios, N. P. Plano, R. Prodell, A. Schwartz, the Parity of the Neutral Pion and the Decay pi Yields 2e + 2e, Nevis Cyclotron Laboratory, Columbia University, United States Department of Energy, Office of Naval Research. Lee, T. D. Robinson, H. Schwartz, intensity of Upward Muon Flux Due to Cosmic-Ray Neutrinos Produced in the Atmosphere, Nevis Cyclotron Laboratory, Columbia University, United States Department of Energy. Rahm, D. Samios, N. and M. Schwartz, search for Massive Particles Produced in Interactions at 30 BeV, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Columbia University, United States Department of Energy. Gaillard, K. Goulianos, L. M. Lederman, N. B. Mistry, M. Schwartz, observation of high-energy neutrino reactions and the existence of two kinds of neutrinos
43.
Martin Lewis Perl
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Martin Lewis Perl was an American physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 for his discovery of the tau lepton. Perl was born in New York City, New York and his parents, Fay, a secretary and bookkeeper, and Oscar Perl, a stationery salesman who founded a printing and advertising company, were Jewish immigrants to the US from the Polish area of Russia. Perl is a 1948 chemical engineering graduate of Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute in Brooklyn, after graduation, Perl worked for the General Electric Company, as a chemical engineer in a factory producing electron vacuum tubes. He received his Ph. D. from Columbia University in 1955, perls thesis described measurements of the nuclear quadrupole moment of sodium, using the atomic beam resonance method that Rabi had won the Nobel Prize in Physics for in 1944. While at Michigan, Perl and Lawrence W. Jones served as co-advisors to Samuel C. C, ting, who earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1976. Seeking a simpler interaction mechanism to study, Perl started to consider electron and muon interactions and he had the opportunity to start planning experimental work in this area when he moved in 1963 to the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, then being built in California. He was particularly interested in understanding the muon, why it should interact almost exactly like the electron but be 206.8 times heavier, Perl chose to look for answers to these questions in experiments on high-energy charged leptons. In addition, he considered the possibility of finding a third generation of lepton through electron-positron collisions and he died after a heart attack at Stanford University Hospital on September 30,2014 at the age of 87. The tau lepton is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with electric charge and a spin of 1⁄2. Together with the electron, the muon, and the three neutrinos, it is classified as a lepton, the tau was first detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by Perl with his colleagues at the SLAC-LBL group. Their equipment consisted of SLACs then-new e+–e− colliding ring, called SPEAR, and they could detect and distinguish between leptons, hadrons and photons. The tau has a lifetime of only 2. 9×10−13 s, the need for at least two undetected particles was shown by the inability to conserve energy and momentum with only one. However, no other muons, electrons, photons, or hadrons were detected, work done at DESY-Hamburg, and with the Direct Electron Counter at SPEAR, subsequently established the mass and spin of the tau. The symbol τ was derived from the Greek τρίτον, since it was the third charged lepton discovered, Perl won the Nobel Prize in 1995 jointly with Frederick Reines. The prize was awarded for pioneering contributions to lepton physics. Perl received half for the discovery of the tau lepton while Reines received his share for the detection of the neutrino and he joined University of Liverpool as a visiting professor. He served on the board of advisors of Scientists and Engineers for America, in 2009, Perl received an honorary doctorate from the University of Belgrade. S. Patent 5943075 Universal fluid droplet ejector U. S, patent 5975682 Two-dimensional fluid droplet arrays generated using a single nozzle
44.
Ettore Majorana
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Ettore Majorana was an Italian theoretical physicist who worked on neutrino masses. On March 25,1938, he disappeared under mysterious circumstances while going by ship from Palermo to Naples, the Majorana equation and Majorana fermions are named after him. In 2006, the Majorana Prize was established in his memory, there are several categories of scientists in the world, those of second or third rank do their best but never get very far. Then there is the first rank, those who make important discoveries, but then there are the geniuses, like Galilei and Newton. Majorana was born in Catania, Sicily, mathematically gifted, he was very young when he joined Enrico Fermis team in Rome as one of the Via Panisperna boys, who took their name from the street address of their laboratory. His uncle Quirino Majorana was also a physicist and he began his university studies in engineering in 1923 but switched to physics in 1928 at the urging of Emilio Segrè. His first papers dealt with problems in atomic spectroscopy and his first paper, published in 1928, was written when he was an undergraduate and coauthored by Giovanni Gentile, Jr. a junior professor in the Institute of Physics in Rome. This work was an early quantitative application to atomic spectroscopy of Fermis statistical model of atomic structure and this name has since become conventional, without the hyphen. Majorana earned his Laurea in physics at the University of Rome La Sapienza in 1929, in 1932, he published a paper in the field of atomic spectroscopy concerning the behaviour of aligned atoms in time-varying magnetic fields. This problem, also studied by I. I, rabi and others, led to an important sub-branch of atomic physics, that of radio-frequency spectroscopy. Like most of Majoranas papers in Italian, it languished in obscurity for several decades. Experiments in 1932 by Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot showed the existence of a particle that they suggested was a gamma ray. Majorana was the first to interpret correctly the experiment as requiring a new particle that had a charge and a mass about the same as the proton. Fermi told him to write an article, but Majorana didnt bother, james Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron by experiment later that year, and he was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery. Solution of Majoranas equation yields particles that are their own anti-particle, in April 2012, some of what Majorana predicted may have been confirmed in experiments on hybrid semiconductor-superconductor wire devices. These experiments may potentially lead to an understanding of quantum mechanics. Majorana was known for not seeking credit for his discoveries, considering his work to be banal and he wrote only nine papers in his lifetime. At Fermis urging, Majorana left Italy early in 1933 on a grant from the National Research Council, in Leipzig, Germany, he met Werner Heisenberg
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Steven Weinberg
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He holds the Josey Regental Chair in Science at the University of Texas at Austin, where he is a member of the Physics and Astronomy Departments. His research on elementary particles and physical cosmology has been honored with numerous prizes and awards, including in 1979 the Nobel Prize in Physics and in 1991 the National Medal of Science. He has been elected to the US National Academy of Sciences and Britains Royal Society, as well as to the American Philosophical Society, Weinbergs articles on various subjects occasionally appear in The New York Review of Books and other periodicals. He has served as consultant at the U. S, Steven Weinberg was born in 1933 in New York City. He graduated from Bronx High School of Science in 1950 and he was in the same graduating class as Sheldon Glashow, whose own research, independent of Weinbergs, would result in their sharing the 1979 Nobel in Physics. Weinberg received his bachelors degree from Cornell University in 1954 and he then went to the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen where he started his graduate studies and research. After one year, Weinberg moved to Princeton University where he earned his PhD degree in physics in 1957, after completing his PhD, Weinberg worked as a postdoctoral researcher at Columbia University and University of California, Berkeley and then he was promoted to faculty at Berkeley. He did research in a variety of topics of physics, such as the high energy behavior of quantum field theory, symmetry breaking, pion scattering, infrared photons. Both textbooks are among the most influential texts in the community in their subjects. In 1966, Weinberg left Berkeley and accepted a position at Harvard. In 1967 he was a professor at MIT. One of its fundamental aspects was the prediction of the existence of the Higgs boson, the 1973 experimental discovery of weak neutral currents was one verification of the electroweak unification. The paper by Weinberg in which he presented this theory is one of the most cited works ever in high energy physics, in the years after 1967, the full Standard Model of elementary particle theory was developed through the work of many contributors. In 1973 Weinberg proposed a modification of the Standard Model which did not contain that models fundamental Higgs boson, Weinberg became Higgins Professor of Physics at Harvard University in 1973. In 1979, some six years after the discovery of the neutral currents – i. e. In 1982 Weinberg moved to the University of Texas at Austin as the Jack S. Josey-Welch Foundation Regents Chair in Science, Steven Weinberg is frequently among the top scientists with highest research effect indices, such as the h-index and the creativity index. His books on science written for the public combine the typical scientific popularization with what is traditionally considered history and philosophy of science, Weinberg was a major participant in what is known as the Science Wars, standing with Paul R. Although still teaching physics, he has, in recent years, turned his hand to the history of science, efforts that culminated in To Explain the World, The Discovery of Modern Science
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Tsung-Dao Lee
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Tsung-Dao Lee is a Chinese-American physicist, known for his work on parity violation, the Lee Model, particle physics, relativistic heavy ion physics, nontopological solitons and soliton stars. He holds the rank of University Professor Emeritus at Columbia University, Lee was the youngest Nobel laureate after World War II until Malala Yousafzai was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014. He is the fourth youngest Nobel laureate in history after William L. Bragg, Werner Heisenberg, Lee and Yang were the first Chinese laureates. Since he became a naturalized American citizen in 1962, Lee is also the youngest American ever to have won a Nobel Prize, Tsung-Dao Lees ancestral hometown is Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. Lees grandfather Chong-tan Lee was the first Chinese Methodist Episcopal senior pastor of St. Johns Church in Suzhou, Lee has four brothers and one sister. Lee is one of T. D. s brothers, Lees mother Chang and brother Robert C. T. moved to Taiwan in the 1950s. They were jailed in Taiwan during the White Terror, Lee received his secondary education in Shanghai, Suzhou and Jiangxi. Due to the Second Sino-Japanese war, Lees high school education was interrupted, nevertheless, in 1943, Lee directly applied to and was admitted by the National Che Kiang University. Initially, Lee registered as a student in the Department of Chemical Engineering, very quickly, Lees talent was discovered and his interest in physics grew rapidly. However, again disrupted by a further Japanese invasion, Lee continued at the National Southwestern Associated University in Kunming the next year in 1945, Professor Wu nominated Lee for a Chinese government fellowship for graduate study in US. In 1946, Lee went to the University of Chicago and was selected by Professor Enrico Fermi to become his PhD student, Lee completed his PhD thesis under Fermi in 1950 for his research work Hydrogen Content of White Dwarf Stars. Lee served as associate and lecturer in physics at the University of California at Berkeley from 1950 to 1951. In 1953, Lee joined Columbia University, where he remained until retirement and his first work at Columbia was on a solvable model of quantum field theory better known as the Lee Model. Soon, his focus turned to physics and the developing puzzle of K meson decays. Lee realized in early 1956 that the key to the puzzle was parity non-conservation, at Lees suggestion, the first experimental test was on hyperion decay by the Steinberger group. At that time, the result gave only an indication of a 2 standard deviation effect of possible parity violation. Encouraged by this feasibility study, Lee made a study of possible P, T, C and CP violations in weak interactions with collaborators. After the definitive experimental confirmation by C. S. Wu and her collaborators of parity non-conservation, Lee, in the early 1960s, Lee and collaborators initiated the important field of high energy neutrino physics
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John Clive Ward
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John Clive Ward, FRS was a British-Australian physicist. He introduced the Ward–Takahashi identity, also known as Ward Identity, andrei Sakharov said Ward was one of the titans of quantum electrodynamics. He made significant contributions to quantum physics, statistical mechanics. Ward was one of the authors of the Standard Model of gauge particle interactions and he is also credited with being an early advocate of the use of Feynman diagrams. It has been said that physicists have made use of his principles and developments often without knowing it, in 1955, Ward was recruited to work at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. There, he derived a version of the Teller-Ulam design. John Clive Ward was born in East Ham, London, on 1 August 1924 and he was the son of Joseph William Ward, a civil servant who worked in Inland Revenue, and his wife Winifred née Palmer, a schoolteacher. He had a sister, Mary Patricia and he attended Chalkwell Elementary School and Westcliff High School for Boys. In 1938 he sat for and won a scholarship to Bishop Stortford College. He took the Higher School Certificate Examination in 1942, receiving distinctions in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Latin, H. C. Whitehead and E. C. Their prediction was confirmed experimentally by Chien-Shiung Wu and I and this was the first experimental confirmation of a pair of entangled photons as applicable to the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox. The result was explained by Richard Dalitz and Frank Duarte. Apparently following Diracs doctrine, Ward was never bothered by issues of interpretation in quantum mechanics, with his Harmsworth scholarship expiring, and seeing few prospects at Oxford, Ward responded to a job advertisement from the University of Sydney. He was offered a position, but when he arrived, found that it was for a tutor and he therefore served out the year, then returned to Oxford to complete his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on Some Properties of the Elementary Particles. Only after an argument by the internal examiner, J. de Witt, was the thesis awarded. Pryce arranged for Ward to receive an award from the Department of Scientific and it was then that he developed the Ward–Takahashi identity, originally known as Ward Identity. This result in quantum electrodynamics was inspired by a conjecture of Freeman Dyson, in his book The Infinity Puzzle, Frank Close wrote, Wards Identities are the basic foundations on which the entire edifice of renormalisation rests. In 1950, Wards DSIR fellowship was coming to an end, through them, he was able to secure a $3,000 membership for the 1951–1952 academic year
