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Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
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Set (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. For example, the numbers 2,4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately, Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a part of mathematics. In mathematics education, elementary topics such as Venn diagrams are taught at a young age, the German word Menge, rendered as set in English, was coined by Bernard Bolzano in his work The Paradoxes of the Infinite. A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set can be anything, numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the same elements. Cantors definition turned out to be inadequate, instead, the notion of a set is taken as a notion in axiomatic set theory. There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set, one way is by intensional definition, using a rule or semantic description, A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers. B is the set of colors of the French flag, the second way is by extension – that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets, one often has the choice of specifying a set either intensionally or extensionally. In the examples above, for instance, A = C and B = D, there are two important points to note about sets. First, in a definition, a set member can be listed two or more times, for example. However, per extensionality, two definitions of sets which differ only in one of the definitions lists set members multiple times, define, in fact. Hence, the set is identical to the set. The second important point is that the order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant and we can illustrate these two important points with an example, = =. For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated, for instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified extensionally as, where the ellipsis indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses may also be used where sets have infinitely many members, thus the set of positive even numbers can be written as
3.
Element (mathematics)
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In mathematics, an element, or member, of a set is any one of the distinct objects that make up that set. Writing A = means that the elements of the set A are the numbers 1,2,3 and 4, sets of elements of A, for example, are subsets of A. For example, consider the set B =, the elements of B are not 1,2,3, and 4. Rather, there are three elements of B, namely the numbers 1 and 2, and the set. The elements of a set can be anything, for example, C =, is the set whose elements are the colors red, green and blue. The relation is an element of, also called set membership, is denoted by the symbol ∈, writing x ∈ A means that x is an element of A. Equivalent expressions are x is a member of A, x belongs to A, x is in A and x lies in A, another possible notation for the same relation is A ∋ x, meaning A contains x, though it is used less often. The negation of set membership is denoted by the symbol ∉, writing x ∉ A means that x is not an element of A. The symbol ϵ was first used by Giuseppe Peano 1889 in his work Arithmetices principia nova methodo exposita, here he wrote on page X, Signum ϵ significat est. Ita a ϵ b legitur a est quoddam b. which means The symbol ϵ means is, so a ϵ b is read as a is a b. The symbol itself is a stylized lowercase Greek letter epsilon, the first letter of the word ἐστί, the Unicode characters for these symbols are U+2208, U+220B and U+2209. The equivalent LaTeX commands are \in, \ni and \notin, mathematica has commands \ and \. The number of elements in a set is a property known as cardinality, informally. In the above examples the cardinality of the set A is 4, an infinite set is a set with an infinite number of elements, while a finite set is a set with a finite number of elements. The above examples are examples of finite sets, an example of an infinite set is the set of positive integers =. Using the sets defined above, namely A =, B = and C =,2 ∈ A ∈ B3,4 ∉ B is a member of B Yellow ∉ C The cardinality of D = is finite, the cardinality of P = is infinite. Halmos, Paul R. Naive Set Theory, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, NY, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-90092-6 - Naive means that it is not fully axiomatized, not that it is silly or easy. Jech, Thomas, Set Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Suppes, Patrick, Axiomatic Set Theory, NY, Dover Publications, Inc
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Partially ordered set
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In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set formalizes and generalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set. A poset consists of a set together with a binary relation indicating that, for pairs of elements in the set. The word partial in the partial order or partially ordered set is used as an indication that not every pair of elements need be comparable. That is, there may be pairs of elements for which neither element precedes the other in the poset, Partial orders thus generalize total orders, in which every pair is comparable. To be an order, a binary relation must be reflexive, antisymmetric. One familiar example of an ordered set is a collection of people ordered by genealogical descendancy. Some pairs of people bear the descendant-ancestor relationship, but other pairs of people are incomparable, a poset can be visualized through its Hasse diagram, which depicts the ordering relation. A partial order is a binary relation ≤ over a set P satisfying particular axioms which are discussed below, when a ≤ b, we say that a is related to b. The axioms for a partial order state that the relation ≤ is reflexive, antisymmetric. That is, for all a, b, and c in P, it must satisfy, in other words, a partial order is an antisymmetric preorder. A set with an order is called a partially ordered set. The term ordered set is also used, as long as it is clear from the context that no other kind of order is meant. In particular, totally ordered sets can also be referred to as ordered sets, for a, b, elements of a partially ordered set P, if a ≤ b or b ≤ a, then a and b are comparable. In the figure on top-right, e. g. and are comparable, while and are not, a partial order under which every pair of elements is comparable is called a total order or linear order, a totally ordered set is also called a chain. A subset of a poset in which no two elements are comparable is called an antichain. A more concise definition will be given using the strict order corresponding to ≤. For example, is covered by in the figure. Standard examples of posets arising in mathematics include, The real numbers ordered by the standard less-than-or-equal relation ≤, the set of subsets of a given set ordered by inclusion
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Boolean algebra (structure)
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In abstract algebra, a Boolean algebra or Boolean lattice is a complemented distributive lattice. This type of algebraic structure captures essential properties of set operations and logic operations. A Boolean algebra can be seen as a generalization of a power set algebra or a field of sets and it is also a special case of a De Morgan algebra and a Kleene algebra. The term Boolean algebra honors George Boole, a self-educated English mathematician, booles formulation differs from that described above in some important respects. For example, conjunction and disjunction in Boole were not a pair of operations. Boolean algebra emerged in the 1860s, in papers written by William Jevons, the first systematic presentation of Boolean algebra and distributive lattices is owed to the 1890 Vorlesungen of Ernst Schröder. The first extensive treatment of Boolean algebra in English is A. N. Whiteheads 1898 Universal Algebra, Boolean algebra as an axiomatic algebraic structure in the modern axiomatic sense begins with a 1904 paper by Edward V. Huntington. Boolean algebra came of age as serious mathematics with the work of Marshall Stone in the 1930s, and with Garrett Birkhoffs 1940 Lattice Theory. In the 1960s, Paul Cohen, Dana Scott, and others found deep new results in mathematical logic and axiomatic set theory using offshoots of Boolean algebra, namely forcing, a Boolean algebra with only one element is called a trivial Boolean algebra or a degenerate Boolean algebra. It follows from the last three pairs of axioms above, or from the axiom, that a = b ∧ a if. The relation ≤ defined by a ≤ b if these equivalent conditions hold, is an order with least element 0. The meet a ∧ b and the join a ∨ b of two elements coincide with their infimum and supremum, respectively, with respect to ≤, the first four pairs of axioms constitute a definition of a bounded lattice. It follows from the first five pairs of axioms that any complement is unique, the set of axioms is self-dual in the sense that if one exchanges ∨ with ∧ and 0 with 1 in an axiom, the result is again an axiom. Therefore, by applying this operation to a Boolean algebra, one obtains another Boolean algebra with the same elements, furthermore, every possible input-output behavior can be modeled by a suitable Boolean expression. The smallest element 0 is the empty set and the largest element 1 is the set S itself, starting with the propositional calculus with κ sentence symbols, form the Lindenbaum algebra. This construction yields a Boolean algebra and it is in fact the free Boolean algebra on κ generators. A truth assignment in propositional calculus is then a Boolean algebra homomorphism from this algebra to the two-element Boolean algebra, interval algebras are useful in the study of Lindenbaum-Tarski algebras, every countable Boolean algebra is isomorphic to an interval algebra. For any natural n, the set of all positive divisors of n, defining a≤b if a divides b
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Power set
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In mathematics, the power set of any set S is the set of all subsets of S, including the empty set and S itself. The power set of a set S is variously denoted as P, ℘, P, ℙ, or, in axiomatic set theory, the existence of the power set of any set is postulated by the axiom of power set. Any subset of P is called a family of sets over S, if S is the set, then the subsets of S are, and hence the power set of S is. If S is a set with |S| = n elements. This fact, which is the motivation for the notation 2S, may be demonstrated simply as follows, First and we write any subset of S in the format where γi,1 ≤ i ≤ n, can take the value of 0 or 1. If γi =1, the element of S is in the subset, otherwise. Clearly the number of subsets that can be constructed this way is 2n as γi ∈. Cantors diagonal argument shows that the set of a set always has strictly higher cardinality than the set itself. In particular, Cantors theorem shows that the set of a countably infinite set is uncountably infinite. The power set of the set of numbers can be put in a one-to-one correspondence with the set of real numbers. The power set of a set S, together with the operations of union, intersection, in fact, one can show that any finite Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of the power set of a finite set. For infinite Boolean algebras this is no true, but every infinite Boolean algebra can be represented as a subalgebra of a power set Boolean algebra. The power set of a set S forms a group when considered with the operation of symmetric difference. It can hence be shown that the power set considered together with both of these forms a Boolean ring. In set theory, XY is the set of all functions from Y to X, as 2 can be defined as, 2S is the set of all functions from S to. Hence 2S and P could be considered identical set-theoretically and this notion can be applied to the example above in which S = to see the isomorphism with the binary numbers from 0 to 2n −1 with n being the number of elements in the set. In S, a 1 in the corresponding to the location in the set indicates the presence of the element. The number of subsets with k elements in the set of a set with n elements is given by the number of combinations, C
7.
Cardinality
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In mathematics, the cardinality of a set is a measure of the number of elements of the set. For example, the set A = contains 3 elements, there are two approaches to cardinality – one which compares sets directly using bijections and injections, and another which uses cardinal numbers. The cardinality of a set is called its size, when no confusion with other notions of size is possible. The cardinality of a set A is usually denoted | A |, with a bar on each side, this is the same notation as absolute value. Alternatively, the cardinality of a set A may be denoted by n, A, card, while the cardinality of a finite set is just the number of its elements, extending the notion to infinite sets usually starts with defining the notion of comparison of arbitrary sets. Two sets A and B have the same cardinality if there exists a bijection, that is, such sets are said to be equipotent, equipollent, or equinumerous. This relationship can also be denoted A≈B or A~B, for example, the set E = of non-negative even numbers has the same cardinality as the set N = of natural numbers, since the function f = 2n is a bijection from N to E. A has cardinality less than or equal to the cardinality of B if there exists a function from A into B. A has cardinality less than the cardinality of B if there is an injective function. If | A | ≤ | B | and | B | ≤ | A | then | A | = | B |, the axiom of choice is equivalent to the statement that | A | ≤ | B | or | B | ≤ | A | for every A, B. That is, the cardinality of a set was not defined as an object itself. However, such an object can be defined as follows, the relation of having the same cardinality is called equinumerosity, and this is an equivalence relation on the class of all sets. The equivalence class of a set A under this relation then consists of all sets which have the same cardinality as A. There are two ways to define the cardinality of a set, The cardinality of a set A is defined as its class under equinumerosity. A representative set is designated for each equivalence class, the most common choice is the initial ordinal in that class. This is usually taken as the definition of number in axiomatic set theory. Assuming AC, the cardinalities of the sets are denoted ℵ0 < ℵ1 < ℵ2 < …. For each ordinal α, ℵ α +1 is the least cardinal number greater than ℵ α
8.
Euler diagram
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An Euler diagram is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and their relationships. Typically they involve overlapping shapes, and may be scaled, such that the area of the shape is proportional to the number of elements it contains and they are particularly useful for explaining complex hierarchies and overlapping definitions. They are often confused with the Venn diagrams, unlike Venn diagrams which show all possible relations between different sets, the Euler diagram shows only relevant relationships. The first use of Eulerian circles is commonly attributed to Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, in the United States, both Venn and Euler diagrams were incorporated as part of instruction in set theory as part of the new math movement of the 1960s. Since then, they have also adopted by other curriculum fields such as reading as well as organizations. Euler diagrams consist of simple closed shapes in a two dimensional plane that depict a set or category. How or if these shapes overlap demonstrates the relationships between the sets, there are only 3 possible relationships between any 2 sets, completely inclusive, partially inclusive, and exclusive. This is also referred to as containment, overlap or neither or, especially in mathematics, it may be referred to as subset, intersection, curves whose interior zones do not intersect represent disjoint sets. Two curves whose interior zones intersect represent sets that have common elements, a curve that is contained completely within the interior zone of another represents a subset of it. Venn diagrams are a more form of Euler diagrams. A Venn diagram must contain all 2n logically possible zones of overlap between its n curves, representing all combinations of inclusion/exclusion of its constituent sets. Regions not part of the set are indicated by coloring them black, in contrast to Euler diagrams, when the number of sets grows beyond 3 a Venn diagram becomes visually complex, especially compared to the corresponding Euler diagram. The difference between Euler and Venn diagrams can be seen in the following example, the Venn diagram, which uses the same categories of Animal, Mineral, and Four Legs, does not encapsulate these relationships. Traditionally the emptiness of a set in Venn diagrams is depicted by shading in the region, Euler diagrams represent emptiness either by shading or by the absence of a region. Often a set of conditions are imposed, these are topological or geometric constraints imposed on the structure of the diagram. For example, connectedness of zones might be enforced, or concurrency of curves or multiple points might be banned, in the adjacent diagram, examples of small Venn diagrams are transformed into Euler diagrams by sequences of transformations, some of the intermediate diagrams have concurrency of curves. However, this sort of transformation of a Venn diagram with shading into an Euler diagram without shading is not always possible. There are examples of Euler diagrams with 9 sets that are not drawable using simple closed curves without the creation of unwanted zones since they would have to have non-planar dual graphs
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Inequality (mathematics)
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In mathematics, an inequality is a relation that holds between two values when they are different. The notation a ≠ b means that a is not equal to b and it does not say that one is greater than the other, or even that they can be compared in size. If the values in question are elements of a set, such as the integers or the real numbers. The notation a < b means that a is less than b, the notation a > b means that a is greater than b. In either case, a is not equal to b and these relations are known as strict inequalities. The notation a < b may also be read as a is less than b. The notation a ≥ b means that a is greater than or equal to b, not less than can also be represented by the symbol for less than bisected by a vertical line, not. In engineering sciences, a formal use of the notation is to state that one quantity is much greater than another. The notation a ≪ b means that a is less than b. The notation a ≫ b means that a is greater than b. Inequalities are governed by the following properties, all of these properties also hold if all of the non-strict inequalities are replaced by their corresponding strict inequalities and monotonic functions are limited to strictly monotonic functions. The transitive property of inequality states, For any real numbers a, b, c, If a ≥ b and b ≥ c, If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c. If either of the premises is an inequality, then the conclusion is a strict inequality. E. g. if a ≥ b and b > c, then a > c An equality is of course a special case of a non-strict inequality. E. g. if a = b and b > c, then a > c The relations ≤ and ≥ are each others converse, For any real numbers a and b, If a ≤ b, then b ≥ a. If a ≥ b, then a + c ≥ b + c, If a ≤ b and c >0, then ac ≤ bc and a/c ≤ b/c. If c is negative, then multiplying or dividing by c inverts the inequality, If a ≥ b and c <0, then ac ≤ bc, If a ≤ b and c <0, then ac ≥ bc and a/c ≥ b/c. More generally, this applies for a field, see below
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Empty set
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In mathematics, and more specifically set theory, the empty set is the unique set having no elements, its size or cardinality is zero. Some axiomatic set theories ensure that the empty set exists by including an axiom of empty set, in other theories, many possible properties of sets are vacuously true for the empty set. Null set was once a synonym for empty set, but is now a technical term in measure theory. The empty set may also be called the void set, common notations for the empty set include, ∅, and ∅. The latter two symbols were introduced by the Bourbaki group in 1939, inspired by the letter Ø in the Norwegian, although now considered an improper use of notation, in the past,0 was occasionally used as a symbol for the empty set. The empty-set symbol ∅ is found at Unicode point U+2205, in LaTeX, it is coded as \emptyset for ∅ or \varnothing for ∅. In standard axiomatic set theory, by the principle of extensionality, hence there is but one empty set, and we speak of the empty set rather than an empty set. The mathematical symbols employed below are explained here, in this context, zero is modelled by the empty set. For any property, For every element of ∅ the property holds, There is no element of ∅ for which the property holds. Conversely, if for some property and some set V, the two statements hold, For every element of V the property holds, There is no element of V for which the property holds. By the definition of subset, the empty set is a subset of any set A. That is, every element x of ∅ belongs to A. Indeed, since there are no elements of ∅ at all, there is no element of ∅ that is not in A. Any statement that begins for every element of ∅ is not making any substantive claim and this is often paraphrased as everything is true of the elements of the empty set. When speaking of the sum of the elements of a finite set, the reason for this is that zero is the identity element for addition. Similarly, the product of the elements of the empty set should be considered to be one, a disarrangement of a set is a permutation of the set that leaves no element in the same position. The empty set is a disarrangment of itself as no element can be found that retains its original position. Since the empty set has no members, when it is considered as a subset of any ordered set, then member of that set will be an upper bound. For example, when considered as a subset of the numbers, with its usual ordering, represented by the real number line
11.
Prime number
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A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a number is called a composite number. For example,5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors, the property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a number n is known as trial division. It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and n, algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of January 2016, the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits, there are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. There is no simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, many questions regarding prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbachs conjecture, and the twin prime conjecture. Such questions spurred the development of branches of number theory. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements. A natural number is called a number if it has exactly two positive divisors,1 and the number itself. Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite, among the numbers 1 to 6, the numbers 2,3, and 5 are the prime numbers, while 1,4, and 6 are not prime. 1 is excluded as a number, for reasons explained below. 2 is a number, since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2. Next,3 is prime, too,1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder, however,4 is composite, since 2 is another number dividing 4 without remainder,4 =2 ·2. 5 is again prime, none of the numbers 2,3, next,6 is divisible by 2 or 3, since 6 =2 ·3. The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime,12 =3 ·4, no even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition, any such number n has at least three distinct divisors, namely 1,2, and n
12.
Natural number
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In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting and ordering. In common language, words used for counting are cardinal numbers, texts that exclude zero from the natural numbers sometimes refer to the natural numbers together with zero as the whole numbers, but in other writings, that term is used instead for the integers. These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded in the number systems. Properties of the numbers, such as divisibility and the distribution of prime numbers, are studied in number theory. Problems concerning counting and ordering, such as partitioning and enumerations, are studied in combinatorics, the most primitive method of representing a natural number is to put down a mark for each object. Later, a set of objects could be tested for equality, excess or shortage, by striking out a mark, the first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers. This allowed systems to be developed for recording large numbers, the ancient Egyptians developed a powerful system of numerals with distinct hieroglyphs for 1,10, and all the powers of 10 up to over 1 million. A stone carving from Karnak, dating from around 1500 BC and now at the Louvre in Paris, depicts 276 as 2 hundreds,7 tens, and 6 ones, and similarly for the number 4,622. A much later advance was the development of the idea that 0 can be considered as a number, with its own numeral. The use of a 0 digit in place-value notation dates back as early as 700 BC by the Babylonians, the Olmec and Maya civilizations used 0 as a separate number as early as the 1st century BC, but this usage did not spread beyond Mesoamerica. The use of a numeral 0 in modern times originated with the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628, the first systematic study of numbers as abstractions is usually credited to the Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Archimedes. Some Greek mathematicians treated the number 1 differently than larger numbers, independent studies also occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica. In 19th century Europe, there was mathematical and philosophical discussion about the nature of the natural numbers. A school of Naturalism stated that the numbers were a direct consequence of the human psyche. Henri Poincaré was one of its advocates, as was Leopold Kronecker who summarized God made the integers, in opposition to the Naturalists, the constructivists saw a need to improve the logical rigor in the foundations of mathematics. In the 1860s, Hermann Grassmann suggested a recursive definition for natural numbers thus stating they were not really natural, later, two classes of such formal definitions were constructed, later, they were shown to be equivalent in most practical applications. The second class of definitions was introduced by Giuseppe Peano and is now called Peano arithmetic and it is based on an axiomatization of the properties of ordinal numbers, each natural number has a successor and every non-zero natural number has a unique predecessor. Peano arithmetic is equiconsistent with several systems of set theory
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Rational number
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In mathematics, a rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction p/q of two integers, a numerator p and a non-zero denominator q. Since q may be equal to 1, every integer is a rational number, the decimal expansion of a rational number always either terminates after a finite number of digits or begins to repeat the same finite sequence of digits over and over. Moreover, any repeating or terminating decimal represents a rational number and these statements hold true not just for base 10, but also for any other integer base. A real number that is not rational is called irrational, irrational numbers include √2, π, e, and φ. The decimal expansion of an irrational number continues without repeating, since the set of rational numbers is countable, and the set of real numbers is uncountable, almost all real numbers are irrational. Rational numbers can be defined as equivalence classes of pairs of integers such that q ≠0, for the equivalence relation defined by ~ if. The rational numbers together with addition and multiplication form field which contains the integers and is contained in any field containing the integers, finite extensions of Q are called algebraic number fields, and the algebraic closure of Q is the field of algebraic numbers. In mathematical analysis, the numbers form a dense subset of the real numbers. The real numbers can be constructed from the numbers by completion, using Cauchy sequences, Dedekind cuts. The term rational in reference to the set Q refers to the fact that a number represents a ratio of two integers. In mathematics, rational is often used as a noun abbreviating rational number, the adjective rational sometimes means that the coefficients are rational numbers. However, a curve is not a curve defined over the rationals. Any integer n can be expressed as the rational number n/1, a b = c d if and only if a d = b c. Where both denominators are positive, a b < c d if and only if a d < b c. If either denominator is negative, the fractions must first be converted into equivalent forms with positive denominators, through the equations, − a − b = a b, two fractions are added as follows, a b + c d = a d + b c b d. A b − c d = a d − b c b d, the rule for multiplication is, a b ⋅ c d = a c b d. Where c ≠0, a b ÷ c d = a d b c, note that division is equivalent to multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor fraction, a d b c = a b × d c. Additive and multiplicative inverses exist in the numbers, − = − a b = a − b and −1 = b a if a ≠0
14.
Line segment
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In geometry, a line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by two distinct end points, and contains every point on the line between its endpoints. A closed line segment includes both endpoints, while a line segment excludes both endpoints, a half-open line segment includes exactly one of the endpoints. Examples of line include the sides of a triangle or square. More generally, when both of the end points are vertices of a polygon or polyhedron, the line segment is either an edge if they are adjacent vertices. When the end points both lie on a such as a circle, a line segment is called a chord. Sometimes one needs to distinguish between open and closed line segments, thus, the line segment can be expressed as a convex combination of the segments two end points. In geometry, it is defined that a point B is between two other points A and C, if the distance AB added to the distance BC is equal to the distance AC. Thus in R2 the line segment with endpoints A = and C = is the collection of points. A line segment is a connected, non-empty set, if V is a topological vector space, then a closed line segment is a closed set in V. However, an open line segment is an open set in V if and only if V is one-dimensional. More generally than above, the concept of a segment can be defined in an ordered geometry. A pair of segments can be any one of the following, intersecting, parallel, skew. The last possibility is a way that line segments differ from lines, in an axiomatic treatment of geometry, the notion of betweenness is either assumed to satisfy a certain number of axioms, or else be defined in terms of an isometry of a line. Segments play an important role in other theories, for example, a set is convex if the segment that joins any two points of the set is contained in the set. This is important because it transforms some of the analysis of sets to the analysis of a line segment. The Segment Addition Postulate can be used to add congruent segment or segments with equal lengths and consequently substitute other segments into another statement to make segments congruent. A line segment can be viewed as a case of an ellipse in which the semiminor axis goes to zero, the foci go to the endpoints. A complete orbit of this ellipse traverses the line segment twice, as a degenerate orbit this is a radial elliptic trajectory. In addition to appearing as the edges and diagonals of polygons and polyhedra, some very frequently considered segments in a triangle include the three altitudes, the three medians, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides, and the internal angle bisectors
15.
Line (geometry)
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The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects, the straight line is that which is equally extended between its points. In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is tied to the way the geometry is described. When a geometry is described by a set of axioms, the notion of a line is left undefined. The properties of lines are determined by the axioms which refer to them. One advantage to this approach is the flexibility it gives to users of the geometry, thus in differential geometry a line may be interpreted as a geodesic, while in some projective geometries a line is a 2-dimensional vector space. This flexibility also extends beyond mathematics and, for example, permits physicists to think of the path of a light ray as being a line, to avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts, terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive, in those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy, in a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a description or mental image of a notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors and these are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The definition of line in Euclids Elements falls into this category, when geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the Elements, he defined a general line to be breadthless length with a straight line being a line which lies evenly with the points on itself. These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, in fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert, for example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i. e. the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel, in higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, in two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the slope-intercept form, y = m x + b where, m is the slope or gradient of the line. B is the y-intercept of the line, X is the independent variable of the function y = f
16.
Real number
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In mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a line. The adjective real in this context was introduced in the 17th century by René Descartes, the real numbers include all the rational numbers, such as the integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all the irrational numbers, such as √2. Included within the irrationals are the numbers, such as π. Real numbers can be thought of as points on a long line called the number line or real line. Any real number can be determined by a possibly infinite decimal representation, such as that of 8.632, the real line can be thought of as a part of the complex plane, and complex numbers include real numbers. These descriptions of the numbers are not sufficiently rigorous by the modern standards of pure mathematics. All these definitions satisfy the definition and are thus equivalent. The statement that there is no subset of the reals with cardinality greater than ℵ0. Simple fractions were used by the Egyptians around 1000 BC, the Vedic Sulba Sutras in, c.600 BC, around 500 BC, the Greek mathematicians led by Pythagoras realized the need for irrational numbers, in particular the irrationality of the square root of 2. Arabic mathematicians merged the concepts of number and magnitude into a general idea of real numbers. In the 16th century, Simon Stevin created the basis for modern decimal notation, in the 17th century, Descartes introduced the term real to describe roots of a polynomial, distinguishing them from imaginary ones. In the 18th and 19th centuries, there was work on irrational and transcendental numbers. Johann Heinrich Lambert gave the first flawed proof that π cannot be rational, Adrien-Marie Legendre completed the proof, Évariste Galois developed techniques for determining whether a given equation could be solved by radicals, which gave rise to the field of Galois theory. Charles Hermite first proved that e is transcendental, and Ferdinand von Lindemann, lindemanns proof was much simplified by Weierstrass, still further by David Hilbert, and has finally been made elementary by Adolf Hurwitz and Paul Gordan. The development of calculus in the 18th century used the set of real numbers without having defined them cleanly. The first rigorous definition was given by Georg Cantor in 1871, in 1874, he showed that the set of all real numbers is uncountably infinite but the set of all algebraic numbers is countably infinite. Contrary to widely held beliefs, his first method was not his famous diagonal argument, the real number system can be defined axiomatically up to an isomorphism, which is described hereafter. Another possibility is to start from some rigorous axiomatization of Euclidean geometry, from the structuralist point of view all these constructions are on equal footing
17.
Isomorphism
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In mathematics, an isomorphism is a homomorphism or morphism that admits an inverse. Two mathematical objects are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists between them, an automorphism is an isomorphism whose source and target coincide. For most algebraic structures, including groups and rings, a homomorphism is an isomorphism if, in topology, where the morphisms are continuous functions, isomorphisms are also called homeomorphisms or bicontinuous functions. In mathematical analysis, where the morphisms are functions, isomorphisms are also called diffeomorphisms. A canonical isomorphism is a map that is an isomorphism. Two objects are said to be isomorphic if there is a canonical isomorphism between them. Isomorphisms are formalized using category theory, let R + be the multiplicative group of positive real numbers, and let R be the additive group of real numbers. The logarithm function log, R + → R satisfies log = log x + log y for all x, y ∈ R +, so it is a group homomorphism. The exponential function exp, R → R + satisfies exp = for all x, y ∈ R, the identities log exp x = x and exp log y = y show that log and exp are inverses of each other. Since log is a homomorphism that has an inverse that is also a homomorphism, because log is an isomorphism, it translates multiplication of positive real numbers into addition of real numbers. This facility makes it possible to real numbers using a ruler. Consider the group, the integers from 0 to 5 with addition modulo 6 and these structures are isomorphic under addition, if you identify them using the following scheme, ↦0 ↦1 ↦2 ↦3 ↦4 ↦5 or in general ↦ mod 6. For example, + =, which translates in the system as 1 +3 =4. Even though these two groups look different in that the sets contain different elements, they are indeed isomorphic, more generally, the direct product of two cyclic groups Z m and Z n is isomorphic to if and only if m and n are coprime. For example, R is an ordering ≤ and S an ordering ⊑, such an isomorphism is called an order isomorphism or an isotone isomorphism. If X = Y, then this is a relation-preserving automorphism, in a concrete category, such as the category of topological spaces or categories of algebraic objects like groups, rings, and modules, an isomorphism must be bijective on the underlying sets. In algebraic categories, an isomorphism is the same as a homomorphism which is bijective on underlying sets, in abstract algebra, two basic isomorphisms are defined, Group isomorphism, an isomorphism between groups Ring isomorphism, an isomorphism between rings. Just as the automorphisms of an algebraic structure form a group, letting a particular isomorphism identify the two structures turns this heap into a group
18.
Ordinal number
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In set theory, an ordinal number, or ordinal, is one generalization of the concept of a natural number that is used to describe a way to arrange a collection of objects in order, one after another. Any finite collection of objects can be put in order just by the process of counting, labeling the objects with distinct whole numbers, Ordinal numbers are thus the labels needed to arrange collections of objects in order. An ordinal number is used to describe the type of a well ordered set. Whereas ordinals are useful for ordering the objects in a collection, they are distinct from cardinal numbers, although the distinction between ordinals and cardinals is not always apparent in finite sets, different infinite ordinals can describe the same cardinal. Like other kinds of numbers, ordinals can be added, multiplied, a natural number can be used for two purposes, to describe the size of a set, or to describe the position of an element in a sequence. When restricted to finite sets these two concepts coincide, there is one way to put a finite set into a linear sequence. This is because any set has only one size, there are many nonisomorphic well-orderings of any infinite set. Whereas the notion of number is associated with a set with no particular structure on it. A well-ordered set is an ordered set in which there is no infinite decreasing sequence, equivalently. Ordinals may be used to label the elements of any given well-ordered set and this length is called the order type of the set. Any ordinal is defined by the set of ordinals that precede it, in fact, the most common definition of ordinals identifies each ordinal as the set of ordinals that precede it. For example, the ordinal 42 is the type of the ordinals less than it, i. e. the ordinals from 0 to 41. Conversely, any set of ordinals that is downward-closed—meaning that for any ordinal α in S and any ordinal β < α, β is also in S—is an ordinal. There are infinite ordinals as well, the smallest infinite ordinal is ω, which is the type of the natural numbers. After all of these come ω·2, ω·2+1, ω·2+2, and so on, then ω·3, now the set of ordinals formed in this way must itself have an ordinal associated with it, and that is ω2. Further on, there will be ω3, then ω4, and so on, and ωω, then ωωω, then later ωωωω and this can be continued indefinitely far. The smallest uncountable ordinal is the set of all countable ordinals, in a well-ordered set, every non-empty subset contains a distinct smallest element. Given the axiom of dependent choice, this is equivalent to just saying that the set is ordered and there is no infinite decreasing sequence
19.
Cartesian product
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In Set theory, a Cartesian product is a mathematical operation that returns a set from multiple sets. That is, for sets A and B, the Cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs where a ∈ A and b ∈ B, products can be specified using set-builder notation, e. g. A table can be created by taking the Cartesian product of a set of rows, If the Cartesian product rows × columns is taken, the cells of the table contain ordered pairs of the form. More generally, a Cartesian product of n sets, also known as an n-fold Cartesian product, can be represented by an array of n dimensions, an ordered pair is a 2-tuple or couple. The Cartesian product is named after René Descartes, whose formulation of analytic geometry gave rise to the concept, an illustrative example is the standard 52-card deck. The standard playing card ranks form a 13-element set, the card suits form a four-element set. The Cartesian product of these sets returns a 52-element set consisting of 52 ordered pairs, Ranks × Suits returns a set of the form. Suits × Ranks returns a set of the form, both sets are distinct, even disjoint. The main historical example is the Cartesian plane in analytic geometry, usually, such a pairs first and second components are called its x and y coordinates, respectively, cf. picture. The set of all such pairs is thus assigned to the set of all points in the plane, a formal definition of the Cartesian product from set-theoretical principles follows from a definition of ordered pair. The most common definition of ordered pairs, the Kuratowski definition, is =, note that, under this definition, X × Y ⊆ P, where P represents the power set. Therefore, the existence of the Cartesian product of any two sets in ZFC follows from the axioms of pairing, union, power set, let A, B, C, and D be sets. × C ≠ A × If for example A =, then × A = ≠ = A ×, the Cartesian product behaves nicely with respect to intersections, cf. left picture. × = ∩ In most cases the above statement is not true if we replace intersection with union, cf. middle picture. Other properties related with subsets are, if A ⊆ B then A × C ⊆ B × C, the cardinality of a set is the number of elements of the set. For example, defining two sets, A = and B =, both set A and set B consist of two elements each. Their Cartesian product, written as A × B, results in a new set which has the following elements, each element of A is paired with each element of B. Each pair makes up one element of the output set, the number of values in each element of the resulting set is equal to the number of sets whose cartesian product is being taken,2 in this case
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
McGraw-Hill
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The company also provides reference and trade publications for the medical, business, and engineering professions. McGraw-Hill Education currently operates in 28 countries, has more than 4,800 employees globally and this shift has accelerated in recent years with an increased focus on developing adaptive learning systems that enable classroom teaching to come closer to a one-to-one student-teacher interaction. These systems allow personalized learning by assessing each students skill level, McGraw-Hill Education provides digital products and services to over 11 million users. In 2013, the acquired the ALEKS Corporation and after acquiring 20 percent equity stake in Area9 ApS went on to acquire the company. In 2015 MHE opened a new R&D office in Boston’s innovation district, in September 2016 the company acquired adaptive learning technology and content provider Redbird Learning. The company currently offers over 1,500 adaptive products in higher education, McGraw-Hill Education traces its history back to 1888 when James H. McGraw, co-founder of the company, purchased the American Journal of Railway Appliances. He continued to add further publications, eventually establishing The McGraw Publishing Company in 1899 and his co-founder, John A. Hill, had also produced several technical and trade publications and in 1902 formed his own business, The Hill Publishing Company. In 1909 both men agreed upon an alliance and combined the book departments of their publishing companies into The McGraw-Hill Book Company, John Hill served as President, with James McGraw as Vice-President. 1917 saw the merger of the parts of each business into The McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. In 1986, McGraw-Hill bought out competitor The Economy Company, then the nations largest publisher of educational material, the buyout made McGraw-Hill the largest educational publisher in the U. S. In 1979 McGraw-Hill Publishing Company purchased Byte from its owner/publisher Virginia Williamson who then became a vice-president of McGraw-Hill, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc became The McGraw-Hill Companies in 1995, as part of a corporate identity rebranding. In 2007, The McGraw-Hill Companies launched a student study network. This offering gave McGraw-Hill an opportunity to connect directly with its end users, the site closed on April 29,2012. On November 26,2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies announced it was selling its entire education division to Apollo Global Management for $2.5 billion, on March 22,2013, it announced it had completed the sale and the proceeds were for $2.4 billion in cash. In 2014, McGraw Hill Education India partnered with GreyCampus to promote Online Learning Courses among University Grants Commission- National eligibility Test Aspirants, McGraw Hill Education India is located in Noida area of Delhi/NCR. Operating segments of McGraw-Hill Education include, McGraw-Hill Education K-12, which develops solutions and content for early childhood education, K-12 learners. McGraw-Hill Education Higher Ed, which focuses on post-secondary education, McGraw-Hill Education Professional, focused on post-graduate and professional learners. McGraw-Hill Education International, which focuses on learners and professionals outside of the United States, in 2013, McGraw-Hill Education acquired the entirety of shares in Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, the companys long-existing joint venture with Tata Group in India
22.
Formal language
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In mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language is a set of strings of symbols together with a set of rules that are specific to it. The alphabet of a language is the set of symbols, letters. The strings formed from this alphabet are called words, and the words belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called well-formed words or well-formed formulas. A formal language is defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar. The field of language theory studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is. Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages. The first formal language is thought to be the one used by Gottlob Frege in his Begriffsschrift, literally meaning concept writing, axel Thues early semi-Thue system, which can be used for rewriting strings, was influential on formal grammars. The elements of an alphabet are called its letters, alphabets may be infinite, however, most definitions in formal language theory specify finite alphabets, and most results only apply to them. A word over an alphabet can be any sequence of letters. The set of all words over an alphabet Σ is usually denoted by Σ*, the length of a word is the number of letters it is composed of. For any alphabet there is one word of length 0, the empty word. By concatenation one can combine two words to form a new word, whose length is the sum of the lengths of the original words, the result of concatenating a word with the empty word is the original word. A formal language L over an alphabet Σ is a subset of Σ*, that is, sometimes the sets of words are grouped into expressions, whereas rules and constraints may be formulated for the creation of well-formed expressions. In computer science and mathematics, which do not usually deal with natural languages, in practice, there are many languages that can be described by rules, such as regular languages or context-free languages. The notion of a formal grammar may be closer to the concept of a language. By an abuse of the definition, a formal language is often thought of as being equipped with a formal grammar that describes it. The following rules describe a formal language L over the alphabet Σ =, Every nonempty string that does not contain + or =, a string containing = is in L if and only if there is exactly one =, and it separates two valid strings of L. A string containing + but not = is in L if, no string is in L other than those implied by the previous rules
23.
Formal proof
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A formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of sentences, each of which is an axiom, an assumption, or follows from the preceding sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference. The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system, the notion of theorem is not in general effective, therefore there may be no method by which we can always find a proof of a given sentence or determine that none exists. The concept of natural deduction is a generalization of the concept of proof, the theorem is a syntactic consequence of all the well-formed formulas preceding it in the proof. Formal proofs often are constructed with the help of computers in interactive theorem proving, significantly, these proofs can be checked automatically, also by computer. Checking formal proofs is usually simple, while the problem of finding proofs is usually computationally intractable and/or only semi-decidable, a formal language is a set of finite sequences of symbols. Such a language can be defined without reference to any meanings of any of its expressions, it can exist before any interpretation is assigned to it – that is, Formal proofs are expressed in some formal language. A formal grammar is a description of the well-formed formulas of a formal language. It is synonymous with the set of strings over the alphabet of the language which constitute well formed formulas. However, it does not describe their semantics, a formal system consists of a formal language together with a deductive apparatus. The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of rules or a set of axioms. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions, an interpretation of a formal system is the assignment of meanings to the symbols, and values to the sentences of a formal system. The study of interpretations is called formal semantics, giving an interpretation is synonymous with constructing a model. Proof Mathematical proof Proof theory Axiomatic system A Special Issue on Formal Proof, notices of the American Mathematical Society. 2πix. com, Logic Part of a series of articles covering mathematics and logic
24.
Well-formed formula
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In mathematical logic, a well-formed formula, abbreviated wff, often simply formula, is a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet that is part of a formal language. A formal language can be identified with the set of formulas in the language, a formula is a syntactic object that can be given a semantic meaning by means of an interpretation. Two key uses of formulas are in propositional logic and predicate logic, a key use of formulas is in propositional logic and predicate logics such as first-order logic. In those contexts, a formula is a string of symbols φ for which it makes sense to ask is φ true, once any free variables in φ have been instantiated. In formal logic, proofs can be represented by sequences of formulas with certain properties, although the term formula may be used for written marks, it is more precisely understood as the sequence of symbols being expressed, with the marks being a token instance of formula. Thus the same formula may be more than once. They are given meanings by interpretations, for example, in a propositional formula, each propositional variable may be interpreted as a concrete proposition, so that the overall formula expresses a relationship between these propositions. A formula need not be interpreted, however, to be considered solely as a formula, the formulas of propositional calculus, also called propositional formulas, are expressions such as. Their definition begins with the choice of a set V of propositional variables. The alphabet consists of the letters in V along with the symbols for the propositional connectives and parentheses, the formulas will be certain expressions over this alphabet. The formulas are inductively defined as follows, Each propositional variable is, on its own, If φ is a formula, then ¬φ is a formula. If φ and ψ are formulas, and • is any binary connective, here • could be the usual operators ∨, ∧, →, or ↔. The sequence of symbols p)) is not a formula, because it does not conform to the grammar, a complex formula may be difficult to read, owing to, for example, the proliferation of parentheses. To alleviate this last phenomenon, precedence rules are assumed among the operators, for example, assuming the precedence 1. Then the formula may be abbreviated as p → q ∧ r → s ∨ ¬q ∧ ¬s This is, however, If the precedence was assumed, for example, to be left-right associative, in following order,1. ∨4. →, then the formula above would be rewritten as → The definition of a formula in first-order logic Q S is relative to the signature of the theory at hand. This signature specifies the constant symbols, relation symbols, and function symbols of the theory at hand, the definition of a formula comes in several parts. First, the set of terms is defined recursively, terms, informally, are expressions that represent objects from the domain of discourse
25.
Classical logic
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Classical logic is an intensively studied and widely used class of formal logics. Classical logic was devised as a two-level logical system, with simple semantics for the levels representing true. These judgments find themselves if two pairs of two operators, and each operator is the negation of another, relationships that Aristotle summarised with his square of oppositions. George Booles algebraic reformulation of logic, his system of Boolean logic, with the advent of algebraic logic it became apparent that classical propositional calculus admits other semantics. In Boolean-valued semantics, the values are the elements of an arbitrary Boolean algebra, true corresponds to the maximal element of the algebra. Intermediate elements of the algebra correspond to truth values other than true, the principle of bivalence holds only when the Boolean algebra is taken to be the two-element algebra, which has no intermediate elements. Many-valued logic, including logic, which rejects the law of the excluded middle. Graham Priest, An Introduction to Non-Classical Logic, From If to Is, 2nd Edition, CUP,2008, ISBN 978-0-521-67026-5 Warren Goldfard, Deductive Logic, 1st edition,2003, ISBN 0-87220-660-2
26.
Theorem
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In mathematics, a theorem is a statement that has been proved on the basis of previously established statements, such as other theorems, and generally accepted statements, such as axioms. A theorem is a consequence of the axioms. The proof of a theorem is a logical argument for the theorem statement given in accord with the rules of a deductive system. The proof of a theorem is interpreted as justification of the truth of the theorem statement. In light of the requirement that theorems be proved, the concept of a theorem is fundamentally deductive, in contrast to the notion of a scientific law, many mathematical theorems are conditional statements. In this case, the proof deduces the conclusion from conditions called hypotheses or premises, however, the conditional could be interpreted differently in certain deductive systems, depending on the meanings assigned to the derivation rules and the conditional symbol. Although they can be written in a symbolic form, for example, within the propositional calculus. In some cases, a picture alone may be sufficient to prove a theorem, because theorems lie at the core of mathematics, they are also central to its aesthetics. Theorems are often described as being trivial, or difficult, or deep and these subjective judgments vary not only from person to person, but also with time, for example, as a proof is simplified or better understood, a theorem that was once difficult may become trivial. On the other hand, a theorem may be simply stated. Fermats Last Theorem is a particularly well-known example of such a theorem, logically, many theorems are of the form of an indicative conditional, if A, then B. Such a theorem does not assert B, only that B is a consequence of A. In this case A is called the hypothesis of the theorem and B the conclusion. The theorem If n is an natural number then n/2 is a natural number is a typical example in which the hypothesis is n is an even natural number. To be proved, a theorem must be expressible as a precise, nevertheless, theorems are usually expressed in natural language rather than in a completely symbolic form, with the intention that the reader can produce a formal statement from the informal one. It is common in mathematics to choose a number of hypotheses within a given language and these hypotheses form the foundational basis of the theory and are called axioms or postulates. The field of known as proof theory studies formal languages, axioms. Some theorems are trivial, in the sense that they follow from definitions, axioms, a theorem might be simple to state and yet be deep
27.
Logical consequence
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Logical consequence is a fundamental concept in logic, which describes the relationship between statements that holds true when one statement logically follows from one or more statements. A valid logical argument is one in which the conclusions are entailed by the premises, the philosophical analysis of logical consequence involves the questions, In what sense does a conclusion follow from its premises. And What does it mean for a conclusion to be a consequence of premises, All of philosophical logic is meant to provide accounts of the nature of logical consequence and the nature of logical truth. Logical consequence is necessary and formal, by way of examples that explain with formal proof and models of interpretation. A sentence is said to be a consequence of a set of sentences, for a given language, if and only if. The most widely prevailing view on how to best account for logical consequence is to appeal to formality and this is to say that whether statements follow from one another logically depends on the structure or logical form of the statements without regard to the contents of that form. Syntactic accounts of logical consequence rely on schemes using inference rules, for instance, we can express the logical form of a valid argument as, All A are B. All C are A. Therefore, all C are B and this argument is formally valid, because every instance of arguments constructed using this scheme are valid. This is in contrast to an argument like Fred is Mikes brothers son, if you know that Q follows logically from P no information about the possible interpretations of P or Q will affect that knowledge. Our knowledge that Q is a consequence of P cannot be influenced by empirical knowledge. Deductively valid arguments can be known to be so without recourse to experience, however, formality alone does not guarantee that logical consequence is not influenced by empirical knowledge. So the a property of logical consequence is considered to be independent of formality. The two prevailing techniques for providing accounts of logical consequence involve expressing the concept in terms of proofs, the study of the syntactic consequence is called proof theory whereas the study of semantic consequence is called model theory. A formula A is a syntactic consequence within some formal system F S of a set Γ of formulas if there is a proof in F S of A from the set Γ. Γ ⊢ F S A Syntactic consequence does not depend on any interpretation of the formal system, or, in other words, the set of the interpretations that make all members of Γ true is a subset of the set of the interpretations that make A true. Modal accounts of logical consequence are variations on the basic idea, Γ ⊢ A is true if and only if it is necessary that if all of the elements of Γ are true. Alternatively, Γ ⊢ A is true if and only if it is impossible for all of the elements of Γ to be true, such accounts are called modal because they appeal to the modal notions of logical necessity and logical possibility. Consider the modal account in terms of the argument given as an example above, the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises because we cant imagine a possible world where all frogs are green, Kermit is a frog, and Kermit is not green
28.
Symbol (formal)
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A logical symbol is a fundamental concept in logic, tokens of which may be marks or a configuration of marks which form a particular pattern. In logic, symbols build literal utility to illustrate ideas, symbols of a formal language need not be symbols of anything. For instance there are constants which do not refer to any idea. Symbols of a formal language must be capable of being specified without any reference to any interpretation of them, a symbol or string of symbols may comprise a well-formed formula if it is consistent with the formation rules of the language. In a formal system a symbol may be used as a token in formal operations. The set of symbols in a formal language is referred to as an alphabet A formal symbol as used in first-order logic may be a variable, a constant. Formal symbols are thought of as purely syntactic structures, composed into larger structures using a formal grammar. The move to view units in natural language as formal symbols was initiated by Noam Chomsky, the generative grammar model looked upon syntax as autonomous from semantics. On this point I differ from a number of philosophers, but agree, I believe, with Chomsky and this is the philosophical premise underlying Montague grammar. List of mathematical symbols List of logic symbols
