1.
ChemSpider
–
ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses
ChemSpider
–
ChemSpider
2.
E number
–
E numbers are codes for substances that are permitted to be used as food additives for use within the European Union and Switzerland. Commonly found on labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority. Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring, in 1964, the directives for preservatives were added,1970 for antioxidants and 1974 for the emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents. They are increasingly, though rarely, found on North American packaging. In some European countries, E number is used informally as a pejorative term for artificial food additives. This is incorrect, because many components of foods have E numbers, e. g. vitamin C. NB, Not all examples of a fall into the given numeric range. Moreover, many chemicals, particularly in the E400–499 range, have a variety of purposes, the list shows all components that have or had an E-number assigned. Not all additives listed are still allowed in the EU, but are listed as they used to have an E-number, for an overview of currently allowed additives see here. Includes Lists of authorised food additives Food additives database
E number
–
A solution of E101
riboflavin (also known as vitamin B2)
E number
–
Crystals of E621
Monosodium glutamate, a flavour enhancer
3.
PubChem
–
PubChem is a database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, a component of the National Library of Medicine, PubChem can be accessed for free through a web user interface. Millions of compound structures and descriptive datasets can be downloaded via FTP. PubChem contains substance descriptions and small molecules with fewer than 1000 atoms and 1000 bonds, more than 80 database vendors contribute to the growing PubChem database. PubChem consists of three dynamically growing primary databases, as of 28 January 2016, Compounds,82.6 million entries, contains pure and characterized chemical compounds. Substances,198 million entries, contains also mixtures, extracts, complexes, bioAssay, bioactivity results from 1.1 million high-throughput screening programs with several million values. PubChem contains its own online molecule editor with SMILES/SMARTS and InChI support that allows the import and export of all common chemical file formats to search for structures and fragments. In the text search form the database fields can be searched by adding the name in square brackets to the search term. A numeric range is represented by two separated by a colon. The search terms and field names are case-insensitive, parentheses and the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT can be used. AND is assumed if no operator is used, example,0,5000,50,10 -5,5 PubChem was released in 2004. The American Chemical Society has raised concerns about the publicly supported PubChem database and they have a strong interest in the issue since the Chemical Abstracts Service generates a large percentage of the societys revenue. To advocate their position against the PubChem database, ACS has actively lobbied the US Congress, soon after PubChems creation, the American Chemical Society lobbied U. S. Congress to restrict the operation of PubChem, which they asserted competes with their Chemical Abstracts Service
PubChem
–
PubChem
4.
International Chemical Identifier
–
Initially developed by IUPAC and NIST from 2000 to 2005, the format and algorithms are non-proprietary. The continuing development of the standard has supported since 2010 by the not-for-profit InChI Trust. The current version is 1.04 and was released in September 2011, prior to 1.04, the software was freely available under the open source LGPL license, but it now uses a custom license called IUPAC-InChI Trust License. Not all layers have to be provided, for instance, the layer can be omitted if that type of information is not relevant to the particular application. InChIs can thus be seen as akin to a general and extremely formalized version of IUPAC names and they can express more information than the simpler SMILES notation and differ in that every structure has a unique InChI string, which is important in database applications. Information about the 3-dimensional coordinates of atoms is not represented in InChI, the InChI algorithm converts input structural information into a unique InChI identifier in a three-step process, normalization, canonicalization, and serialization. The InChIKey, sometimes referred to as a hashed InChI, is a fixed length condensed digital representation of the InChI that is not human-understandable. The InChIKey specification was released in September 2007 in order to facilitate web searches for chemical compounds and it should be noted that, unlike the InChI, the InChIKey is not unique, though collisions can be calculated to be very rare, they happen. In January 2009 the final 1.02 version of the InChI software was released and this provided a means to generate so called standard InChI, which does not allow for user selectable options in dealing with the stereochemistry and tautomeric layers of the InChI string. The standard InChIKey is then the hashed version of the standard InChI string, the standard InChI will simplify comparison of InChI strings and keys generated by different groups, and subsequently accessed via diverse sources such as databases and web resources. Every InChI starts with the string InChI= followed by the version number and this is followed by the letter S for standard InChIs. The remaining information is structured as a sequence of layers and sub-layers, the layers and sub-layers are separated by the delimiter / and start with a characteristic prefix letter. The six layers with important sublayers are, Main layer Chemical formula and this is the only sublayer that must occur in every InChI. The atoms in the formula are numbered in sequence, this sublayer describes which atoms are connected by bonds to which other ones. Describes how many hydrogen atoms are connected to each of the other atoms, the condensed,27 character standard InChIKey is a hashed version of the full standard InChI, designed to allow for easy web searches of chemical compounds. Most chemical structures on the Web up to 2007 have been represented as GIF files, the full InChI turned out to be too lengthy for easy searching, and therefore the InChIKey was developed. With all databases currently having below 50 million structures, such duplication appears unlikely at present, a recent study more extensively studies the collision rate finding that the experimental collision rate is in agreement with the theoretical expectations. Example, Morphine has the structure shown on the right, as the InChI cannot be reconstructed from the InChIKey, an InChIKey always needs to be linked to the original InChI to get back to the original structure
International Chemical Identifier
–
L -
ascorbic acid
5.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
–
The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
–
Generation of SMILES: Break cycles, then write as branches off a main backbone. (Ciprofloxacin)
6.
Chemical formula
–
These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH
Chemical formula
–
Al 2 (SO 4) 3
7.
Odor
–
An odor or odour or fragrance is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odors are also commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors, the terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and are sometimes used to refer to perfumes, and to describe floral scent. In contrast, malodor, stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odor, the term smell is used for both pleasant and unpleasant odors. In the United Kingdom, odour refers to scents in general, the sense of smell gives rise to the perception of odors, mediated by the olfactory nerve. The olfactory receptor cells are present in the olfactory epithelium. There are millions of olfactory receptor neurons that act as sensory signaling cells, each neuron has cilia in direct contact with air. The olfactory nerve is considered the smell mediator, the axon connects the brain to the external air, odorous molecules act as a chemical stimulus. Molecules bind to receptor proteins extended from cilia, initiating an electric signal, thus, by using a chemical that binds to copper in the mouse nose, so that copper wasn’t available to the receptors, the authors showed that the mice couldnt detect the thiols. However, these also found that MOR244-3 lacks the specific metal ion binding site suggested by Suslick. When the signal reaches a threshold, the fires, sending a signal traveling along the axon to the olfactory bulb. Interpretation of the begins, relating the smell to past experiences. The olfactory bulb acts as a station connecting the nose to the olfactory cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is processed and projected through a pathway to the central nervous system. Odor sensation usually depends on the concentration available to the olfactory receptors, the olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix, not necessarily corresponding to concentration or intensity of any single constituent. The widest range of odors consists of compounds, although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide. The perception of an effect is a two-step process. First, there is the part, the detection of stimuli by receptors in the nose. The stimuli are processed by the region of the brain which is responsible for olfaction
Odor
–
"Smell", from Allegory of the senses by
Jan Brueghel the Elder,
Museo del Prado
Odor
–
Odor control covers at a
sewage treatment plant: Under these covers, grit and gravel are settled out of the wastewater.
8.
Density
–
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
Density
–
Air density vs. temperature
9.
Melting point
–
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium, the melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the change from liquid to solid. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal, for example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins. However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures, for example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C, such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is close to 0 °C. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, the chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K, this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points, a Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient. Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point, differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window, the several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated and with the aid of the melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, the measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected, for refractory materials the extremely high melting point may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees, the spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature, in this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer, for temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed
Melting point
–
Melting points (in blue) and boiling points (in pink) of the first eight
carboxylic acids (°C)
Melting point
–
Kofler bench with samples for calibration
Melting point
–
Automatic digital melting point meter
Melting point
–
Pressure dependence of water melting point
10.
Aqueous solution
–
An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is usually shown in chemical equations by appending to the relevant chemical formula, for example, a solution of table salt, or sodium chloride, in water would be represented as Na+ + Cl−. The word aqueous means pertaining to, related to, similar to, as water is an excellent solvent and is also naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry. Substances that are hydrophobic often do not dissolve well in water, an example of a hydrophilic substance is sodium chloride. Acids and bases are aqueous solutions, as part of their Arrhenius definitions, the ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether the substance can match or exceed the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate between themselves. If the substance lacks the ability to dissolve in water the molecules form a precipitate, reactions in aqueous solutions are usually metathesis reactions. Metathesis reactions are another term for double-displacement, that is, when a cation displaces to form a bond with the other anion. The cation bonded with the latter anion will dissociate and bond with the other anion, aqueous solutions that conduct electric current efficiently contain strong electrolytes, while ones that conduct poorly are considered to have weak electrolytes. Those strong electrolytes are substances that are ionized in water. Nonelectrolytes are substances that dissolve in water yet maintain their molecular integrity, examples include sugar, urea, glycerol, and methylsulfonylmethane. When writing the equations of reactions, it is essential to determine the precipitate. To determine the precipitate, one must consult a chart of solubility, soluble compounds are aqueous, while insoluble compounds are the precipitate. Remember that there may not always be a precipitate, when performing calculations regarding the reacting of one or more aqueous solutions, in general one must know the concentration, or molarity, of the aqueous solutions. Solution concentration is given in terms of the form of the prior to it dissolving. Metal ions in aqueous solution Solubility Dissociation Acid-base reaction theories Properties of water Zumdahl S.1997, 4th ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company
Aqueous solution
–
The first
solvation shell of a sodium ion dissolved in water.
11.
Acid dissociation constant
–
An acid dissociation constant, Ka, is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the constant for a chemical reaction known as dissociation in the context of acid–base reactions. In the example shown in the figure, HA represents acetic acid, and A− represents the acetate ion, the chemical species HA, A− and H3O+ are said to be in equilibrium when their concentrations do not change with the passing of time. The definition can then be more simply H A ⇌ A − + H +, K a = This is the definition in common usage. A weak acid has a pKa value in the approximate range −2 to 12 in water, pKa values for strong acids can, however, be estimated by theoretical means. The definition can be extended to non-aqueous solvents, such as acetonitrile and dimethylsulfoxide. Denoting a solvent molecule by S H A + S ⇌ A − + S H +, K a = When the concentration of solvent molecules can be taken to be constant, K a =, as before. The value of pKa also depends on structure of the acid in many ways. For example, Pauling proposed two rules, one for successive pKa of polyprotic acids, and one to estimate the pKa of oxyacids based on the number of =O and −OH groups. Other structural factors that influence the magnitude of the dissociation constant include inductive effects, mesomeric effects. Hammett type equations have frequently applied to the estimation of pKa. The quantitative behaviour of acids and bases in solution can be only if their pKa values are known. These calculations find application in different areas of chemistry, biology, medicine. Acid dissociation constants are essential in aquatic chemistry and chemical oceanography. In living organisms, acid–base homeostasis and enzyme kinetics are dependent on the pKa values of the acids and bases present in the cell. According to Arrheniuss original definition, an acid is a substance that dissociates in solution, releasing the hydrogen ion H+. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is known as a dissociation constant. Brønsted and Lowry generalised this further to an exchange reaction
Acid dissociation constant
12.
Sweetener
–
A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
Sweetener
–
Packets of
Assugrin, a brand of
cyclamate.
Sweetener
–
Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada.
Sweetener
–
Saccharin, historical wrapping;
Sugar Museum (Berlin)
13.
Sugar substitute
–
A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
Sugar substitute
–
Packets of
Assugrin, a brand of
cyclamate.
Sugar substitute
–
Cyclamate-based sugar substitute sold in Canada.
Sugar substitute
–
Saccharin, historical wrapping;
Sugar Museum (Berlin)
14.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
15.
Sweetness
–
Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are universally regarded as an experience, except perhaps in excess. Fructose is sweeter than glucose and sucrose and this has made possible the production of sugar syrups with the sweetness and certain other properties of sucrose starting from starch. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and asapartame, other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself. The chemosensory basis for detecting sweetness, which varies between individuals and species, has only begun to be understood since the late 20th century. One theoretical model of sweetness is the multipoint attachment theory, which involves multiple binding sites between a receptor and a sweet substance. Studies indicate that responsiveness to sugars and sweetness has very ancient evolutionary beginnings, newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than lactose, the sugar found in breast milk. Sweetness appears to have the highest taste recognition threshold, being detectable at around 1 part in 200 of sucrose in solution, by comparison, bitterness appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. Even amongst leaf-eating primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, the sweet tooth thus has an ancient evolutionary heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged. A great diversity of compounds, such as aldehydes and ketones are sweet. Among common biological substances, all of the carbohydrates are sweet to at least some degree. Sucrose is the example of a sweet substance. Sucrose in solution has a sweetness perception rating of 1, for example, another sugar, fructose, is somewhat sweeter, being rated at 1.7 times the sweetness of sucrose. Some of the acids are mildly sweet, alanine, glycine. Some other amino acids are perceived as sweet and bitter. A number of plant species produce glycosides that are sweet at concentrations lower than sugar
Sweetness
–
Sweet foods, such as this strawberry
shortcake, are often eaten for
dessert.
Sweetness
–
Boys
Pilfering Molasses – On The Quays,
New Orleans, 1853 painting by
George Henry Hall
16.
Sucrose
–
Sucrose is a common saccharide found in many plants and plant parts. Saccharose is a term for sugars in general, especially sucrose. The molecule is a combination of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose with the formula C12H22O11. Sucrose is often extracted and refined from either sugarcane or beet sugar for human consumption, modern industrial sugar refinement processes often involve bleaching and crystallization, producing a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste of pure sucrose. This refined form of sucrose is commonly referred to as sugar or just sugar. It plays a role as an additive in food production all over the world. About 175 million metric tons of sucrose were produced worldwide in 2013, the term sucrose was first used in 1857 by English chemist William Miller from the French sucre and the generic chemical suffix for sugars -ose. The abbreviated term Suc is often used for sucrose in scientific literature, in sucrose, the components glucose and fructose are linked via an acetal bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic linkage, glucose exists predominantly as two isomeric pyranoses, but only one of these forms links to the fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of furanoses, each of which having α and β isomers and this linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose crystallizes in the space group P21 with room-temperature lattice parameters a =1.08631 nm, b =0.87044 nm, c =0.77624 nm. The purity of sucrose is measured by polarimetry, through the rotation of plane-polarized light by a solution of sugar, the specific rotation at 20 °C using yellow sodium-D light is +66. 47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter, Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions. The formula for sucrose decomposition can be represented as a 2 step reaction, C12H22O11 + heat → 12C + 11H2O 12C + 12O2 → 12CO2 Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes—at 186 °C —to form caramel, like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors. C12H22O11 +6 KNO3 →9 CO +3 N2 +11 H2O +3 K2CO3 This reaction is somewhat simplified though, some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the water-gas shift reaction also take place
Sucrose
–
Table sugar production in the 19th century.
Sugar cane plantations (upper image) employed slave or indentured laborers. The picture shows workers harvesting cane, loading it on a boat for transport to the plant, while a European overseer watches in the lower right. The lower image shows a sugar plant with two furnace chimneys. Sugar plants and plantations were harsh, inhumane work.
Sucrose
–
Sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose
–
A
sugarloaf was a traditional form for sugar from the 17th to 19th centuries.
Sugar nips were required to break off pieces.
17.
Aspartame
–
Aspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as E951, aspartame is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. It was first sold under the brand name NutraSweet and it was first synthesized in 1965, and the patent expired in 1992. S. Food and Drug Administration in 1981, however, because its breakdown products include phenylalanine, aspartame must be avoided by people with the genetic condition phenylketonuria. Aspartame is an ester of the dipeptide of the natural amino acids L-aspartic acid. Under strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, aspartame may generate methanol by hydrolysis, under more severe conditions, the peptide bonds are also hydrolyzed, resulting in free amino acids. While known aspects of synthesis are covered by patents, many details are proprietary, two approaches to synthesis are used commercially. Phenylalanine is converted to its methyl ester and combined with the N-protected aspartic anhydride, the drawback of this technique is that a byproduct, the bitter-tasting β-form, is produced when the wrong carboxyl group from aspartic acid links to phenylalanine. A process using an enzyme from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus to catalyze the condensation of the chemically altered amino acids will produce high yields without the β-form byproduct, a variant of this method, which has not been used commercially, uses unmodified aspartic acid, but produces low yields. Methods for directly producing aspartyl-phenylalanine by enzymatic means, followed by methylation, have also been tried. The perceived sweetness of aspartame in humans is due to its binding of the heterodimer G-protein coupled receptor formed by the proteins TAS1R2, aspartame is approximately 200 times sweeter than sucrose. The sweetness of aspartame lasts longer than that of sucrose, so it is blended with other artificial sweeteners such as acesulfame potassium to produce an overall taste more like that of sugar. Like many other peptides, aspartame may hydrolyze into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature or high pH and this makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener, and prone to degradation in products hosting a high pH, as required for a long shelf life. The stability of aspartame under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in fats or in maltodextrin, the stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on pH. At room temperature, it is most stable at pH4.3, at pH7, however, its half-life is only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable, in products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for fountain beverages, aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as saccharin. Aspartames major decomposition products are its cyclic dipeptide, the de-esterified dipeptide, and its constituent components, phenylalanine, aspartic acid, at 180 °C, aspartame undergoes decomposition to form a diketopiperazine derivative. In products such as powdered beverages, the amine in aspartame can undergo a Maillard reaction with the aldehyde groups present in certain aroma compounds, the ensuing loss of both flavor and sweetness can be prevented by protecting the aldehyde as an acetal
Aspartame
Aspartame
–
Aspartame
18.
Acesulfame potassium
–
Acesulfame potassium, also known as acesulfame K or Ace K, is a calorie-free sugar substitute often marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number E950 and it was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst AG. In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the salt of 6-methyl-1,2, 3-oxathiazine-4-one 2. It is a crystalline powder with molecular formula C 4H 4KNO 4S. Acesulfame K is 200 times sweeter than sucrose, as sweet as aspartame, about two-thirds as sweet as saccharin, like saccharin, it has a slightly bitter aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. Kraft Foods patented the use of sodium ferulate to mask acesulfames aftertaste, acesulfame K is often blended with other sweeteners. These blends are reputed to give a more sucrose-like taste whereby each sweetener masks the others aftertaste, acesulfame potassium has a smaller particle size than sucrose, allowing for its mixtures with other sweeteners to be more uniform. Although acesulfame potassium has a shelf life, it can eventually degrade to acetoacetamide. In carbonated drinks, it is almost always used in conjunction with another sweetener and it is also used as a sweetener in protein shakes and pharmaceutical products, especially chewable and liquid medications, where it can make the active ingredients more palatable. The acceptable daily intake of potassium is listed as 15 mg/kg/day. Acesulfame potassium as well as other sugar substituents were intercalated into some layered double hydroxide hosts by ion exchange, characterization tests have shown that there is complete intercalation of the anions into the LDH hosts. In acesulfame K, the absorption at 1290 cm^-1 is found in the product at 1314 cm^-1. Since this absorption corresponds to the S-O double bond, it means that the bonds interact strongly with the metal hydroxide layers thus an orientation of the molecules is possible. Acesulfame potassium is one of the sweeteners that aids patients with type 1 diabetes. It provides a sweet taste without affecting glycaemic responses and without the high content of caloric sugars. Some studies, however, discovered that the consumption of non-nutritive sweeteners has led to weight gain thus increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes, through a Maximal Electroshock Seizure test, non-nutritive sweeteners including acesulfame potassium were labeled as anticonvulsants. This means that there is an association between the structure of the receptor that triggers the sweet sensation and the structure of the targets of antiepileptic drugs. It was also discovered that these non-nutritive sweeteners’ anticonvulsant activity is caused by modulation of brain mGlu, acesulfame potassium is widely used in the human diet and excreted by the kidneys
Acesulfame potassium
–
Acesulfame potassium
19.
Sodium saccharin
–
With effectively no food energy that is about 300–400 times as sweet as sucrose but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. It is used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, cookies, medicines, Saccharin derives its name from the word saccharine, meaning sugary. The word saccharine is used figuratively, often in a derogative sense, both words are derived from the Greek word σάκχαρον meaning gravel. It does not react chemically with other ingredients, as such. Blends of saccharin with other sweeteners are used to compensate for each sweeteners weaknesses. A10,1 cyclamate, saccharin blend is common in countries where both these sweeteners are legal, in this blend, each sweetener masks the others off taste. Saccharin is often used with aspartame in diet carbonated soft drinks, in its acid form, saccharin is not water-soluble. The form used as a sweetener is usually its sodium salt. The calcium salt is sometimes used, especially by people restricting their dietary sodium intake. Both salts are highly water-soluble,0.67 g/ml water at room temperature, in the 1970s, studies performed on laboratory rats found an association between consumption of high doses of saccharin and the development of bladder cancer. However, further study determined that this effect was due to a mechanism that is not relevant to humans, epidemiological studies have shown no evidence that saccharin is associated with bladder cancer in humans. The International Agency for Research on Cancer originally classified saccharin in Group 2B based on the rat studies, Saccharin has no food energy and no nutritional value. It is safe to consume for individuals with diabetes, Saccharin was produced first in 1879, by Constantin Fahlberg, a chemist working on coal tar derivatives in Ira Remsens laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University. Fahlberg noticed a sweet taste on his hand one evening, Fahlberg and Remsen published articles on benzoic sulfimide in 1879 and 1880. In 1884, then working on his own in New York City, Fahlberg applied for patents in several countries, two years later, he began production of the substance in a factory in a suburb of Magdeburg, Germany. Fahlberg would soon grow wealthy, while Remsen merely grew irritated, on the matter, Remsen commented, Fahlberg is a scoundrel. It nauseates me to hear my name mentioned in the breath with him. Although saccharin was commercialized not long after its discovery, until sugar shortages during World War I and its popularity further increased during the 1960s and 1970s among dieters, since saccharin is a calorie-free sweetener
Sodium saccharin
–
Sodium salt of saccharin, a white powder
Sodium saccharin
–
Saccharin
Sodium saccharin
–
Saccharin, historical wrapping,
Sugar Museum (Berlin)
20.
PH
–
In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
PH
–
Lemon juice tastes sour because it contains 5% to 6%
citric acid, which has a pH of 2.2.
PH
–
Chart showing the variation of color of universal indicator paper with pH
PH
–
pH values of some common substances
21.
Splenda
–
It is available in both granular and dissolvable tablet forms. Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, Tate & Lyle subsequently developed sucralose-based Splenda products in partnership with Johnson & Johnson subsidiary McNeil Nutritionals, LLC. The Splenda brand was transferred to Heartland Food Products Group after their purchase of the line with investor Centerbridge Partners in 2015. Since its approval by the United States government in 1998 and introduction there in 1999, sucralose has overtaken Equal in the $1. 5-billion artificial sweetener market, holding a 62% market share. According to market research firm IRI, Splenda sales were $212 million in 2006 in the U. S. while Equals totaled $48.7 million, according to a 2012 article in The New Zealand Herald it is the category leader in table-top sweetener in the US. Sucralose has no content, and Splenda products have a lower caloric content than sugar. The actual energy content of a single-serving of Splenda is 3.36 kcal, 31% of those of a single-serving of granulated sugar. In the United States, it is legally labelled zero calories, U. S. FDA regulations allow this if the food contains less than 5 Calories per reference amount customarily consumed, like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have 3.75 kcal per gram. In product testing by Cooks Illustrated, the drawback to cooking with Splenda was found to be that it does not produce the browning or caramelization the way table sugar does. However, Cooks Illustrated also found that desserts baked with Splenda were lacking the artificial flavors that just about every other sugar substitute brings with it, Splenda usually contains 95% dextrose and maltodextrin which the body readily metabolizes, combined with a small amount of mostly indigestible sucralose. Sucralose is made by replacing three select hydrogen-oxygen groups on sucrose molecules with three chlorine atoms, the tightly bound chlorine atoms create a molecular structure that is stable under intense conditions. Sucralose itself is recognized as safe to ingest as a sugar substitute. The recommended amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 mg/kg BW/day. These effects have not been reported in humans, the other ingredients in Splenda—dextrose and maltodextrin—are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption. Sucralose may not be biologically inert, and a study showed that cooking with sucralose at high temperatures could cause it to degrade into potentially toxic compounds. However, only a small amount is metabolized by the body, on average. McNeil argued during the trial that it had never deceived consumers or set out to deceive them, Merisant asked that McNeil be ordered to surrender profits and modify its advertising. The case ended with an agreement reached outside of court, with undisclosed settlement conditions, the lawsuit was the latest move in a long-simmering dispute
Splenda
22.
Canderel
–
Canderel is a brand of artificial sweetener made mainly from aspartame. Canderel is marketed by The Merisant Company, a corporation with headquarters in Chicago, Illinois, also Switzerland, Mexico, United Kingdom. Canderel was first marketed in France in 1979, the name Canderel is a combination of candi and airelles - the French word for bilberries. Canderel granular ingredients, maltodextrin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, flavouring, Canderel tablets ingredients, lactose, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, leucine, cross-linked CMC, flavouring. Canderel is said to be interchangeable with sugar in a 1 to 10 mass ratio, Canderel - sold in Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Africa, and Mexico. It is the leading aspartame-based sweetener in France and the United Kingdom, equal - first sold in the United States in 1982, this brand is also sold in Australia and India. EqualSweet - sold in Argentina NutraSweet - used as an ingredient in processed foods, drinks and tablets. Aspartame Aspartame controversy Sugar substitute Canderel official web site
Canderel
–
The Canderel logo.
23.
Queen Elizabeth College
–
Queen Elizabeth College had its origins in the Ladies Department of Kings College, London, England, opened in 1885. The first Kings extension lectures for ladies were held at Richmond in 1871, by 1886, the Kings College, London Ladies Department had 500 students. In 1902 it became the Kings College, London Womens Department, in 1915, the Household and Social Science Department of Kings College for Women opened at Campden Hill Road, Kensington, while other departments were transferred to the Strand site. The College became distinguished for its teaching and research in nutrition, physiology, hygiene and it was recognised as a School of the University of London in 1956. The original Campden Hill Road buildings combined both the lecture theatres, laboratories and library but also included the only Hall of residence - Queen Mary Hall, QEC re-merged with Kings College London in 1985, and the Kensington campus became associated with biomedical sciences. However, the campus was closed and sold in 2000 with the contents being decanted to the Franklin-Wilkins Building, part of the campus has subsequently been converted into Academy Gardens, apartments which retain some QEC branding. Envoy is the newsletter of Queen Elizabeth College. The Queen Elizabeth College alumni/old student association organizes a reunion every year, john Yudkin, physiologist and nutritionist Garth Chapman, academic, author and zoologist William B. Bonnor, mathematician and gravitation physicist Alice Copping, nutritionist Christopher Dainty, physicist K
Queen Elizabeth College
–
Arms of Queen Elizabeth College
Queen Elizabeth College
–
Queen Elizabeth College
Queen Elizabeth College
–
Former College building in Campden Hill Road (gates dated 1915)
Queen Elizabeth College
–
QE(K)A's Envoy
Newsletter cover
24.
Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Harvey W. Wiley, chief advocate of the Food and Drug Act
25.
PepsiCo
–
PepsiCo, Inc. is an American multinational food, snack and beverage corporation headquartered in Purchase, New York. PepsiCo has interests in the manufacturing, marketing and distribution of grain-based snack foods, beverages, PepsiCo was formed in 1965 with the merger of the Pepsi-Cola Company and Frito-Lay, Inc.3 billion. Based on net revenue, PepsiCo is the second largest food, within North America, PepsiCo is the largest food and beverage business by net revenue. Indra Krishnamurthy Nooyi has been the executive of PepsiCo since 2006. The companys beverage distribution and bottling is conducted by PepsiCo as well as by licensed bottlers in certain regions, approximately 274,000 employees generated $66.415 billion in revenue as of 2013. The recipe for the soft drink Pepsi was first developed in the 1880s by Caleb Bradham and he coined the name Pepsi-Cola in 1898. As the cola developed in popularity, he created the Pepsi-Cola Company in 1902, the Pepsi-Cola Company was first incorporated in the state of Delaware in 1919. The company went bankrupt in 1931 and on June 8 of that year, Guth was also the president of Loft, Incorporated, a leading candy manufacturer, and he used the companys labs and chemists to reformulate the syrup. In 1935, the shareholders of Loft sued Guth for his 91% stake of Pepsi-Cola Company in the landmark case Guth v. Loft Inc. Loft won the suit and on May 29,1941 formally absorbed Pepsi into Loft, Loft restaurants and candy stores were spun off at this time. In the early 1960s, Pepsi-Colas product lines expanded with the creation of Diet Pepsi, in 1965, the Pepsi-Cola Company merged with Frito-Lay, Inc. to become PepsiCo, Inc. At the time of its foundation, PepsiCo was incorporated in the state of Delaware and headquartered in Manhattan, the companys headquarters were relocated to their present location of Purchase, New York in 1970, and in 1986 PepsiCo was reincorporated in the state of North Carolina. In August 2009, PepsiCo made a $7 billion offer to acquire the two largest bottlers of its products in North America, Pepsi Bottling Group and PepsiAmericas. In 2010 this acquisition was completed, resulting in the formation of a new wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo, when it acquired the remaining 23% stake of Wimm-Bill-Dann Foods in October 2011, PepsiCo became the largest food and beverage company in Russia. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a joint venture with the Theo Muller Group which was named Muller Quaker Dairy and this marked PepsiCos first entry into the dairy space in the U. S. The joint venture was dissolved in December 2015, in 2009, The Coca-Cola Company held a higher market share in carbonated soft drink sales within the U. S. In the same year, PepsiCo maintained a share of the U. S. refreshment beverage market, however. As a result of mergers, acquisitions and partnerships pursued by PepsiCo in the 1990s and 2000s, its business has shifted to include a broader base, including foods, snacks
PepsiCo
–
View of PepsiCo's Global headquarters building on the
Donald M. Kendall Sculpture Gardens in Purchase, New York
PepsiCo
–
Headquarters of Pepsi-Cola Venezuela (ES)
26.
Halogenation
–
Halogenation is a chemical reaction that involves the addition of one or more halogens to a compound or material. Dehalogenation is the reverse of halogenation and results in the removal of a halogen from a molecule, the pathway and stoichiometry of halogenation depends on the structural features and functional groups of the organic substrate, as well as on the specific halogen. Inorganic compounds such as metals also undergo halogenation, several pathways exist for the halogenation of organic compounds, including free radical halogenation, ketone halogenation, electrophilic halogenation, and halogen addition reaction. The structure of the substrate is one factor that determines the pathway, saturated hydrocarbons typically do not add halogens but undergo free radical halogenation, involving substitution of hydrogen atoms by halogen. The regiochemistry of the halogenation of alkanes is usually determined by the weakness of the available C–H bonds. The preference for reaction at tertiary and secondary positions results from greater stability of the free radicals. Free radical halogenation is used for the production of chlorinated methanes. Unsaturated compounds, especially alkenes and alkynes, add halogens, RCH=CHR′ + X2 → RCHX–CHXR′ The addition of halogens to alkenes proceeds via intermediate halonium ions, in special cases, such intermediates have been isolated. Aromatic compounds are subject to electrophilic halogenation, RC6H5 + X2 → HX + RC6H4X The facility of halogenation is influenced by the halogen, fluorine and chlorine are more electrophilic and are more aggressive halogenating agents. Bromine is a weaker halogenating agent than fluorine and chlorine, while iodine is least reactive of them all. The facility of hydrogenolysis follows the trend, iodine is most easily removed from organic compounds. In the Hunsdiecker reaction, from carboxylic acids are converted to the chain-shortened halide, in the Hell–Volhard–Zelinsky halogenation, carboxylic acids are alpha-halogenated. Fluorination with elemental fluorine requires highly specialised conditions and apparatus, many commercially important organic compounds are fluorinated electrochemically using hydrogen fluoride as the source of fluorine. The method is called electrochemical fluorination, aside from F2 and its electrochemically generated equivalent, a variety of fluorinating reagents are known such as xenon difluoride and cobalt fluoride. Both saturated and unsaturated compounds react directly with chlorine, the former usually requiring UV light to initiate homolysis of chlorine, chlorination is conducted on a large scale industrially, major processes include routes to 1, 2-dichloroethane, as well as various chlorinated ethanes, as solvents. Bromination is more selective than chlorination because the reaction is less exothermic, most commonly bromination is conducted by the addition of Br2 to alkenes. An example of bromination is the synthesis of the anesthetic halothane from trichloroethylene, Organobromine compounds are the most common organohalides in nature. Their formation is catalyzed by the enzyme bromoperoxidase which utilizes bromide in combination with oxygen as an oxidant, the oceans are estimated to release 1–2 million tons of bromoform and 56,000 tons of bromomethane annually
Halogenation
–
Structure of a
bromonium ion
27.
Hydroxyl
–
A hydroxy or hydroxyl group is the entity with the formula OH. It contains oxygen bonded to hydrogen, in organic chemistry, alcohol and carboxylic acids contain hydroxy groups. The anion, called hydroxide, consists of a hydroxy group, according to IUPAC rules, the term hydroxyl refers to the radical OH only, while the functional group −OH is called hydroxy group. Water, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and many other hydroxy-containing compounds can be deprotonated readily and this behavior is rationalized by the disparate electronegativities of oxygen and hydrogen. Hydroxy-containing compounds engage in hydrogen bonding, which causes them to stick together, organic compounds, which are often poorly soluble in water, become water soluble when they contain two or more hydroxy groups, as illustrated by sugars and amino acid. The hydroxy group is pervasive in chemistry and biochemistry, many inorganic compounds contain hydroxy groups, including sulfuric acid, the chemical compound produced on the largest scale industrially. Hydroxy groups participate in the reactions that link simple biological molecules into long chains. The joining of a fatty acid to glycerol to form a triacylglycerol removes the −OH from the end of the fatty acid. The joining of two aldehyde sugars to form a disaccharide removes the −OH from the group at the aldehyde end of one sugar. The creation of a bond to link two amino acids to make a protein removes the −OH from the carboxy group of one amino acid. Hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and undergo chemical reactions that make them short-lived, when biological systems are exposed to hydroxyl radicals, they can cause damage to cells, including those in humans, where they react with DNA, lipids, and proteins. In 2009, Indias Chandrayaan-1 satellite, NASAs Cassini spacecraft and the Deep Impact probe have each detected the presence of water by evidence of hydroxyl fragments on the Moon. As reported by Richard Kerr, A spectrometer detected an infrared absorption at a wavelength of 3.0 micrometers that only water or hydroxyl—a hydrogen, NASA also reported in 2009 that the LCROSS probe revealed an ultraviolet emission spectrum consistent with hydroxyl presence. The Venus Express orbiter sent back Venus science data from April 2006 until December 2014, results from Venus Express include the detection of hydroxyl in the atmosphere. Hydronium Ion Oxide Reece, Jane, Urry, Lisa, Cain, Michael, Wasserman, Steven, Minorsky, Peter, Jackson, berge, Susan, Golden, Brandy, Triglia, Logan
Hydroxyl
–
Representation of an
organic hydroxy group, where R represents a
hydrocarbon or other organic moiety, the red and grey spheres represent oxygen and hydrogen atoms, respectively, and the rod-like connections between these,
covalent chemical bonds.
28.
Chlorine
–
Chlorine is a chemical element with symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the table and its properties are mostly intermediate between them. Chlorine is a gas at room temperature. It is an extremely reactive element and a strong oxidising agent, among the elements, it has the highest electron affinity, the most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times. Around 1630, chlorine gas was first synthesised in a chemical reaction, Carl Wilhelm Scheele wrote a description of chlorine gas in 1774, supposing it to be an oxide of a new element. In 1809, chemists suggested that the gas might be an element, and this was confirmed by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810. Because of its reactivity, all chlorine in the Earths crust is in the form of ionic chloride compounds. It is the second-most abundant halogen and twenty-first most abundant chemical element in Earths crust and these crustal deposits are nevertheless dwarfed by the huge reserves of chloride in seawater. Elemental chlorine is produced from brine by electrolysis. The high oxidising potential of chlorine led to the development of commercial bleaches and disinfectants. As a common disinfectant, elemental chlorine and chlorine-generating compounds are used directly in swimming pools to keep them clean. Elemental chlorine at high concentrations is extremely dangerous and poisonous for all living organisms, in the form of chloride ions, chlorine is necessary to all known species of life. Other types of compounds are rare in living organisms. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing organic molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone depletion, small quantities of elemental chlorine are generated by oxidation of chloride to hypochlorite in neutrophils as part of the immune response against bacteria. Its importance in food was very well known in antiquity and was sometimes used as payment for services for Roman generals. Around 1630, chlorine was recognized as a gas by the Flemish chemist, the element was first studied in detail in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and he is credited with the discovery. He called it dephlogisticated muriatic acid air since it is a gas and he failed to establish chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid. He named the new element within this oxide as muriaticum, in 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose dephlogisticated muriatic acid air by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element muriaticum
Chlorine
–
A glass container filled with chlorine gas
Chlorine
–
Chlorine, liquefied under a pressure of 7.4 bar at room temperature, displayed in a quartz ampule embedded in
acrylic glass.
Chlorine
–
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Chlorine
–
Liquid chlorine analysis
29.
Protecting group
–
A protecting group or protective group is introduced into a molecule by chemical modification of a functional group to obtain chemoselectivity in a subsequent chemical reaction. It plays an important role in organic synthesis. In many preparations of delicate organic compounds, some parts of their molecules cannot survive the required reagents or chemical environments. Then, these parts, or groups, must be protected, for example, lithium aluminium hydride is a highly reactive but useful reagent capable of reducing esters to alcohols. It will always react with carbonyl groups, and this cannot be discouraged by any means, when a reduction of an ester is required in the presence of a carbonyl, the attack of the hydride on the carbonyl has to be prevented. For example, the carbonyl is converted into an acetal, which does not react with hydrides, the acetal is then called a protecting group for the carbonyl. After the step involving the hydride is complete, the acetal is removed, however, the availability of a cheap chiral building block can overcome these additional costs. Protection of alcohols, Acetyl – Removed by acid or base, benzoyl – Removed by acid or base, more stable than Ac group. Bn group is used in sugar and nucleoside chemistry. β-Methoxyethoxymethyl ether – Removed by acid, dimethoxytrityl, – Removed by weak acid. DMT group is used for protection of 5-hydroxy group in nucleosides. Methoxymethyl ether – Removed by acid, methoxytrityl – Removed by acid and hydrogenolysis. P-Methoxybenzyl ether – Removed by acid, hydrogenolysis, or oxidation, methylthiomethyl ether – Removed by acid. Pivaloyl – Removed by acid, base or reductant agents and it is substantially more stable than other acyl protecting groups. Trityl – Removed by acid and hydrogenolysis, Silyl ether – Removed by acid or fluoride ion. TBDMS and TOM groups are used for protection of 2-hydroxy function in nucleosides, Methyl Ethers – Cleavage is by TMSI in dichloromethane or acetonitrile or chloroform. An alternative method to cleave methyl ethers is BBr3 in DCM Ethoxyethyl ethers – Cleavage more trivial than simple ethers e. g. Ac is too stable to be removed from aliphatic amides. Bz is too stable to be removed from aliphatic amides
Protecting group
–
Acetal protection of a
ketone during reduction of an
ester, vs. reduction to a diol when unprotected.
30.
Acetylation
–
Acetylation describes a reaction that introduces an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound. Deacetylation is the removal of an acetyl group, Acetylation refers to the process of introducing an acetyl group into a compound, namely the substitution of an acetyl group for an active hydrogen atom. A reaction involving the replacement of the atom of a hydroxyl group with an acetyl group yields a specific ester. Acetic anhydride is used as an acetylating agent reacting with free hydroxyl groups. For example, it is used in the synthesis of aspirin and heroin, Acetylation is an important modification of proteins in cell biology, and proteomics studies have identified thousands of acetylated mammalian proteins. Acetylation occurs as a co-translational and post-translational modification of proteins, for example, histones, p53, among these proteins, chromatin proteins and metabolic enzymes are highly represented, indicating that acetylation has a considerable impact on gene expression and metabolism. In bacteria, 90% of proteins involved in metabolism of Salmonella enteric are acetylated. N-terminal acetylation is one of the most common co-translational covalent modifications of proteins in eukaryotes, N-terminal acetylation plays an important role in the synthesis, stability and localization of proteins. About 85% of all proteins and 68% in yeast are acetylated at their Nα-terminus. Several proteins from prokaryotes and archaea are also modified by N-terminal acetylation, N-terminal Acetylation is catalyzed by a set of enzyme complexes, the N-terminal acetyltransferases. NATs transfer a group from acetyl-coenzyme A to the α-amino group of the first amino acid residue of the protein. Different NATs are responsible for the acetylation of nascent protein N-termini, to date, six different NATs have been found in humans - NatA, NatB, NatC, NatD, NatE and NatF. Each of these different enzyme complexes is specific for different amino acids or amino acid sequences which is shown in the following table, the Composition and Substrate specificity of NATs. NatA is composed of two subunits, the catalytic subunit Naa10 and the auxiliary subunit Naa15, NatA subunits are more complex in higher eukaryotes than in lower eukaryotes. In addition to the genes NAA10 and NAA15, the mammal-specific genes NAA11 and NAA16, make functional gene products, four possible hNatA catalytic-auxiliary dimers are formed by these four proteins. However, Naa10/Naa15 is the most abundant NatA, NatA acetylates Ser, Ala-, Gly-, Thr-, Val- and Cys N-termini after the initiator methionine is removed by methionine amino-peptidases. These amino acids are frequently expressed in the N-terminal of proteins in eukaryotes. Several different interaction partners are involved in the N-terminal acetylation by NatA, Huntingtin interacting protein K interacts with hNatA on the ribosome to affect the N-terminal acetylation of a subset of NatA substrates
Acetylation
–
N-terminal Acetylation
Acetylation
–
Crystal structure of the NatA complex (Naa10 and Naa15) from
Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The red chains represent the auxiliary subunit Naa15 and the blue chains the catalytic subunit Naa10.
31.
McIntosh, Alabama
–
McIntosh is a town located in Washington County, Alabama, United States along U. S. Route 43. It is 12 1⁄2 miles south of Wagarville and 44 miles north of Mobile and it was named for William McIntosh, a prominent Creek chief of the nineteenth century. The town was incorporated on April 7,1970, the population as of the 2010 U. S. Census was 238, down from 244 in 2000. The town and county have a proportion of residents who are members of the MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians. It has one site, Andrews Chapel, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, McIntosh is near the site of Aaron Burrs arrest in 1807 while the area was part of the Mississippi Territory. He was captured by U. S. Army Lt. Edmund P. Gaines in the town of Wakefield, a few miles to the north, a historic marker has been placed to document this event. McIntosh is located at 31°1558 North, 88°153 West, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.0 square mile, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 244 people,94 households and 62 families in the town, the population density was 243.9 people per square mile. There were 98 housing units at a density of 98.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 55. 23% Native American,43. 03% Black or African American,1. 33% White and 0. 41% from two or more races,0, 41% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 30. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 7% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.60 and the average family size is 3.27. In the town, the population is out with 29. 5% under the age of 18,6. 6% from 18 to 24,24. 6% from 25 to 44,25. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 83.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72.0 males, the median income for a household in the town was $28,214, and the median income for a family was $39,167. Males had an income of $31,429 versus $22,750 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,023,13. 5% of the population and 10. 0% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the population,22. 2% of those under the age of 18 and 9. 1% of those 65
McIntosh, Alabama
–
Location in
Washington County and the state of
Alabama
32.
Maltodextrin
–
Maltodextrin is a polysaccharide that is used as a food additive. It is produced from starch by partial hydrolysis and is found as a white hygroscopic spray-dried powder. Maltodextrin is easily digestible, being absorbed as rapidly as glucose and it is commonly used for the production of soft drinks and candy. It can also be found as an ingredient in a variety of processed foods. Maltodextrin consists of D-glucose units connected in chains of variable length, the glucose units are primarily linked with α glycosidic bonds. Maltodextrin is typically composed of a mixture of chains that vary from three to 17 glucose units long, maltodextrins are classified by DE and have a DE between 3 and 20. Maltodextrin can be derived from any starch. In the US, this starch is usually corn, in Europe, some individuals suffering from gluten-related disorders may be concerned by the presence of wheat derived maltodextrin but it is highly unlikely to contain significant amounts of gluten. Maltodextrin derived from wheat is exempt from labeling, as set out in Annex II of EC Directive No 1169/2011, Maltodextrin is sometimes used in beer brewing to increase the specific gravity of the final product. This improves the mouthfeel of the beer, increases head retention, Maltodextrin is not fermented by yeast, so it does not increase the alcohol content of the brew. It is also used in some such as potato chips. It is used in light peanut butter to reduce the fat content, Maltodextrin is also sometimes taken as a supplement by bodybuilders and other athletes in powder form or in gel packets. Maltodextrin is used as an additive to thicken food products such as infant formula. It is also used as a filler in sugar substitutes and other products, Maltodextrin has a glycemic index ranging from 85 to 105. Icodextrin Maltose Maltotriose Maltodextrin entry on Grokfood. com
Maltodextrin
–
Maltodextrin
33.
High-fructose corn syrup
–
High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose. HFCS was first marketed in the early 1970s by the Clinton Corn Processing Company, together with the Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and Technology where the enzyme was discovered in 1965. As a sweetener, HFCS is often compared to granulated sugar, uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have continued to grow over the early 21st Century. Consuming added sugars, particularly as sweetened soft drinks, is linked to weight gain. In the U. S. HFCS is among the sweeteners that mostly replaced sucrose in the food industry, the relative sweetness of HFCS55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS is the ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup. Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to stretch honey, assays to detect adulteration with HFCS use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods. In apiculture in the United States, HFCS is a substitute for some managed honey bee colonies during times when nectar is in low supply. However, when HFCS is heated to about 45 °C, hydroxymethylfurfural, although some researchers cite honey substitution with HFCS as one factor among many for colony collapse disorder, there is no evidence that HFCS is a solitary cause. Further, compared to honey, HFCS may be a deficiency in the diet for developing genes associated with protein metabolism. In the contemporary process, corn is milled to extract corn starch and it is necessary to carry out the extraction process in the presence of mercuric chloride in order to inhibit endogenous starch-degrading enzymes. High-temperature enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the sugars to fructose. The first enzyme added is alpha-amylase, which breaks the long chains down into shorter sugar chains – oligosaccharides, glucoamylase is mixed in and converts them to glucose, the resulting solution is filtered to remove protein, then using activated carbon, and then demineralized using ion-exchange resins. Some is processed into HFCS90 by liquid chromatography, then mixed with HFCS42 to form HFCS55, the enzymes used in the process are made by microbial fermentation. HFCS is 24% water, the rest being mainly fructose and glucose with 0–5% unprocessed glucose oligomers, there are several varieties of HFCS, numbered by the percentage of fructose they contain, HFCS42 is used in beverages, processed foods, cereals, and baked goods. HFCS55 is mostly used in soft drinks, HFCS65 is used in soft drinks dispensed by Coca-Cola Freestyle machines. HFCS90 has some niche uses but is mixed with HFCS42 to make HFCS55. Commercial production of corn syrup began in 1864, in the late 1950s, scientists at Clinton Corn Processing Company of Clinton, Iowa tried to turn glucose from corn starch into fructose, but the process was not scalable
High-fructose corn syrup
–
Varieties
High-fructose corn syrup
–
Structural formulae of fructose (left) and glucose (right)
High-fructose corn syrup
–
Chemistry
34.
Candy
–
Candy, also called sweets or lollies, is a confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, called sugar confectionery, encompasses any sweet confection, including chocolate, chewing gum, vegetables, fruit, or nuts which have been glazed and coated with sugar are said to be candied. Physically, candy is characterized by the use of a significant amount of sugar or sugar substitutes, unlike a cake or loaf of bread that would be shared among many people, candies are usually made in smaller pieces. However, the definition of candy also depends upon how people treat the food, unlike sweet pastries served for a dessert course at the end of a meal, candies are normally eaten casually, often with the fingers, as a snack between meals. Each culture has its own ideas of what constitutes candy rather than dessert, the same food may be a candy in one culture and a dessert in another. Candy is a food product. Sugar candies include hard candies, soft candies, caramels, marshmallows, taffy, commercially, sugar candies are often divided into groups according to the amount of sugar they contain and their chemical structure. Comparison of sugar candies Chocolate is sometimes treated as a branch of confectionery. In this model, chocolate candies like chocolate candy bars and chocolate truffles are included, hot chocolate or other cocoa-based drinks are excluded, as is candy made from white chocolate. Comparison of chocolate types Candies can be classified into noncrystalline and crystalline types, noncrystalline candies are homogeneous and may be chewy or hard, they include hard candies, caramels, toffees, and nougats. Crystalline candies incorporate small crystals in their structure, are creamy that melt in the mouth or are easily chewed, they include fondant and fudge. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and they adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word Sharkara. Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as Khanda, before sugar was readily available, candy was based on honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Middle East, Egypt, Greece, Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of garnish. Before the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, in the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices, digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of candies at banquets for their guests, one of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar
Candy
–
Candy at a
souq in
Damascus,
Syria
Candy
–
Liquorice is a candy flavored with the extract of the roots of the
liquorice plant. It is very popular in Finland.
Candy
–
Baasha are one of the many traditional candies found in South Asia. Flavored varieties include nuts and mint
Candy
–
Kompeitō is a traditional Japanese sugar candy. When finished, it is almost 100% sugar.
35.
Breakfast
–
Breakfast is the first meal of a day, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the days work. Among English speakers, breakfast can be used to refer to meal or to refer to a meal composed of traditional breakfast foods served at any time of day. The word literally refers to breaking the fasting period of the prior night, the meal has managed to generate a vast variety of popular restaurant chains dedicated to serving breakfast, namely, IHOP and Dennys. While current professional opinions are largely in favor of eating breakfast, the influence of breakfast on managing body weight is unclear. The Old English word for dinner, disner, means to break a fast, in Burma the traditional breakfast is htamin jaw, fried rice with boiled peas, and yei nway jan, especially among the poor. Glutinous rice or kao hnyin is steamed and wrapped in banana leaf often served with peas as kao hnyin baung with a sprinkle of crushed and salted toasted sesame. Equally popular is the variety of rice known as nga cheik which is cooked the same way. Si damin is sticky rice cooked with turmeric and onions in oil which is served with crushed and salted toasted sesame. Assorted fritters such as baya jaw are often served as a complement, nan bya or naan again with pè byouk or simply buttered, is served with Indian tea or coffee. Fried chapati, blistered like nan bya but crispy, with pè byouk, a hundred layers, is flaky multi-layered fried paratha served with either pè byouk or a sprinkle of sugar. Eeja gway with Indian tea or coffee is another favourite, add fritters such as split chickpea, urad dal or gourd, boiled egg and fried fish cake. As China is made up of many distinct provinces each with their own unique cuisine, in general, basic choices include sweet or salty pancakes, soup, deep fried bread sticks or doughnuts, buns, porridge, and fried or soup-based noodles. These options are accompanied by tea or sweetened soy bean milk. However, condiments for porridge and the soup base tend to vary between provinces and regions, the types of teas that are served and spices that are used can also differ significantly between the provinces. Cha Chaan Teng breakfasts often include Hong Kong style milk tea, pan fried egg, bread, each dish is designed to be sampled and diners can go through a large selection of dim sum quickly accompanied by a generous amount of good tea. Iron Buddha tea is the most common accompaniment, but other such as puer. Fried and rice-based noodles and cakes are also popular, in modern times, dim sum is commonly prepared and served in Yum Cha restaurants rather than home because of the skill and efforts involved in the preparation. Breakfast in modern Japanese households comes in two variations, Japanese style and Western style
Breakfast
–
A traditional Japanese breakfast for a tourist at Buddhist temple
Chion-in. Rice, Japanese pickles (
umeboshi and
takuan), a slice of grilled salmon, egg,
nori, some vegetable; perhaps a kind of いんげん (
Phaseolus vulgaris) with sesame powder
Breakfast
–
A
full English breakfast with scrambled eggs,
sausage,
black pudding, bacon, mushrooms, baked beans,
hash browns, and half a tomato
Breakfast
–
A bowl of
Rice Krispies breakfast cereal served with milk
36.
Soft drink
–
A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
Soft drink
–
A glass of
cola served with
ice cubes
Soft drink
–
Equipment used by
Joseph Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonization of water
Soft drink
–
An 1883 advertisement for
Schweppes Mineral-Waters
Soft drink
–
The
Codd-neck bottle provided an effective seal for soft drinks in the late 19th century
37.
Corn syrup
–
Corn syrup is a food syrup which is made from the starch of corn and contains varying amounts of maltose and higher oligosaccharides, depending on the grade. Corn syrup, also known as glucose syrup to confectioners, is used in foods to soften texture, add volume, prevent crystallization of sugar, and enhance flavor. The more general term glucose syrup is used synonymously with corn syrup. Historically, corn syrup was produced by combining corn starch with dilute hydrochloric acid, the process was invented by the Russian chemist Gottlieb Kirchhoff in 1812. Currently, corn syrup is obtained through a multi-step bioprocess, first, the enzyme α-amylase is added to a mixture of corn starch and water. α-amylase is secreted by various species of the bacterium Bacillus and the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the bacteria were grown, the enzyme breaks down the starch into oligosaccharides, which are then broken into glucose molecules by adding the enzyme glucoamylase, known also as γ-amylase. Glucoamylase is secreted by various species of the fungus Aspergillus, the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the fungus is grown, Corn syrup is produced from number 2 yellow dent corn. When wet milled, about 2.3 litres of corn are required to yield an average of 947g of starch, a bushel of corn will yield an average of 31.5 pounds of starch, which in turn will yield about 33.3 pounds of syrup. Thus, it takes about 2,300 litres of corn to produce a tonne of glucose syrup, the viscosity and sweetness of the syrup depends on the extent to which the hydrolysis reaction has been carried out. To distinguish different grades of syrup, they are rated according to their dextrose equivalent, most commercially available corn syrups are approximately 1/3 glucose by weight. Two common commercial corn syrup products are light and dark corn syrup, light corn syrup is corn syrup seasoned with vanilla flavor and salt. )Light corn syrup is clear and tastes moderately sweet. Dark corn syrup is a combination of syrup and molasses, caramel color and flavor, salt. Dark corn syrup is a brown color and tastes much stronger than light corn syrup. Molasses in dark corn syrup enhances its flavor and color and this product is very useful in grade school science projects like the seven layers density column. Corn syrups major uses in commercially prepared foods are as a thickener, Corn syrup is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup, as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup. Glucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States prior to the use of high fructose corn syrup production. HFCS is a variant in which enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble, Corn syrup is also available as a retail product
Corn syrup
–
Dark corn syrup in commercial packaging.
Corn syrup
–
Karo advertisement, 1917.
Corn syrup
–
Varieties
Corn syrup
–
Chemistry
38.
Cyclamate
–
Sodium cyclamate is an artificial sweetener. It is 30–50 times sweeter than sucrose, making it the least potent of the commercially used artificial sweeteners and it is often used with other artificial sweeteners, especially saccharin, the mixture of 10 parts cyclamate to 1 part saccharin is common and masks the off-tastes of both sweeteners. It is less expensive than most sweeteners, including sucralose, and is stable under heating, cyclamate is the sodium or calcium salt of cyclamic acid, which itself is prepared by the sulfonation of cyclohexylamine. This can be accomplished by reacting cyclohexylamine with either acid or sulfur trioxide. Cyclamate was discovered in 1937 at the University of Illinois by graduate student Michael Sveda, Sveda was working in the lab on the synthesis of anti-fever medication. He put his cigarette down on the lab bench, and, the patent for cyclamate was purchased by DuPont but later sold to Abbott Laboratories, which undertook the necessary studies and submitted a New Drug Application in 1950. Abbott intended to use cyclamate to mask the bitterness of certain drugs such as antibiotics, in 1958, it was designated GRAS by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Cyclamate was marketed in tablet form for use by diabetics as a tabletop sweetener. As cyclamate is stable to heat, it was and is marketed as suitable for use in cooking and baking, in 1966, a study reported that some intestinal bacteria could desulfonate cyclamate to produce cyclohexylamine, a compound suspected to have some chronic toxicity in animals. Further research resulted in a 1969 study that found the common 10,1 cyclamate, the released study was showing that eight out of 240 rats fed a mixture of saccharin and cyclamates, at levels of humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day, developed bladder tumors. Sales continued to expand, and in 1969, annual sales of cyclamate had reached $1 billion and this petition was eventually denied in 1980 by FDA Commissioner Jere Goyan. Abbott Labs, together with the Calorie Control Council, filed a petition in 1982. Although the FDA has stated that a review of all available evidence does not implicate cyclamate as a carcinogen in mice or rats, the petition is now held in abeyance, though not actively considered. It is unclear whether this is at the request of Abbott Labs or because the petition is considered to be insufficient by the FDA. Two of the monkeys and one of the lower-dosed monkeys were found to have malignant cancer, each with a different kind of cancer. The authors concluded that the failed to demonstrate that cyclamate was carcinogenic because the cancers were all different. The substance did not show any DNA-damaging properties in DNA repair assays, cyclamate is approved as a sweetener in at least 130 countries. In the late 1960s cyclamate was banned in the United Kingdom but was approved after being re-evaluated by the European Union in 1996, in the Philippines cyclamate was banned until the Philippine Food and Drug Administration lifted the ban in 2013, declaring it safe for consumption
Cyclamate
–
Funny Face
drink mix packet from 1970-71 advertising "No Cyclamate - Just Add Sugar"
Cyclamate
–
Sodium cyclamate
39.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
40.
Hygroscopic
–
Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the absorbing or adsorbing substance becoming physically changed somewhat. Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb, not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10 Vol-% or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to damp and cakey when exposed to moist air. Because of their affinity for moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the purpose of maintaining moisture content. Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the side and increases in area. This is similar to the function of a thermostats bi-metallic strip, inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence, the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water, deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, the similar-sounding but unrelated word hydroscopic is sometimes used in error for hygroscopic. A hydroscope is a device used for making observations deep under water. The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals. Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials, some plastics are hygroscopic while others are not. The seeds of grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity. An example is Needle-and-Thread, Hesperostipa comata, each seed has an awn that twists several turns when the seed is released. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, and, upon drying, to twist again, thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin
Hygroscopic
–
Apparatus for the determination of the hygroscopicity of fertilizer, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, ca.1930
Hygroscopic
–
The
thorny dragon features hygroscopic grooves between the spines of its skin to capture water in its desert habitat.
41.
US Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
US Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
US Food and Drug Administration
–
Food and Drug Administration
US Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
US Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
42.
Carcinogenic
–
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages
Carcinogenic
–
The
international pictogram for chemicals that are sensitising,
mutagenic, carcinogenic or
toxic to reproduction.
43.
Gastrointestinal
–
Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the whole human GI tract is about nine metres long at autopsy. The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process, the structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, the upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the muscle of the duodenum. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be an organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows, bulb, descending, horizontal, the suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine. This is a muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the intestine and all of the large intestine. In humans, the intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum. The small intestine begins at the duodenum, which receives food from the stomach and it is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m2 and its main function is to absorb the products of digestion into the bloodstream
Gastrointestinal
–
Stomach colon rectum diagram
44.
Duke University
–
Duke University is an American private research university located in Durham, North Carolina. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the town of Trinity in 1838. In 1924, tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established The Duke Endowment, at time the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father. Dukes campus spans over 8,600 acres on three campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort. The main campus—designed largely by architect Julian Abele—incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210-foot Duke Chapel at the campus center, the first-year-populated East Campus contains Georgian-style architecture, while the main Gothic-style West Campus 1.5 miles away is adjacent to the Medical Center. Duke is the seventh-wealthiest private university in America with $11.4 billion in cash, Dukes research expenditures in the 2015 fiscal year were $1.037 billion, the seventh largest in the nation. In 2014, Thomson Reuters named 32 of Dukes professors to its list of Highly Cited Researchers, Duke also ranks fifth among national universities to have produced Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall Scholars. Ten Nobel laureates and three Turing Award winners are affiliated with the university, Dukes sports teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference and the basketball team is renowned for having won five NCAA Mens Division I Basketball Championships, most recently in 2015. Duke is consistently included among the best universities in the world by numerous university rankings, according to a Forbes study, Duke is ranked 11th among universities that have produced billionaires. Duke started in 1838 as Browns Schoolhouse, a subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity. Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, the academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church. Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus, which is now known as East Campus, in 1924 Washington Dukes son, James B. Duke, established The Duke Endowment with a $40 million trust fund, income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals, orphanages, the Methodist Church, and four colleges. Duke thought the change would come off as self-serving. Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly, Dukes original campus, East Campus, was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian-style buildings. By 1930, the majority of the Collegiate Gothic-style buildings on the one mile west were completed. In 1878, Trinity awarded A. B. degrees to three sisters—Mary, Persis, and Theresa Giles—who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men. With the relocation of the college in 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students
Duke University
–
One of the first buildings on the original Durham campus (East Campus), the Washington Duke Building ("Old Main"), was destroyed by a fire in 1911.
Duke University
–
Duke University
Duke University
–
James B. Duke established the Duke Endowment, which provides funds to numerous institutions, including Duke University.
Duke University
–
The
Levine Science Research Center is the largest single-site interdisciplinary research facility of any American university.
45.
Gut flora
–
Gut flora is the complex community of microorganisms that live in the digestive tracts of humans and other animals, including insects. The gut metagenome is the aggregate of all the genomes of gut microbiota, the gut is one niche that human microbiota inhabit. In humans, the gut microbiota has the largest numbers of bacteria, the relationship between some gut flora and humans is not merely commensal, but rather a mutualistic relationship. Some human gut microorganisms benefit the host by fermenting dietary fiber into short-chain fatty acids, such as acid and butyric acid. Intestinal bacteria also play a role in synthesizing vitamin B and vitamin K as well as metabolizing bile acids, sterols, the composition of human gut flora changes over time, when the diet changes, and as overall health changes. The microbial composition of the gut flora varies across the digestive tract, in the stomach and small intestine, relatively few species of bacteria are generally present. The colon, in contrast, contains a densely-populated microbial ecosystem with up to 1012 cells per gram of intestinal content and these bacteria represent between 300 and 1000 different species. However, 99% of the come from about 30 or 40 species. As a consequence of their abundance in the intestine, bacteria also make up to 60% of the dry mass of feces, fungi, archaea, and viruses are also present in the gut flora, but less is known about their activities. Over 99% of the bacteria in the gut are anaerobes, but in the cecum and it is estimated that these gut flora have around a hundred times as many genes in total as there are in the human genome. Many species in the gut have not been studied outside of their hosts because most cannot be cultured, while there are a small number of core species of microbes shared by most individuals, populations of microbes can vary widely among different individuals. Within an individual, microbe populations stay fairly constant over time, even though some alterations may occur with changes in lifestyle, diet, the Human Microbiome Project has set out to better describe the microflora of the human gut and other body locations. The four dominant bacterial phyla in the gut are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria. Most bacteria belong to the genera Bacteroides, Clostridium, Faecalibacterium, Eubacterium, Ruminococcus, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, other genera, such as Escherichia and Lactobacillus, are present to a lesser extent. Species from the genus Bacteroides alone constitute about 30% of all bacteria in the gut, fungal genera that have been detected in the gut include Candida, Saccharomyces, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhodotorula, Trametes, Pleospora, Sclerotinia, Bullera, and Galactomyces, among others. Rhodotorula is most frequently found in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease while Candida is most frequently found in individuals with hepatitis B cirrhosis, archaea constitute another large class of gut flora which are important in the metabolism of the bacterial products of fermentation. An enterotype is a classification of living based on its bacteriological ecosystem in the human gut microbiome not dictated by age, gender, body weight. There are indications that long-term diet influences enterotype, three human enterotypes have been proposed, but these claims remain highly controversial
Gut flora
–
Escherichia coli, one of the many species of
bacteria present in the human gut
Gut flora
–
Candida albicans, a dimorphic fungus that grows as a yeast in the gut
46.
P-glycoprotein
–
More formally, it is an ATP-dependent efflux pump with broad substrate specificity. It exists in animals, fungi and bacteria and likely evolved as a mechanism against harmful substances. P-gp is a glycoprotein that in humans is encoded by the ABCB1 gene, P-gp is a well-characterized ABC-transporter of the MDR/TAP subfamily. The normal excretion of xenobiotics back into the gut lumen by P-gp pharmacokinetically reduces the efficacy of some pharmaceutical drugs, in addition, some cancer cells also express large amounts of P-gp, further amplifying that effect and rendering these cancers multidrug resistant. Many drugs inhibit P-gp, typically incidentally rather than as their mechanism of action. Any such substance can sometimes be called a P-gp inhibitor, P-gp was discovered in 1971 by Victor Ling. The protein belongs to the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette transporters, ABC proteins transport various molecules across extra- and intra-cellular membranes. ABC genes are divided into seven distinct subfamilies and this protein is a member of the MDR/TAP subfamily. Members of the MDR/TAP subfamily are involved in multidrug resistance, P-gp is an ATP-dependent drug efflux pump for xenobiotic compounds with broad substrate specificity. It is responsible for decreased drug accumulation in multidrug-resistant cells and often mediates the development of resistance to anticancer drugs and this protein also functions as a transporter in the blood–brain barrier. Thus, there is a reduced bioavailability, and therapeutic plasma concentrations are not attained and it is inhibited by many drugs, such as Amiodarone, Azithromycin, Captopril, Clarithromycin, Cyclosporine, Piperine, Quercetin, Quinidine, Quinine, Reserpine, Ritonavir, Tariquidar, and Verapamil. P-gp is a 170 kDa transmembrane glycoprotein, which includes 10-15 kDa of N-terminal glycosylation, in 2009, the first structure of a mammalian P-glycoprotein was solved. The structure was derived from the mouse MDR3 gene product heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris yeast, additional structures of P-gp were also solved revealing the binding site of two different cyclic peptide substrate/inhibitors. The promiscuous binding pocket of P-gp is lined with aromatic amino acid side chains, through Molecular Dynamic simulations, this sequence was proved to have a direct impact in the transporters structural stability and defining a lower boundary for the internal drug-binding pocket. Substrate enters P-gp either from an opening within the inner leaflet of the membrane or from an opening at the side of the protein. ATP binds at the side of the protein. Following binding of each, ATP hydrolysis shifts the substrate into a position to be excreted from the cell, release of the phosphate occurs concurrently with substrate excretion. ADP is released, and a new molecule of ATP binds to the secondary ATP-binding site, hydrolysis and release of ADP and a phosphate molecule resets the protein, so that the process can start again
P-glycoprotein
–
Crystallographic structure of the mouse MDR3 protein. The approximate positioning of the protein in the cell membrane is indicated by the blue (extracellular face) and red (cytoplasmic face) lines. The protein is depicted as a rainbow colored cartoon (
N-terminus = blue,
C-terminus = red). A cyclic peptide inhibitor QZ59 is represented by a
space-filling model.
47.
Rutgers University
–
Rutgers was chartered as Queens College on November 10,1766. It is the eighth-oldest college in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, for most of its existence, Rutgers was a private liberal arts college affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church. The college expanded its role in research and instruction in agriculture, engineering and it gained university status in 1924 with the introduction of graduate education and further expansion. However, Rutgers evolved into a public research university after being designated The State University of New Jersey by the New Jersey Legislature in laws enacted in 1945 and 1956. It is one of two colonial colleges that later became public universities. Rutgers has three campuses located throughout New Jersey, the New Brunswick campus in New Brunswick and adjacent Piscataway, the Newark campus, the university has additional facilities elsewhere in New Jersey. Instruction is offered by 9,000 faculty members in 175 academic departments to over 45,000 undergraduate students and more than 20,000 graduate, through several years of effort by the Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen and Rev. The Grammar School, today the private Rutgers Preparatory School, was a part of the community until 1959. New Brunswick was chosen as the location over Hackensack because the New Brunswick Dutch had the support of the Anglican population, despite the religious nature of the early college, the first classes were held at a tavern called the Sign of the Red Lion. When the Revolutionary War broke out and taverns were suspected by the British as being hotbeds of rebel activity, in its early years, due to a lack of funds, Queens College was closed for two extended periods. Early trustees considered merging the college with the College of New Jersey, in Princeton, in 1808, after raising $12,000, the college was temporarily reopened and broke ground on a building of its own, called Old Queens, designed by architect John McComb, Jr. The colleges third president, the Rev. Ira Condict, laid the cornerstone on April 27,1809, shortly after, the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, founded in 1784, relocated from Brooklyn, New York, to New Brunswick, and shared facilities with Queens College. During those formative years, all three institutions fit into Old Queens, in 1830, the Queens College Grammar School moved across the street, and in 1856, the Seminary relocated to a seven-acre tract less than one-half miles away. According to the Board of Trustees, Colonel Rutgers was honored because he epitomized Christian values, the Rutgers Scientific School would expand over the years to grow into the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and divide into the College of Engineering and the College of Agriculture. Rutgers created the New Jersey College for Women in 1918, with the development of graduate education, and the continued expansion of the institution, the collection of schools became Rutgers University in 1924. Rutgers College continued as an arts college within the university. Rutgers was designated the State University of New Jersey by acts of the New Jersey Legislature in 1945 and 1956, shortly after, the University of Newark was merged with Rutgers in 1946, as were the College of South Jersey and South Jersey Law School, in 1950. These two institutions became Rutgers University–Newark and Rutgers University–Camden, respectively, on September 10,1970, after much debate, the Board of Governors voted to admit women into Rutgers College
Rutgers University
–
Early 19th-century drawing of Old Queen's (1809), the oldest building on the Rutgers University campus in New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Rutgers University
–
Official
Seal of the State University
Rutgers University
–
Place on the western end of
Voorhees Mall, a
bronze statute of William the Silent commemorates the university's Dutch heritage.
Rutgers University
–
Bishop House on the College Avenue campus in New Brunswick
48.
New York Medical College
–
It is the only biomedical health sciences and research university between New York City and the state capital of Albany, New York. NYMC offers advanced degrees through its three schools, the School of Medicine, the Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences and the School of Health Sciences, total enrollment is 1,660 students in addition to 800 residents and clinical fellows. NYMC employs 1,350 full-time faculty members and 1,450 part-time, the university has more than 12,000 alumni active in medical practice, healthcare administration, public health, teaching and research. Many of NYMC’s faculty provide patient care, teach, and conduct research at WMC, Metropolitan is part of the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, the largest municipal hospital and healthcare system in the country. New York Medical College owes its founding in 1860 to a group of leaders who believed that medical studies should be practiced with a better understanding of what the patient needs. This group of leaders was led by the noted poet William Cullen Bryant who was an editor of the New York Evening Post. Bryant was concerned about the condition of hospitals and medical education in New York City and his main concern was with some of the medical practices being used to treat disease, which at the time included bleedings, purges, and the administration of strong drugs in too large doses. Interest in the field rapidly grew over the next few years due to the United States Civil War. As a result, the college was founded and opened as the Homeopathic Medical College of the State of New York on the corner of 20th Street and Third Avenue, in the first semester there were 59 students and 8 professors. The college adopted the name New York Homeopathic Medical College in 1869 and, in 1887, New York Homeopathic Medical College, the sister institution known as the New York Medical College and Hospital for Women was founded a few years later in 1863 by Clemence Lozier. In 1867, it graduated Emily Stowe, the first female physician to practice in Canada, three years later in 1870, Susan McKinney Steward graduated as the first African-American female physician in New York State. When the Womens College closed in 1918, its students transferred to New York Medical College, in 1875, Metropolitan Hospital Center opened as a municipal facility on Ward’s Island, staffed largely by the faculty of New York Medical College. As a university hospital of New York Medical College, this relationship is among the nation’s oldest continuing affiliations between a private school and a public hospital. Built by New York Medical College in 1889, the Flower Free Surgical Hospital, was the first teaching hospital in the United States to be owned by a medical college. It was constructed at York Avenue and 63rd Street with funds given largely by Congressman Roswell P. Flower, later governor of New York, in 1908 the College changed its name to New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. In 1928 the College was the first medical school in the nation to establish a minority scholarship program, by 1935, the College had transferred its outpatient activities to the Fifth Avenue Hospital at Fifth Avenue and 106th Street. The College and Fifth Avenue Hospital merged in 1938 and became New York Medical College, Flower, in 1972, New York Medical College moved to Valhalla, at the invitation of the Westchester County government, which desired to build an academic medical center. Completed in 1977, Westchester Medical Center is currently the main medical center of the College
New York Medical College
–
New York Medical College
New York Medical College
–
William Cullen Bryant Memorial in
Bryant Park adjacent to the
New York Public Library
New York Medical College
–
Sunshine Cottage Administration Building
New York Medical College
–
In addition to housing Doc's Cafe, bookstore and the Health Sciences Laboratory, the Basic Sciences Building (BSB) houses the Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences, laboratories, and portions of the School of Medicine.
49.
Harvard School of Public Health
–
The Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health is the public health graduate school of Harvard University, located in the Longwood Medical Area of Boston, Massachusetts adjacent Harvard Medical School. The Chan School is considered a preeminent school of health in the United States. She will become the first African American individual to head a Harvard faculty, as of 2015, the school is ranked second in the nation in the U. S. News & World Report. U. S. News consistently ranks Harvard #1 in Health Policy, the School traces its origins to the Harvard-MIT School for Health Officers, founded in 1913, Harvard calls it the nations first graduate training program in public health. In 1922, the School for Health Officers became the Harvard School of Public Health, and in 1946 it was split off from the medical school and became a separate faculty of Harvard University. It was renamed the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health in 2014 after receiving a $350 million donation, the largest gift in Harvards history at the time, from the Morningside Foundation. The Morningside Foundation is headed by Harvard School of Public Health alumnus Dr. Gerald Chan, SM ’75, SD ’79, the program is a cohort-based program emphasizing small-group learning and collaboration. The program is designed for three years – two years at Harvard, plus one year in a doctoral project – although some students may take up to four years to complete the program. Study, examining the factors for and prognosis of lung cancer in terms of genetics. The College Alcohol Study, which examines the causes of college binge drinking and approaches to prevention, the Program on the Global Demography of Aging, which studies policy issues related to economics of aging with a focus on the developing world. The Superfund Basic Research Program, studying toxic waste management. S, department of Health and Human Services. Steven K. Marr, MD, MPH, epidemiologist and author
Harvard School of Public Health
–
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue
Harvard School of Public Health
–
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
Harvard School of Public Health
–
HSPH Courtyard Entrance from Harvard Medical School
Harvard School of Public Health
–
History
50.
Columbia University
–
Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
Columbia University
–
The Library at Columbia University, ca. 1900
Columbia University
–
Columbia University
Columbia University
–
Low Memorial Library
Columbia University
–
Alma Mater
verify (what is 
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. PMID 23633524. doi:10.2337/dc12-2221.
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