1.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
2.
ChemSpider
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ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses
3.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list
4.
E number
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E numbers are codes for substances that are permitted to be used as food additives for use within the European Union and Switzerland. Commonly found on labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority. Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring, in 1964, the directives for preservatives were added,1970 for antioxidants and 1974 for the emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents. They are increasingly, though rarely, found on North American packaging. In some European countries, E number is used informally as a pejorative term for artificial food additives. This is incorrect, because many components of foods have E numbers, e. g. vitamin C. NB, Not all examples of a fall into the given numeric range. Moreover, many chemicals, particularly in the E400–499 range, have a variety of purposes, the list shows all components that have or had an E-number assigned. Not all additives listed are still allowed in the EU, but are listed as they used to have an E-number, for an overview of currently allowed additives see here. Includes Lists of authorised food additives Food additives database
5.
PubChem
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PubChem is a database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, a component of the National Library of Medicine, PubChem can be accessed for free through a web user interface. Millions of compound structures and descriptive datasets can be downloaded via FTP. PubChem contains substance descriptions and small molecules with fewer than 1000 atoms and 1000 bonds, more than 80 database vendors contribute to the growing PubChem database. PubChem consists of three dynamically growing primary databases, as of 28 January 2016, Compounds,82.6 million entries, contains pure and characterized chemical compounds. Substances,198 million entries, contains also mixtures, extracts, complexes, bioAssay, bioactivity results from 1.1 million high-throughput screening programs with several million values. PubChem contains its own online molecule editor with SMILES/SMARTS and InChI support that allows the import and export of all common chemical file formats to search for structures and fragments. In the text search form the database fields can be searched by adding the name in square brackets to the search term. A numeric range is represented by two separated by a colon. The search terms and field names are case-insensitive, parentheses and the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT can be used. AND is assumed if no operator is used, example,0,5000,50,10 -5,5 PubChem was released in 2004. The American Chemical Society has raised concerns about the publicly supported PubChem database and they have a strong interest in the issue since the Chemical Abstracts Service generates a large percentage of the societys revenue. To advocate their position against the PubChem database, ACS has actively lobbied the US Congress, soon after PubChems creation, the American Chemical Society lobbied U. S. Congress to restrict the operation of PubChem, which they asserted competes with their Chemical Abstracts Service
6.
International Chemical Identifier
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Initially developed by IUPAC and NIST from 2000 to 2005, the format and algorithms are non-proprietary. The continuing development of the standard has supported since 2010 by the not-for-profit InChI Trust. The current version is 1.04 and was released in September 2011, prior to 1.04, the software was freely available under the open source LGPL license, but it now uses a custom license called IUPAC-InChI Trust License. Not all layers have to be provided, for instance, the layer can be omitted if that type of information is not relevant to the particular application. InChIs can thus be seen as akin to a general and extremely formalized version of IUPAC names and they can express more information than the simpler SMILES notation and differ in that every structure has a unique InChI string, which is important in database applications. Information about the 3-dimensional coordinates of atoms is not represented in InChI, the InChI algorithm converts input structural information into a unique InChI identifier in a three-step process, normalization, canonicalization, and serialization. The InChIKey, sometimes referred to as a hashed InChI, is a fixed length condensed digital representation of the InChI that is not human-understandable. The InChIKey specification was released in September 2007 in order to facilitate web searches for chemical compounds and it should be noted that, unlike the InChI, the InChIKey is not unique, though collisions can be calculated to be very rare, they happen. In January 2009 the final 1.02 version of the InChI software was released and this provided a means to generate so called standard InChI, which does not allow for user selectable options in dealing with the stereochemistry and tautomeric layers of the InChI string. The standard InChIKey is then the hashed version of the standard InChI string, the standard InChI will simplify comparison of InChI strings and keys generated by different groups, and subsequently accessed via diverse sources such as databases and web resources. Every InChI starts with the string InChI= followed by the version number and this is followed by the letter S for standard InChIs. The remaining information is structured as a sequence of layers and sub-layers, the layers and sub-layers are separated by the delimiter / and start with a characteristic prefix letter. The six layers with important sublayers are, Main layer Chemical formula and this is the only sublayer that must occur in every InChI. The atoms in the formula are numbered in sequence, this sublayer describes which atoms are connected by bonds to which other ones. Describes how many hydrogen atoms are connected to each of the other atoms, the condensed,27 character standard InChIKey is a hashed version of the full standard InChI, designed to allow for easy web searches of chemical compounds. Most chemical structures on the Web up to 2007 have been represented as GIF files, the full InChI turned out to be too lengthy for easy searching, and therefore the InChIKey was developed. With all databases currently having below 50 million structures, such duplication appears unlikely at present, a recent study more extensively studies the collision rate finding that the experimental collision rate is in agreement with the theoretical expectations. Example, Morphine has the structure shown on the right, as the InChI cannot be reconstructed from the InChIKey, an InChIKey always needs to be linked to the original InChI to get back to the original structure
7.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
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The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES
8.
Chemical formula
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These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH
9.
Odor
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An odor or odour or fragrance is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odors are also commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors, the terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and are sometimes used to refer to perfumes, and to describe floral scent. In contrast, malodor, stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odor, the term smell is used for both pleasant and unpleasant odors. In the United Kingdom, odour refers to scents in general, the sense of smell gives rise to the perception of odors, mediated by the olfactory nerve. The olfactory receptor cells are present in the olfactory epithelium. There are millions of olfactory receptor neurons that act as sensory signaling cells, each neuron has cilia in direct contact with air. The olfactory nerve is considered the smell mediator, the axon connects the brain to the external air, odorous molecules act as a chemical stimulus. Molecules bind to receptor proteins extended from cilia, initiating an electric signal, thus, by using a chemical that binds to copper in the mouse nose, so that copper wasn’t available to the receptors, the authors showed that the mice couldnt detect the thiols. However, these also found that MOR244-3 lacks the specific metal ion binding site suggested by Suslick. When the signal reaches a threshold, the fires, sending a signal traveling along the axon to the olfactory bulb. Interpretation of the begins, relating the smell to past experiences. The olfactory bulb acts as a station connecting the nose to the olfactory cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is processed and projected through a pathway to the central nervous system. Odor sensation usually depends on the concentration available to the olfactory receptors, the olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix, not necessarily corresponding to concentration or intensity of any single constituent. The widest range of odors consists of compounds, although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide. The perception of an effect is a two-step process. First, there is the part, the detection of stimuli by receptors in the nose. The stimuli are processed by the region of the brain which is responsible for olfaction
10.
Density
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The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
11.
Melting point
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The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium, the melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the change from liquid to solid. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal, for example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins. However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures, for example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C, such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is close to 0 °C. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, the chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K, this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points, a Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient. Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point, differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window, the several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated and with the aid of the melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, the measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected, for refractory materials the extremely high melting point may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees, the spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature, in this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer, for temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed
12.
Aqueous solution
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An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is usually shown in chemical equations by appending to the relevant chemical formula, for example, a solution of table salt, or sodium chloride, in water would be represented as Na+ + Cl−. The word aqueous means pertaining to, related to, similar to, as water is an excellent solvent and is also naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry. Substances that are hydrophobic often do not dissolve well in water, an example of a hydrophilic substance is sodium chloride. Acids and bases are aqueous solutions, as part of their Arrhenius definitions, the ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether the substance can match or exceed the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate between themselves. If the substance lacks the ability to dissolve in water the molecules form a precipitate, reactions in aqueous solutions are usually metathesis reactions. Metathesis reactions are another term for double-displacement, that is, when a cation displaces to form a bond with the other anion. The cation bonded with the latter anion will dissociate and bond with the other anion, aqueous solutions that conduct electric current efficiently contain strong electrolytes, while ones that conduct poorly are considered to have weak electrolytes. Those strong electrolytes are substances that are ionized in water. Nonelectrolytes are substances that dissolve in water yet maintain their molecular integrity, examples include sugar, urea, glycerol, and methylsulfonylmethane. When writing the equations of reactions, it is essential to determine the precipitate. To determine the precipitate, one must consult a chart of solubility, soluble compounds are aqueous, while insoluble compounds are the precipitate. Remember that there may not always be a precipitate, when performing calculations regarding the reacting of one or more aqueous solutions, in general one must know the concentration, or molarity, of the aqueous solutions. Solution concentration is given in terms of the form of the prior to it dissolving. Metal ions in aqueous solution Solubility Dissociation Acid-base reaction theories Properties of water Zumdahl S.1997, 4th ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company
13.
Acid dissociation constant
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An acid dissociation constant, Ka, is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the constant for a chemical reaction known as dissociation in the context of acid–base reactions. In the example shown in the figure, HA represents acetic acid, and A− represents the acetate ion, the chemical species HA, A− and H3O+ are said to be in equilibrium when their concentrations do not change with the passing of time. The definition can then be more simply H A ⇌ A − + H +, K a = This is the definition in common usage. A weak acid has a pKa value in the approximate range −2 to 12 in water, pKa values for strong acids can, however, be estimated by theoretical means. The definition can be extended to non-aqueous solvents, such as acetonitrile and dimethylsulfoxide. Denoting a solvent molecule by S H A + S ⇌ A − + S H +, K a = When the concentration of solvent molecules can be taken to be constant, K a =, as before. The value of pKa also depends on structure of the acid in many ways. For example, Pauling proposed two rules, one for successive pKa of polyprotic acids, and one to estimate the pKa of oxyacids based on the number of =O and −OH groups. Other structural factors that influence the magnitude of the dissociation constant include inductive effects, mesomeric effects. Hammett type equations have frequently applied to the estimation of pKa. The quantitative behaviour of acids and bases in solution can be only if their pKa values are known. These calculations find application in different areas of chemistry, biology, medicine. Acid dissociation constants are essential in aquatic chemistry and chemical oceanography. In living organisms, acid–base homeostasis and enzyme kinetics are dependent on the pKa values of the acids and bases present in the cell. According to Arrheniuss original definition, an acid is a substance that dissociates in solution, releasing the hydrogen ion H+. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is known as a dissociation constant. Brønsted and Lowry generalised this further to an exchange reaction
14.
Sugar substitute
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A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
15.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
16.
Sweetness
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Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are universally regarded as an experience, except perhaps in excess. Fructose is sweeter than glucose and sucrose and this has made possible the production of sugar syrups with the sweetness and certain other properties of sucrose starting from starch. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and asapartame, other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself. The chemosensory basis for detecting sweetness, which varies between individuals and species, has only begun to be understood since the late 20th century. One theoretical model of sweetness is the multipoint attachment theory, which involves multiple binding sites between a receptor and a sweet substance. Studies indicate that responsiveness to sugars and sweetness has very ancient evolutionary beginnings, newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than lactose, the sugar found in breast milk. Sweetness appears to have the highest taste recognition threshold, being detectable at around 1 part in 200 of sucrose in solution, by comparison, bitterness appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. Even amongst leaf-eating primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, the sweet tooth thus has an ancient evolutionary heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged. A great diversity of compounds, such as aldehydes and ketones are sweet. Among common biological substances, all of the carbohydrates are sweet to at least some degree. Sucrose is the example of a sweet substance. Sucrose in solution has a sweetness perception rating of 1, for example, another sugar, fructose, is somewhat sweeter, being rated at 1.7 times the sweetness of sucrose. Some of the acids are mildly sweet, alanine, glycine. Some other amino acids are perceived as sweet and bitter. A number of plant species produce glycosides that are sweet at concentrations lower than sugar
17.
Sucrose
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Sucrose is a common saccharide found in many plants and plant parts. Saccharose is a term for sugars in general, especially sucrose. The molecule is a combination of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose with the formula C12H22O11. Sucrose is often extracted and refined from either sugarcane or beet sugar for human consumption, modern industrial sugar refinement processes often involve bleaching and crystallization, producing a white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste of pure sucrose. This refined form of sucrose is commonly referred to as sugar or just sugar. It plays a role as an additive in food production all over the world. About 175 million metric tons of sucrose were produced worldwide in 2013, the term sucrose was first used in 1857 by English chemist William Miller from the French sucre and the generic chemical suffix for sugars -ose. The abbreviated term Suc is often used for sucrose in scientific literature, in sucrose, the components glucose and fructose are linked via an acetal bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic linkage, glucose exists predominantly as two isomeric pyranoses, but only one of these forms links to the fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of furanoses, each of which having α and β isomers and this linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose crystallizes in the space group P21 with room-temperature lattice parameters a =1.08631 nm, b =0.87044 nm, c =0.77624 nm. The purity of sucrose is measured by polarimetry, through the rotation of plane-polarized light by a solution of sugar, the specific rotation at 20 °C using yellow sodium-D light is +66. 47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter, Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions. The formula for sucrose decomposition can be represented as a 2 step reaction, C12H22O11 + heat → 12C + 11H2O 12C + 12O2 → 12CO2 Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes—at 186 °C —to form caramel, like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors. C12H22O11 +6 KNO3 →9 CO +3 N2 +11 H2O +3 K2CO3 This reaction is somewhat simplified though, some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the water-gas shift reaction also take place
18.
Aspartame
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Aspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as E951, aspartame is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. It was first sold under the brand name NutraSweet and it was first synthesized in 1965, and the patent expired in 1992. S. Food and Drug Administration in 1981, however, because its breakdown products include phenylalanine, aspartame must be avoided by people with the genetic condition phenylketonuria. Aspartame is an ester of the dipeptide of the natural amino acids L-aspartic acid. Under strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, aspartame may generate methanol by hydrolysis, under more severe conditions, the peptide bonds are also hydrolyzed, resulting in free amino acids. While known aspects of synthesis are covered by patents, many details are proprietary, two approaches to synthesis are used commercially. Phenylalanine is converted to its methyl ester and combined with the N-protected aspartic anhydride, the drawback of this technique is that a byproduct, the bitter-tasting β-form, is produced when the wrong carboxyl group from aspartic acid links to phenylalanine. A process using an enzyme from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus to catalyze the condensation of the chemically altered amino acids will produce high yields without the β-form byproduct, a variant of this method, which has not been used commercially, uses unmodified aspartic acid, but produces low yields. Methods for directly producing aspartyl-phenylalanine by enzymatic means, followed by methylation, have also been tried. The perceived sweetness of aspartame in humans is due to its binding of the heterodimer G-protein coupled receptor formed by the proteins TAS1R2, aspartame is approximately 200 times sweeter than sucrose. The sweetness of aspartame lasts longer than that of sucrose, so it is blended with other artificial sweeteners such as acesulfame potassium to produce an overall taste more like that of sugar. Like many other peptides, aspartame may hydrolyze into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature or high pH and this makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener, and prone to degradation in products hosting a high pH, as required for a long shelf life. The stability of aspartame under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in fats or in maltodextrin, the stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on pH. At room temperature, it is most stable at pH4.3, at pH7, however, its half-life is only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable, in products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for fountain beverages, aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as saccharin. Aspartames major decomposition products are its cyclic dipeptide, the de-esterified dipeptide, and its constituent components, phenylalanine, aspartic acid, at 180 °C, aspartame undergoes decomposition to form a diketopiperazine derivative. In products such as powdered beverages, the amine in aspartame can undergo a Maillard reaction with the aldehyde groups present in certain aroma compounds, the ensuing loss of both flavor and sweetness can be prevented by protecting the aldehyde as an acetal
19.
Acesulfame potassium
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Acesulfame potassium, also known as acesulfame K or Ace K, is a calorie-free sugar substitute often marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number E950 and it was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst AG. In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the salt of 6-methyl-1,2, 3-oxathiazine-4-one 2. It is a crystalline powder with molecular formula C 4H 4KNO 4S. Acesulfame K is 200 times sweeter than sucrose, as sweet as aspartame, about two-thirds as sweet as saccharin, like saccharin, it has a slightly bitter aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. Kraft Foods patented the use of sodium ferulate to mask acesulfames aftertaste, acesulfame K is often blended with other sweeteners. These blends are reputed to give a more sucrose-like taste whereby each sweetener masks the others aftertaste, acesulfame potassium has a smaller particle size than sucrose, allowing for its mixtures with other sweeteners to be more uniform. Although acesulfame potassium has a shelf life, it can eventually degrade to acetoacetamide. In carbonated drinks, it is almost always used in conjunction with another sweetener and it is also used as a sweetener in protein shakes and pharmaceutical products, especially chewable and liquid medications, where it can make the active ingredients more palatable. The acceptable daily intake of potassium is listed as 15 mg/kg/day. Acesulfame potassium as well as other sugar substituents were intercalated into some layered double hydroxide hosts by ion exchange, characterization tests have shown that there is complete intercalation of the anions into the LDH hosts. In acesulfame K, the absorption at 1290 cm^-1 is found in the product at 1314 cm^-1. Since this absorption corresponds to the S-O double bond, it means that the bonds interact strongly with the metal hydroxide layers thus an orientation of the molecules is possible. Acesulfame potassium is one of the sweeteners that aids patients with type 1 diabetes. It provides a sweet taste without affecting glycaemic responses and without the high content of caloric sugars. Some studies, however, discovered that the consumption of non-nutritive sweeteners has led to weight gain thus increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes, through a Maximal Electroshock Seizure test, non-nutritive sweeteners including acesulfame potassium were labeled as anticonvulsants. This means that there is an association between the structure of the receptor that triggers the sweet sensation and the structure of the targets of antiepileptic drugs. It was also discovered that these non-nutritive sweeteners’ anticonvulsant activity is caused by modulation of brain mGlu, acesulfame potassium is widely used in the human diet and excreted by the kidneys
20.
Saccharin
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With effectively no food energy that is about 300–400 times as sweet as sucrose but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. It is used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, cookies, medicines, Saccharin derives its name from the word saccharine, meaning sugary. The word saccharine is used figuratively, often in a derogative sense, both words are derived from the Greek word σάκχαρον meaning gravel. It does not react chemically with other ingredients, as such. Blends of saccharin with other sweeteners are used to compensate for each sweeteners weaknesses. A10,1 cyclamate, saccharin blend is common in countries where both these sweeteners are legal, in this blend, each sweetener masks the others off taste. Saccharin is often used with aspartame in diet carbonated soft drinks, in its acid form, saccharin is not water-soluble. The form used as a sweetener is usually its sodium salt. The calcium salt is sometimes used, especially by people restricting their dietary sodium intake. Both salts are highly water-soluble,0.67 g/ml water at room temperature, in the 1970s, studies performed on laboratory rats found an association between consumption of high doses of saccharin and the development of bladder cancer. However, further study determined that this effect was due to a mechanism that is not relevant to humans, epidemiological studies have shown no evidence that saccharin is associated with bladder cancer in humans. The International Agency for Research on Cancer originally classified saccharin in Group 2B based on the rat studies, Saccharin has no food energy and no nutritional value. It is safe to consume for individuals with diabetes, Saccharin was produced first in 1879, by Constantin Fahlberg, a chemist working on coal tar derivatives in Ira Remsens laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University. Fahlberg noticed a sweet taste on his hand one evening, Fahlberg and Remsen published articles on benzoic sulfimide in 1879 and 1880. In 1884, then working on his own in New York City, Fahlberg applied for patents in several countries, two years later, he began production of the substance in a factory in a suburb of Magdeburg, Germany. Fahlberg would soon grow wealthy, while Remsen merely grew irritated, on the matter, Remsen commented, Fahlberg is a scoundrel. It nauseates me to hear my name mentioned in the breath with him. Although saccharin was commercialized not long after its discovery, until sugar shortages during World War I and its popularity further increased during the 1960s and 1970s among dieters, since saccharin is a calorie-free sweetener
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PH
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In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
22.
Splenda
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It is available in both granular and dissolvable tablet forms. Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, Tate & Lyle subsequently developed sucralose-based Splenda products in partnership with Johnson & Johnson subsidiary McNeil Nutritionals, LLC. The Splenda brand was transferred to Heartland Food Products Group after their purchase of the line with investor Centerbridge Partners in 2015. Since its approval by the United States government in 1998 and introduction there in 1999, sucralose has overtaken Equal in the $1. 5-billion artificial sweetener market, holding a 62% market share. According to market research firm IRI, Splenda sales were $212 million in 2006 in the U. S. while Equals totaled $48.7 million, according to a 2012 article in The New Zealand Herald it is the category leader in table-top sweetener in the US. Sucralose has no content, and Splenda products have a lower caloric content than sugar. The actual energy content of a single-serving of Splenda is 3.36 kcal, 31% of those of a single-serving of granulated sugar. In the United States, it is legally labelled zero calories, U. S. FDA regulations allow this if the food contains less than 5 Calories per reference amount customarily consumed, like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have 3.75 kcal per gram. In product testing by Cooks Illustrated, the drawback to cooking with Splenda was found to be that it does not produce the browning or caramelization the way table sugar does. However, Cooks Illustrated also found that desserts baked with Splenda were lacking the artificial flavors that just about every other sugar substitute brings with it, Splenda usually contains 95% dextrose and maltodextrin which the body readily metabolizes, combined with a small amount of mostly indigestible sucralose. Sucralose is made by replacing three select hydrogen-oxygen groups on sucrose molecules with three chlorine atoms, the tightly bound chlorine atoms create a molecular structure that is stable under intense conditions. Sucralose itself is recognized as safe to ingest as a sugar substitute. The recommended amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 mg/kg BW/day. These effects have not been reported in humans, the other ingredients in Splenda—dextrose and maltodextrin—are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption. Sucralose may not be biologically inert, and a study showed that cooking with sucralose at high temperatures could cause it to degrade into potentially toxic compounds. However, only a small amount is metabolized by the body, on average. McNeil argued during the trial that it had never deceived consumers or set out to deceive them, Merisant asked that McNeil be ordered to surrender profits and modify its advertising. The case ended with an agreement reached outside of court, with undisclosed settlement conditions, the lawsuit was the latest move in a long-simmering dispute
23.
Canderel
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Canderel is a brand of artificial sweetener made mainly from aspartame. Canderel is marketed by The Merisant Company, a corporation with headquarters in Chicago, Illinois, also Switzerland, Mexico, United Kingdom. Canderel was first marketed in France in 1979, the name Canderel is a combination of candi and airelles - the French word for bilberries. Canderel granular ingredients, maltodextrin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, flavouring, Canderel tablets ingredients, lactose, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, leucine, cross-linked CMC, flavouring. Canderel is said to be interchangeable with sugar in a 1 to 10 mass ratio, Canderel - sold in Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Africa, and Mexico. It is the leading aspartame-based sweetener in France and the United Kingdom, equal - first sold in the United States in 1982, this brand is also sold in Australia and India. EqualSweet - sold in Argentina NutraSweet - used as an ingredient in processed foods, drinks and tablets. Aspartame Aspartame controversy Sugar substitute Canderel official web site
24.
Maltodextrin
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Maltodextrin is a polysaccharide that is used as a food additive. It is produced from starch by partial hydrolysis and is found as a white hygroscopic spray-dried powder. Maltodextrin is easily digestible, being absorbed as rapidly as glucose and it is commonly used for the production of soft drinks and candy. It can also be found as an ingredient in a variety of processed foods. Maltodextrin consists of D-glucose units connected in chains of variable length, the glucose units are primarily linked with α glycosidic bonds. Maltodextrin is typically composed of a mixture of chains that vary from three to 17 glucose units long, maltodextrins are classified by DE and have a DE between 3 and 20. Maltodextrin can be derived from any starch. In the US, this starch is usually corn, in Europe, some individuals suffering from gluten-related disorders may be concerned by the presence of wheat derived maltodextrin but it is highly unlikely to contain significant amounts of gluten. Maltodextrin derived from wheat is exempt from labeling, as set out in Annex II of EC Directive No 1169/2011, Maltodextrin is sometimes used in beer brewing to increase the specific gravity of the final product. This improves the mouthfeel of the beer, increases head retention, Maltodextrin is not fermented by yeast, so it does not increase the alcohol content of the brew. It is also used in some such as potato chips. It is used in light peanut butter to reduce the fat content, Maltodextrin is also sometimes taken as a supplement by bodybuilders and other athletes in powder form or in gel packets. Maltodextrin is used as an additive to thicken food products such as infant formula. It is also used as a filler in sugar substitutes and other products, Maltodextrin has a glycemic index ranging from 85 to 105. Icodextrin Maltose Maltotriose Maltodextrin entry on Grokfood. com
25.
High-fructose corn syrup
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High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose. HFCS was first marketed in the early 1970s by the Clinton Corn Processing Company, together with the Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and Technology where the enzyme was discovered in 1965. As a sweetener, HFCS is often compared to granulated sugar, uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have continued to grow over the early 21st Century. Consuming added sugars, particularly as sweetened soft drinks, is linked to weight gain. In the U. S. HFCS is among the sweeteners that mostly replaced sucrose in the food industry, the relative sweetness of HFCS55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS is the ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup. Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to stretch honey, assays to detect adulteration with HFCS use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods. In apiculture in the United States, HFCS is a substitute for some managed honey bee colonies during times when nectar is in low supply. However, when HFCS is heated to about 45 °C, hydroxymethylfurfural, although some researchers cite honey substitution with HFCS as one factor among many for colony collapse disorder, there is no evidence that HFCS is a solitary cause. Further, compared to honey, HFCS may be a deficiency in the diet for developing genes associated with protein metabolism. In the contemporary process, corn is milled to extract corn starch and it is necessary to carry out the extraction process in the presence of mercuric chloride in order to inhibit endogenous starch-degrading enzymes. High-temperature enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the sugars to fructose. The first enzyme added is alpha-amylase, which breaks the long chains down into shorter sugar chains – oligosaccharides, glucoamylase is mixed in and converts them to glucose, the resulting solution is filtered to remove protein, then using activated carbon, and then demineralized using ion-exchange resins. Some is processed into HFCS90 by liquid chromatography, then mixed with HFCS42 to form HFCS55, the enzymes used in the process are made by microbial fermentation. HFCS is 24% water, the rest being mainly fructose and glucose with 0–5% unprocessed glucose oligomers, there are several varieties of HFCS, numbered by the percentage of fructose they contain, HFCS42 is used in beverages, processed foods, cereals, and baked goods. HFCS55 is mostly used in soft drinks, HFCS65 is used in soft drinks dispensed by Coca-Cola Freestyle machines. HFCS90 has some niche uses but is mixed with HFCS42 to make HFCS55. Commercial production of corn syrup began in 1864, in the late 1950s, scientists at Clinton Corn Processing Company of Clinton, Iowa tried to turn glucose from corn starch into fructose, but the process was not scalable
26.
Candy
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Candy, also called sweets or lollies, is a confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, called sugar confectionery, encompasses any sweet confection, including chocolate, chewing gum, vegetables, fruit, or nuts which have been glazed and coated with sugar are said to be candied. Physically, candy is characterized by the use of a significant amount of sugar or sugar substitutes, unlike a cake or loaf of bread that would be shared among many people, candies are usually made in smaller pieces. However, the definition of candy also depends upon how people treat the food, unlike sweet pastries served for a dessert course at the end of a meal, candies are normally eaten casually, often with the fingers, as a snack between meals. Each culture has its own ideas of what constitutes candy rather than dessert, the same food may be a candy in one culture and a dessert in another. Candy is a food product. Sugar candies include hard candies, soft candies, caramels, marshmallows, taffy, commercially, sugar candies are often divided into groups according to the amount of sugar they contain and their chemical structure. Comparison of sugar candies Chocolate is sometimes treated as a branch of confectionery. In this model, chocolate candies like chocolate candy bars and chocolate truffles are included, hot chocolate or other cocoa-based drinks are excluded, as is candy made from white chocolate. Comparison of chocolate types Candies can be classified into noncrystalline and crystalline types, noncrystalline candies are homogeneous and may be chewy or hard, they include hard candies, caramels, toffees, and nougats. Crystalline candies incorporate small crystals in their structure, are creamy that melt in the mouth or are easily chewed, they include fondant and fudge. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and they adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word Sharkara. Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as Khanda, before sugar was readily available, candy was based on honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Middle East, Egypt, Greece, Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of garnish. Before the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, in the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices, digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of candies at banquets for their guests, one of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar
27.
Soft drink
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A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
28.
Corn syrup
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Corn syrup is a food syrup which is made from the starch of corn and contains varying amounts of maltose and higher oligosaccharides, depending on the grade. Corn syrup, also known as glucose syrup to confectioners, is used in foods to soften texture, add volume, prevent crystallization of sugar, and enhance flavor. The more general term glucose syrup is used synonymously with corn syrup. Historically, corn syrup was produced by combining corn starch with dilute hydrochloric acid, the process was invented by the Russian chemist Gottlieb Kirchhoff in 1812. Currently, corn syrup is obtained through a multi-step bioprocess, first, the enzyme α-amylase is added to a mixture of corn starch and water. α-amylase is secreted by various species of the bacterium Bacillus and the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the bacteria were grown, the enzyme breaks down the starch into oligosaccharides, which are then broken into glucose molecules by adding the enzyme glucoamylase, known also as γ-amylase. Glucoamylase is secreted by various species of the fungus Aspergillus, the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the fungus is grown, Corn syrup is produced from number 2 yellow dent corn. When wet milled, about 2.3 litres of corn are required to yield an average of 947g of starch, a bushel of corn will yield an average of 31.5 pounds of starch, which in turn will yield about 33.3 pounds of syrup. Thus, it takes about 2,300 litres of corn to produce a tonne of glucose syrup, the viscosity and sweetness of the syrup depends on the extent to which the hydrolysis reaction has been carried out. To distinguish different grades of syrup, they are rated according to their dextrose equivalent, most commercially available corn syrups are approximately 1/3 glucose by weight. Two common commercial corn syrup products are light and dark corn syrup, light corn syrup is corn syrup seasoned with vanilla flavor and salt. )Light corn syrup is clear and tastes moderately sweet. Dark corn syrup is a combination of syrup and molasses, caramel color and flavor, salt. Dark corn syrup is a brown color and tastes much stronger than light corn syrup. Molasses in dark corn syrup enhances its flavor and color and this product is very useful in grade school science projects like the seven layers density column. Corn syrups major uses in commercially prepared foods are as a thickener, Corn syrup is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup, as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup. Glucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States prior to the use of high fructose corn syrup production. HFCS is a variant in which enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble, Corn syrup is also available as a retail product
29.
Sodium cyclamate
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Sodium cyclamate is an artificial sweetener. It is 30–50 times sweeter than sucrose, making it the least potent of the commercially used artificial sweeteners and it is often used with other artificial sweeteners, especially saccharin, the mixture of 10 parts cyclamate to 1 part saccharin is common and masks the off-tastes of both sweeteners. It is less expensive than most sweeteners, including sucralose, and is stable under heating, cyclamate is the sodium or calcium salt of cyclamic acid, which itself is prepared by the sulfonation of cyclohexylamine. This can be accomplished by reacting cyclohexylamine with either acid or sulfur trioxide. Cyclamate was discovered in 1937 at the University of Illinois by graduate student Michael Sveda, Sveda was working in the lab on the synthesis of anti-fever medication. He put his cigarette down on the lab bench, and, the patent for cyclamate was purchased by DuPont but later sold to Abbott Laboratories, which undertook the necessary studies and submitted a New Drug Application in 1950. Abbott intended to use cyclamate to mask the bitterness of certain drugs such as antibiotics, in 1958, it was designated GRAS by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Cyclamate was marketed in tablet form for use by diabetics as a tabletop sweetener. As cyclamate is stable to heat, it was and is marketed as suitable for use in cooking and baking, in 1966, a study reported that some intestinal bacteria could desulfonate cyclamate to produce cyclohexylamine, a compound suspected to have some chronic toxicity in animals. Further research resulted in a 1969 study that found the common 10,1 cyclamate, the released study was showing that eight out of 240 rats fed a mixture of saccharin and cyclamates, at levels of humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day, developed bladder tumors. Sales continued to expand, and in 1969, annual sales of cyclamate had reached $1 billion and this petition was eventually denied in 1980 by FDA Commissioner Jere Goyan. Abbott Labs, together with the Calorie Control Council, filed a petition in 1982. Although the FDA has stated that a review of all available evidence does not implicate cyclamate as a carcinogen in mice or rats, the petition is now held in abeyance, though not actively considered. It is unclear whether this is at the request of Abbott Labs or because the petition is considered to be insufficient by the FDA. Two of the monkeys and one of the lower-dosed monkeys were found to have malignant cancer, each with a different kind of cancer. The authors concluded that the failed to demonstrate that cyclamate was carcinogenic because the cancers were all different. The substance did not show any DNA-damaging properties in DNA repair assays, cyclamate is approved as a sweetener in at least 130 countries. In the late 1960s cyclamate was banned in the United Kingdom but was approved after being re-evaluated by the European Union in 1996, in the Philippines cyclamate was banned until the Philippine Food and Drug Administration lifted the ban in 2013, declaring it safe for consumption
30.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
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Hygroscopy
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Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the absorbing or adsorbing substance becoming physically changed somewhat. Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb, not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10 Vol-% or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to damp and cakey when exposed to moist air. Because of their affinity for moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the purpose of maintaining moisture content. Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the side and increases in area. This is similar to the function of a thermostats bi-metallic strip, inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence, the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water, deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, the similar-sounding but unrelated word hydroscopic is sometimes used in error for hygroscopic. A hydroscope is a device used for making observations deep under water. The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals. Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials, some plastics are hygroscopic while others are not. The seeds of grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity. An example is Needle-and-Thread, Hesperostipa comata, each seed has an awn that twists several turns when the seed is released. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, and, upon drying, to twist again, thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin
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. PMID 28716847.
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