1.
New England town
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The New England town is the basic unit of local government and local division of state authority in each of the six New England states. Without a direct counterpart in most other U. S, New England towns are often governed by a town meeting legislative body. County government in New England states is typically weak at best, Connecticut, for example, has no county governments, nor does Rhode Island. Both of those states retain counties only as geographic subdivisions with no governmental authority, with few exceptions, counties serve mostly as dividing lines for the states judicial systems. Towns are laid out so that all land within the boundaries of a state is allocated to a town or other corporate municipality. Except in some sparsely populated areas of the three northern New England states, all land is incorporated into the bounds of a municipal corporations territory. Towns are municipal corporations, with their powers defined by a combination of municipal charter, state statutes. In most of New England, the laws regarding their authority have historically been very broadly construed. In practice, most New England towns have significant autonomy in managing their own affairs, New Hampshire and Vermont follow Dillons Rule, which holds that local governments are largely creatures of the state. Traditionally, a legislative body is the open town meeting. Only several Swiss cantons with Landsgemeinde remain as democratic as the small New England town meetings, a town almost always contains a built-up populated place with the same name as the town. Additional built-up places with different names are found within towns, along with a mixture of additional urban. There is no territory that is not part of a town between each town, leaving one town means entering another town or other municipality, in most parts of New England, towns are irregular in shape and size and are not laid out on a grid. The town center contains a town common, often used today as a small park. In Connecticut, Rhode Island and most of Massachusetts, county government has been completely abolished, in other areas, some counties provide judicial and other limited administrative services. In many cases, the numbers on rural roads in New England reset to zero upon crossing a town line. Residents usually identify with their town for purposes of identity, thinking of the town in its entirety as a single. There are some cases where residents identify more strongly with villages or sections of a town than with the town itself, particularly in Rhode Island, more than 90% of the municipalities in the six New England states are towns
2.
Hartford County, Connecticut
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Hartford County is a county located in the north central part of the U. S. state of Connecticut. As of the 2010 census, the population was 894,014, Hartford County is included in the Hartford-West Hartford-East Hartford, CT Metropolitan Statistical Area. In Connecticut there is no executive or legislative government, the counties determine probate, civil and criminal court boundaries. Each city or town is responsible for services such as schools, snow removal, sewers, fire department. In Connecticut, cities and towns may agree to provide services or establish a regional school system. Hartford County was one of four counties in Connecticut established on May 10,1666. And it is ordered that the County Court shalbe kept at Hartford on the 1st Thursday in March, as established in 1666, Hartford County consisted of the towns of Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford, Farmington, and Middletown. The Thirty Miles Island referred to in the constituting Act was incorporated as the town of Haddam in 1668, in 1670, the town of Simsbury was established, extending Hartford County to the Massachusetts border. In 1714, all of the territory north of the towns of Coventry. Windham County was constituted in 1726, resulting in Hartford County losing the towns of Windham, Coventry, Mansfield, northwestern Connecticut, which was originally placed under the jurisdiction of New Haven County in 1722, was transferred to Hartford County by 1738. All of northwestern Connecticut was later constituted as the new Litchfield County in 1751, in 1785, two more counties were established in what was now the U. S. state of Connecticut, Tolland and Middlesex. This mostly resulted in the extent of Hartford County. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the establishment of several more towns resulted in minor adjustments in the bounds of the county, the final adjustment resulting in the modern limits occurred on May 8,1806, when the town of Canton was established. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 751 square miles. It is the second-largest county in Connecticut by land area, the county is divided into two unequal parts by the Connecticut River, and watered by Farmington, Mill, Podunk, Scantic, and other rivers. The surface is very diverse, part of the valleys are alluvial and subject to flooding, while other portions of the county are hilly. The population density was 1,166 people per square mile, there were 353,022 housing units at an average density of 480 per square mile. 11. 55% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,15. 2% were of Italian,11. 2% Irish,9. 1% Polish,6. 5% English,5. 7% French and 5. 3% German ancestry
3.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
7.
New England city and town area
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A New England city and town area is a geographic and statistical entity defined by the U. S. federal government for use in the six-state New England region of the United States. NECTAs are classified as metropolitan or micropolitan NECTAs. A micropolitan NECTA has a core with a population of at least 10,000 but less than 50,000. In New England, towns are a more important level of government than counties. Because towns are smaller than counties, a NECTA usually provides a closer approximation to the real metropolitan area than a metropolitan statistical area does. Large NECTAs may be subdivided into smaller groupings known as NECTA Divisions, adjacent NECTAs that have a high degree of employment interchange may also be combined to form Combined NECTAS. NECTAs that are part of a CNECTA retain their separate identities, the following is a list of metropolitan and micropolitan NECTAs as defined by the Office of Management and Budget. Definitions are as of February 2013
8.
Board of selectmen
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The board of selectmen is commonly the executive arm of the government of New England towns in the United States. The board typically consists of three or five members, with or without staggered terms, three is the most common number, historically. In most New England towns, the voting population gathered annually in a town meeting to act as the local legislature, approving budgets. However, the towns grew, the more power would be distributed among other elected boards, such as fire wardens. For example, population increases led to the need for police departments. The advent of tarred roads and automobile traffic led to a need for full-time highway maintainers and plowmen, leaving selectmen to serve as Supervisors of Streets and Ways. The function of the board of selectmen differs from state to state, Selectmen almost always serve part-time, with a token or no salary. It is the executive branch of local government in the open town meeting form of government. In larger towns, the daily administrative duties are delegated to a full-time town administrator or town manager. In some towns, the board of selectmen acts more like a city council, sometimes this is a part-time position, with larger towns hiring a full-time town administrator, who answers to the first selectman. In some towns and cities, the first selectman exercises some of the powers associated with mayors. In Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the presiding selectman is usually called the chairman and is chosen annually by his or her fellow selectmen, in New Hampshire cities, a selectman is an elected position that is responsible for organizing elections for local, state, and federal offices. Three selectmen, a moderator, and a clerk are elected in each city ward, a rare use of the term outside of New England is in Georgetown, Colorado, where the town governing body is called the Board of Selectmen. Local government in counties, towns, and villages, Chap, Town Structure and Urban Concepts in New England, The Professional Geographer 16,1. New England town law, a digest of statutes and decisions concerning towns and town officers, New Englands gift to the nation—the township. The origin, organization, and influence of the towns of New England, the Connecticut town-officer, Part I, The powers and duties of towns, as set forth in the statutes of Connecticut, which are recited, pp. 7–97 Zimmerman, Joseph F. The New England Town Meeting, Democracy in Action Praeger Publishers,1999
9.
Eastern Standard Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
10.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
11.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
12.
Eastern Daylight Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
13.
Area code 860
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Area code 860 is a telephone area code, overlaid by area code 959, that covers most of Connecticut, except its southwest, which uses area codes 203 and 475. Area code 959 was originally announced in August 1999, to overlay area code 860 when the 860 code nears exhaustion, starting in August 2014. Effective November 14,2009, all calls within Connecticut must be dialed with 10 digits beginning with the area code, use of 860 became mandatory October 4,1996. This proposal was postponed for nearly a due to number conservation measures, in September 2008. In March 2009, it was announced that the 203/475 overlay would be activated on December 12,2009, on August 27,2013, NANPA issued Planning Letter 456 which states that the 959 area code would go into effect on August 30,2014. NANPA Area Code Map of Connecticut List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,860 Area Code Regulators Have Area Code Plan—1999 news story on planned overlay
14.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
15.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
16.
Connecticut River Valley
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The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States. Flowing roughly southward for 406.12 miles through four U. S. states, the Connecticut rises at the U. S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges at Long Island Sound. Its watershed encompasses five U. S. states and one Canadian province –11,260 square miles – via 148 tributaries,38 of which are major rivers, discharging at 19,600 cubic feet per second, the Connecticut produces 70% of Long Island Sounds fresh water. The word Connecticut is a French corruption of the Mohegan word quinetucket, the word Connecticut came into existence during the early 1600s, describing the river, which was also called simply The Great River. Prior to Dutch exploration beginning in 1614, numerous native tribes lived throughout the fertile Connecticut River valley, information concerning how these tribes lived and interacted stems mostly from English accounts written during the 1630s. In the southernmost region of the Connecticut River valley, the Pequots dominated a territory stretching roughly from the rivers mouth northward to just below the Big Bend. Occasionally, these villages endured invasions from more aggressive confederated tribes living in modern-day New York, such as the Mohawk, Mahican and Iroquois tribes. In the northernmost reaches of the Connecticut River Valley, the Western Abenaki tribe lived in the Green Mountains region of Vermont and they later merged with members of other Algonquin tribes displaced by the wars and famines that accompanied the European settling of the Connecticut River Valley. In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block became the first European explorer to chart the Connecticut River, in charting the Connecticut, Bloeck called it the Fresh River, and claimed it for the Netherlands as the northeastern border of the New Netherland colony. In 1623, Dutch traders constructed a trading post at the site of modern Hartford, Connecticut. Less than a later, four separate Puritan-led groups settled the fertile Connecticut River Valley. In the process, they founded the two cities that continue to dominate the Connecticut River Valley today – Hartford and Springfield. In 1633, a left the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Watertown. With this in mind, they founded Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1633 – several miles south of the Dutch fort at modern Hartford, shortly after Hookers arrival, Newtowne annexed Matianuck, based on laws supposedly articulated in Connecticuts settlement charter, the Warwick Patent of 1631. The patent, however, had been physically lost, and the annexation was almost certainly illegal, the fourth English settlement along the Connecticut came out of a 1635 scouting party commissioned by William Pynchon. Of these settlements, Hartford and Springfield quickly emerged as powers, in 1641, Springfield splintered off from the Hartford-based Connecticut Colony, instead allying itself with the Boston-based Massachusetts Bay Colony. For decades, Springfield remained the Massachusetts Bay Colonys westernmost settlement, by 1654 however, the success of these English settlements rendered the Dutch position on the Connecticut untenable. A treaty relocated the boundary between the Connecticut Colony and New Netherland Colony westward, near present-day Greenwich, the treaty allowed the Dutch to maintain their trading post at Foot Huys de Hoop, which they did until the 1664 British takeover of New Netherland
17.
Enfield, Connecticut
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Enfield is a town in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 44,654 at the 2010 census and it is bordered by Longmeadow, Massachusetts and East Longmeadow, Massachusetts to the north, Somers to the east, East Windsor and Ellington to the south, and the Connecticut River to the west. Enfield was originally inhabited by the Pocomtuc tribe, and contained their two villages of Scitico and Nameroke, Enfield was settled in 1679 by settlers from Salem, Massachusetts. Enfield was incorporated in Massachusetts in 1683 as the Freshwater Plantation, the namesake is the Freshwater Brook that triverses the town. Shortly around 1700, the changed its name to Enfield after Enfield Town in Middlesex. In 1734, the part of town separated into the town of Somers. Jonathan Edwards preached his famous sermon, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God and it was part of the Great Awakening revival that struck New England in the mid-18th century and spread throughout Western North American civilization. In the 1989 film Glory, boxes of gunpowder can be seen with the words Enfield, in an episode in the 1970s police drama Hawaii Five-O, Jack Lords character Steve McGarrett traces explosives back to The Hazard Gunpowder Company- Enfield, CT. The capacity of the mill at the time of the Civil War was 1,200 pounds per day, over 60 people died in explosions in Powder Hollow during the years when gunpowder was manufactured there. The mill blew up several times, but was set up so that if one building blew up, the ruins of these buildings and the dams are open to the public. Powder Hollow is now home to baseball fields and hiking trails, kings Island in the Connecticut River, previously known as Terry Island, was the location of pivotal meetings of Adventist Christians in 1872 and 1873. There are five sections of the town of Enfield, Enfield Village, Thompsonville, Hazardville, Scitico, and Sherwood Village. In 1793, a historic Shaker village, Enfield Shaker village, the Utopian religious sect practiced celibate, communal living, and is today renowned for its simple architecture and furniture. Membership eventually dwindled, however, and the village disbanded, the property has since been redeveloped by the Enfield Correctional Institution, still located on Shaker Road. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 34.2 square miles, of which 33.3 square miles is land and 0.93 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 45,212 people,16,418 households, the population density was 1,354.3 people per square mile. There were 17,043 housing units at a density of 510.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 89. 74% White,5. 61% African American,0. 20% Native American,1. 34% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 57% from other races, and 1. 54% from two or more races
18.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
19.
Suffield Depot, Connecticut
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Suffield Depot is the name of a census-designated place corresponding to the village of Suffield, the primary settlement of the town of Suffield, Connecticut, in Hartford County. The population of the CDP was 1,325 as of the 2010 census, Suffield Depot is named for the end of a spur railroad line leading to Suffield village from the town of Windsor Locks to the south. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 2.0 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,244 people,569 households, the population density was 640.9 people per square mile. There were 598 housing units at a density of 308.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 95. 26% White,3. 38% African American,0. 08% Native American,0. 32% Asian,0. 80% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 25% of the population. 40. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 26. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 3.05. In the CDP, the population was out with 23. 9% under the age of 18,4. 7% from 18 to 24,27. 8% from 25 to 44,24. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 81.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 73.1 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $42,043, and the median income for a family was $75,098. Males had an income of $50,375 versus $32,411 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $25,290, about 4. 6% of families and 9. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6. 1% of those under age 18 and 7. 9% of those age 65 or over
20.
U.S. Census
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The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years. The United States Census Bureau is responsible for the United States Census, the first census after the American Revolution was taken in 1790, under Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, there have been 22 federal censuses since that time. The current national census was held in 2010, the census is scheduled for 2020. For years between the censuses, the Census Bureau issues estimates made using surveys and statistical models, in particular. Title 13 of the United States Code governs how the Census is conducted, Information is confidential as per 13 U. S. C. The United States Census is a census, which is distinct from the U. S. Census of Agriculture. It is also distinct from local censuses conducted by some states or local jurisdictions, Decennial U. S. Census figures are based on actual counts of persons dwelling in U. S. residential structures. They include citizens, non-citizen legal residents, non-citizen long-term visitors, the Census Bureau bases its decision about whom to count on the concept of usual residence. Usual residence, a principle established by the Census Act of 1790, is defined as the place a person lives, the Census also uses hot deck imputation to assign data to housing units where occupation status is unknown. This practice has effects across many areas, but is seen by some as controversial, however, the practice was ruled constitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court in Utah v. Evans. Certain American citizens living overseas are specifically excluded from being counted in the even though they may vote. Only Americans living abroad who are Federal employees and their dependents living overseas with them are counted, private U. S. citizens living abroad who are not affiliated with the Federal government will not be included in the overseas counts. These overseas counts are used solely for reapportioning seats in the U. S, in the United States recent censuses, Census Day has been April 1. However, it was previously in August, as per instructions given to U. S. Marshals, All the questions refer to the day when the enumeration is to commence. Disadvantaged minorities are more likely to be undercounted. For example, the Census Bureau estimates that in 1970 over six percent of blacks went uncounted, democrats often argue that modern sampling techniques should be used so that more accurate and complete data can be inferred. Republicans often argue against such sampling techniques, stating the U. S, constitution requires an actual enumeration for apportionment of House seats, and that political appointees would be tempted to manipulate the sampling formulas. Although the sticker was unofficial and the results were not added to the census, she, in 2015 Laverne Cox called for transgender people to be counted in the census
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Springfield, Massachusetts
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Springfield is a city in western New England, and the seat of Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. Springfield sits on the bank of the Connecticut River near its confluence with three rivers, the western Westfield River, the eastern Chicopee River, and the eastern Mill River. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 153,060. Metropolitan Springfield, as one of two areas in Massachusetts, had an estimated population of 698,903 as of 2009. The first Springfield in the New World, it is the largest city in Western New England, and the urban, economic and it is the third-largest city in Massachusetts and fourth-largest in New England after Boston, Worcester, and Providence. Hartford, the capital of Connecticut, lies 23.9 miles south of Springfield, bradley International Airport, which sits 12 miles south of Metro Center Springfield, is Hartford-Springfields airport. Springfield was founded in 1636 by English Puritan William Pynchon as Agawam Plantation under the administration of the Connecticut Colony, in 1641 it was renamed after Pynchons hometown of Springfield, Essex, England, following incidents that precipitated the settlement joining the Massachusetts Bay Colony. From 1777 until its closing during the Vietnam War, the Springfield Armory attracted skilled laborers to Springfield, arsenal at Springfield during Shays Rebellion of 1787 led directly to the formation of the U. S. Springfield is located at 42°6′45″N 72°32′51″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 33.2 square miles, of which 32.1 square miles is land and 1.1 square miles is water. Once nicknamed The City in a Forest, Springfield features over 4, aside from its rivers, Springfields 2nd most prominent topographical feature is the citys 735 acres Forest Park, designed by renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. Forest Park also borders Western Massachusetts most affluent town, Longmeadow, Springfield shares borders with other well-heeled suburbs such as East Longmeadow, Wilbraham, Ludlow and the de-industrializing city of Chicopee. The small cities of Agawam and West Springfield, Massachusetts lie less than a mile from Springfields Metro Center, across the Connecticut River. The City of Springfield also owns the Springfield Country Club, which is located in the city of West Springfield, Massachusetts. Springfield, like other cities in southern New England, has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. Winters are cold with a average in January of around 26 °F. During winter, noreaster storms can drop significant snowfalls on Springfield, Springfields summers are very warm and sometimes humid. During summer, several times per month, on hot days afternoon thunderstorms will develop when unstable warm air collides with approaching cold fronts, the daily average in July is around 74 °F. Usually several days during the summer exceed 90 °F, constituting a heat wave, Spring and fall temperatures are usually pleasant, with mild days and crisp, cool nights
22.
Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State
23.
Yale Medical School
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The Yale School of Medicine is the graduate medical school at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. It was founded in 1810 as The Medical Institution of Yale College, the primary teaching hospital for the school is Yale-New Haven Hospital. The school is home to the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, one of the largest modern medical libraries, the faculty includes 62 National Academy of Sciences members,40 Institute of Medicine investigators, and 16 Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigators. U. S. News and World Report currently ranks the Yale School of Medicine 7th in the country for research, entrance is highly selective, for the class of 2018, the school received 4,374 applications to fill its class of 104 students. The average GPA for Class of 2018 was a 3.81, the School of Medicine offers the Doctor of Medicine degree and a Master of Medical Science degree through the Yale Physician Associate Program for prospective physician assistants. Public health degrees are administered through the Yale School of Public Health, students pursuing a tuition-free fifth year of research are eligible for the Master of Health Science degree. The M. D. program is notable for its assessment of student achievement, in particular, the school employs the so-called Yale System established by Dean Winternitz in the 1920s, wherein first- and second-year students are not graded or ranked among their classmates. In addition, course examinations are anonymous, and are intended only for students self-evaluation, student performance is thus based on seminar participation, qualifying examinations, clinical clerkship evaluations, and the United States Medical Licensing Examination. Prior to graduation, students are required to submit a thesis based on original research, in 18th century United States, credentials were not needed to practice medicine. Prior to the founding of the school, Yale graduates would train through an apprenticeship in order to become physicians. Yale President Ezra Stiles conceived the idea of training physicians at Yale and ultimately, the school was chartered in 1810 and opened in New Haven in 1813. Nathan Smith and Benjamin Silliman were the first faculty members, Silliman was a professor of chemistry and taught at both Yale College and the Medical School. The other two founding faculty were Jonathan Knight, anatomy, physiology and surgery and Eli Ives, pediatrics, one of Yales earliest medical graduates was Dr. Asaph Leavitt Bissell of Hanover, New Hampshire, who graduated in 1815, a member of the schools second graduating class. Following his graduation, Dr. Bissell moved to Suffield, Connecticut, a community where his parents came from. The saddlebags that Dr. Bissell carried in his practice, packed with paper packets, the original building later became Sheffield Hall, part of the Sheffield Scientific School. In 1860, the moved to Medical Hall on York Street. In 1925, the moved to its current campus, neighboring the hospital. This campus includes the Sterling Hall of Medicine, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Anlyan Center, before 1845, there was no dean
24.
Congregational
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
25.
Gideon Granger
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Gideon Granger was an early American politician and lawyer. He was the father of Francis Granger, born in Suffield, Connecticut, Granger attended and graduated from Yale University and became a lawyer. He was considered a brilliant political essayist, using the pseudonyms Algernon Sydney and Epaminondas many of his writings, defending Jeffersonian principles, were published in many pamphlets. He was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives and ran unsuccessfully for the United States Congress in 1798, a staunch supporter of Thomas Jeffersons, Granger was appointed as Postmaster General at the start of his term in 1801. He served in this post until 1814 when Jeffersons successor, James Madison and he is the longest serving Postmaster General as of 2015. Granger settled in Canandaigua, New York, where he built a homestead that would be unrivaled in all the nation from which he could administer the many land tracts he had acquired further to the west, today his home is a museum. He became a member of the New York Senate and continued to be influential in politics, ill health forced him to retire early in 1821 and he died the next year on December 31,1822. He was interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in Canandaigua, Granger is the namesake of Granger Township, Ohio. Granger Homestead and Carriage Museum Gideon Granger at Find a Grave
26.
Timothy Swan
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Timothy Swan was a composer and hatmaker born in Worcester, Massachusetts. The son of goldsmith William Swan, Swan lived in towns along the Connecticut River in Connecticut. Swans compositional output consisted mostly of psalm and hymn settings, referred to as psalmody and these tunes and settings were produced for choirs and singing schools located in Congregationalist communities of New England. Swan is unique as an early American composer in that he composed secular vocal duets, the tunebook, New England Harmony is a collection of his sacred music compositions, while The Songsters Assistant is a collection of his secular music. Swan was also a poet and teacher of singing, born July 23,1758, Timothy Swan was the eighth child of goldsmith William and Lavinia Swan of Worcester, Massachusetts. Not much is known of Swans early years other than he resided in Worcester until his fathers death in 1774, after the death of his father, Swan was apprenticed to a Mr. Barnes of Marlborough, Massachusetts. Barnes, an importer of goods was a loyalist who eventually left the colonies to return to England as relations between the two became increasingly strained. This caused an end to Swans brief apprenticeship in Marlborough, after leaving Barnes employ, Swan moved to Groton, Massachusetts to live with his older brother William. Timothys elder brother had an active interest in music and may have influenced his brother, shortly after arriving in Groton, Swan enrolled in a singing school that was taught by a Mr. Gross. This experience is probably the only formal education that Swan ever had. In 1774 Swan left Groton to enlist in the Continental Army located in Cambridge and it was here that he learned to play fife under the tutelage of a British Fifer. In 1775 a little less than a year after enlisting at Cambridge, Swan moved to Northfield and it was here that Swan became apprenticed as a hatter with his brother-in-law Caleb Lyman. It is here in Northfield that Swans attention focused on musical composition and his first composition Montague can be placed around 1774 when Swan was sixteen years old. After completing his apprenticeship in 1780, Swan moved to Enfield, Connecticut and then to Suffield, Connecticut and it was in Suffield that Swan composed most of his music. In Suffield, Swan was introduced to Mary Gay, the daughter Ebenezer Gay, Swan may have been introduced to Miss Gay by his brother Benjamin Swan who was married to Lucy Gay, Marys sister. His marriage to Mary on May 5,1784, produced a family similar to his own. Supplementing his work as a hatter, Swan began teaching singing-schools in the area and it was during this time that his music was first printed. In 1783, composer-compiler Oliver Brownson included six of Swans tunes in the issue of Select Harmony
27.
Olin Levi Warner
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Olin Levi Warner was an American sculptor and artist noted for the striking bas relief portrait medallions and busts he created in the late 19th century. Warner was born in Suffield, Connecticut, Warners great-great-uncle was the Revolutionary leader Seth Warner. As a young man he worked as an artisan and a telegraph operator, when the French Third Republic was proclaimed in 1870, he enlisted in the Foreign Legion, resuming his studies when the siege was over. In 1872, he removed to New York City and established a studio and he was one of the founders and a member of the Society of American Artists in 1877, and an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1888. A trip through the Northwest Territory led to a series of Native American-themed portrait medallions and he designed the souvenir half dollar for the Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893. After meeting with little success, however, he returned to live at his fathers farm in Vermont. Towards the end of his life his sculptures became known to a wider audience and he died in 1896, after a cycling accident in New Yorks Central Park. In the 1970s Warners heirs donated his collection of papers to the Smithsonian Archives of American Art. Warner is credited with popularizing the bas relief, through numerous portraits in this style, among his best known works are, May Edwin Forrest Rutherford B. The three tympanums and one door had been completed when he died, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Warner, Olin Levi
28.
Western Reserve
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The Reserve had been granted to the Colony by King Charles II. The State of Connecticut sold much of this remaining Western Reserve to developers, Connecticut ceded its final claims on the territory to the United States in 1800. Western Reserve is referred to in numerous institutional names in Ohio, such as Western Reserve Academy, beyond Ohio the claim included parts of what would become Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada and California. The east boundary of the reserve follows a true meridian along Ellicotts Line, the west boundary veers more than four degrees from a meridian to maintain the 120-mile width, due to convergence. Following the American Revolutionary War, Connecticut, like other states. From these concessions, the old Northwest Territory was organized, the deed of cession was issued on 13 September 1786. Connecticut retained 3,366,921 acres in Ohio, which became the Western Reserve, in 1796, Connecticut sold title to the land in the Western Reserve to the Connecticut Land Company for $1,200,000. The Land Company was a group of investors who were mostly from Suffield, there were initially eight in the group. They planned to divide the land and sell it to settlers from the east, but, the Indian title to the Reserve had not been extinguished. Clear title was obtained east of the Cuyahoga River by the Greenville Treaty in 1795, the next year, the Land Company sent surveyors led by Moses Cleaveland to the Reserve to divide the land into townships. The townships laid out in this survey were squares 5 miles on each side Elsewhere in Ohio, most townships are 6 miles on each side, cleavelands team also founded the city of Cleveland, which became the largest city in the region. The territory was originally named New Connecticut, which was discarded in favor of Western Reserve. Over the next few years, settlers trickled in, youngstown was founded in 1796, Warren in 1798, Hudson in 1799, Ravenna also in 1799, Ashtabula in 1803, and Stow in 1804. In 1800, Connecticut finally ceded sovereignty over the Western Reserve, the United States absorbed it into the Northwest Territory, which organized Trumbull County in the boundaries of the Reserve. As the former county seat of the Reserve, Warren identifies as the capital of the Western Reserve. Later, several counties were carved out of the territory. The name Western Reserve survives in the area in various such as the Western Reserve Historical Society and Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland. This area of Ohio became a center of development, industrialization through the mid-20th century, education and cultural development
29.
Thaddeus Leavitt
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Leavitt also kept a journal in which he noted everything from the weather to cures for various ailments to the adoption of the United States Constitution. Thaddeus Leavitt, Esq. was born September 9,1750 in Suffield to farmer and carpenter John Leavitt, Thaddeus Leavitt married Elizabeth King, daughter of Ensign William King of Suffield and his wife Lucy Hatheway. A piece of French furniture was emblazoned with a plaque to commemorate the couples marriage. Leavitt became an early Suffield merchant, selectman and Justice of the Peace and he ran a store in Suffield, and from an early age began investing in the shipping business. Leavitt was one of Hartford Countys leading citizens, and became wealthy in his dealings as a merchant and his ships traded as far afield as the West Indies and other farflung destinations, and the entrepreneurial Leavitt acted as both importer and exporter. Thanks to his wealth, Leavitt built the home later known in Suffield as the Harmon House on High Street. Eventually Leavitts business interests extended as far as Spain, also investing in the Connecticut Land Company were other of the states most powerful men. One of the first settlers of the Western Reserve was John Leavitt, brother of Thaddeus, in 1803 Leavitt was among several Connecticut citizens chosen to resolve a dispute between the states of Connecticut and Massachusetts concerning the border between the two states. Leavitt was one of a succession of trustees ordered to resolve the conflict between the two New England states. Leavitts appointment to the border commission flowed from his interests in the region. In 1805, he joined with several citizens of Connecticut and Massachusetts to form a company designated by the legislature as The Proprietors of the Springfield Bridge, the corporations aim was building a bridge over the Connecticut River linking West Springfield and Springfield, Massachusetts. Within the state of Connecticut, Leavitts interests came to embrace the burgeoning development. He served as one of the earliest directors of the newly-incorporated Hartford Bank, merchant Leavitt even had his fingers in the states agricultural economy, serving on the committee of the Hartford County Agricultural Society. Unusually for a merchant, pressed for time, Leavitt kept a long-running diary about events in Suffield. Joshua Leavitt, first Suffield ancestor and grandfather of Thaddeus Leavitt, smugmug. edu
30.
Cotton gin
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A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation. The fibers are then processed into various goods such as linens. Seeds may be used to grow cotton or to produce cottonseed oil. Handheld roller gins had been used in India and then other countries since at earliest 500 CE, the Indian worm-gear roller gin, invented some time around the sixteenth century, has, according to Lakwete, remained virtually unchanged up to the present time. The modern mechanical cotton gin was created by American inventor Eli Whitney in 1793, whitneys gin used a combination of a wire screen and balls to pull the cotton through, while brushes continuously removed the loose cotton lint to prevent jams. It revolutionized the industry in the United States, but also led to the growth of slavery in the American South as the demand for cotton workers rapidly increased. The invention has thus been identified as an inadvertent contributing factor to the outbreak of the American Civil War, modern automated cotton gins use multiple powered cleaning cylinders and saws, and offer far higher productivity than their hand-powered forebears. The original cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, Whitney began to work on this project after moving to Georgia in search of work. Given that farmers were desperately searching for a way to cotton farming profitable. Whitney created two cotton gins, a one that could be hand cranked and a large one that could be driven by a horse or water power. Thanks to the gin, the amount of raw cotton yielded doubled each decade after 1800. The creation of the cotton gin also led to the creation of machines designed to spin and weave the fabric, single roller cotton gin, The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins, the cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the wooden-worm-worked roller. This mechanical device was, in parts of India, driven by water power. Cotton fibers are produced in the pods of the cotton plant where the fibers in the bolls are tightly interwoven with seeds. To make the fibers usable, the seeds and fibers must first be separated, many simple seed-removing devices had been invented, but until the innovation of the cotton gin, most required significant operator attention and worked only on a small scale. The earliest versions of the cotton gin consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood, evidence for this type of gin has been found in Africa, Asia, and North America. These early gins were difficult to use and required a deal of skill
31.
Gloucester, Massachusetts
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Gloucester /ˈɡlɒstər/ is a city on Cape Ann in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States. It is part of Massachusetts North Shore, the population was 28,789 at the 2010 U. S. Census. The boundaries of Gloucester originally included the town of Rockport, in an area dubbed Sandy Bay and that village separated formally on February 27,1840. In 1873, Gloucester was reincorporated as a city, Gloucester was founded at Cape Ann by an expedition called the Dorchester Company of men from Dorchester chartered by James I in 1623. It was one of the first English settlements in what would become the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the first company of pioneers made landing at Half Moon Beach and settled nearby, setting up fishing stages in a field in what is now Stage Fort Park. This settlements existence is proclaimed today by a tablet, affixed to a 50-foot boulder in that park. Life in this first settlement was harsh and it was short-lived, around 1626 the place was abandoned, and the people removed themselves to Naumkeag, where more fertile soil for planting was to be found. The meetinghouse was even disassembled and relocated to the new place of settlement, at some point in the following years – though no record exists – the area was slowly resettled. The town was incorporated in 1642. It is at time that the name Gloucester first appears on tax rolls. This new permanent settlement focused on the Town Green area, an inlet in the marshes at a bend in the Annisquam River and this area is now the site of Grant Circle, a large traffic rotary at which Massachusetts Route 128 mingles with a major city street. Here the first permanent settlers built a house and therefore focused the nexus of their settlement on the Island for nearly 100 years. Unlike other early coastal towns in New England, development in Gloucester was not focused around the harbor as it is today and this is evidenced by the placement of the Town Green nearly two miles from the harbor-front. The Town Green is also where the built the first school. By Massachusetts Bay Colony Law, any town boasting 100 families or more had to provide a public schoolhouse and this requirement was met in 1698, with Thomas Riggs standing as the towns first schoolmaster. The White-Ellery House was erected in 1710 upon the Town Green and it was built at the edge of a marsh for Gloucester’s first settled minister, the Reverend John White. Early industry included subsistence farming and logging, because of the poor soil and rocky hills, Cape Ann was not well suited for farming on a large scale. Small family farms and livestock provided the bulk of the sustenance to the population, Fishing, for which the town is known today, was limited to close-to-shore, with families subsisting on small catches as opposed to the great bounties yielded in later years
32.
Northampton, Massachusetts
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The city of Northampton is the county seat of Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States. As of 2012, the total population of Northampton was 28,592. Northampton is known as an academic, artistic, musical, and it features a large politically liberal community along with numerous alternative health and intellectual organizations. Based on U. S. Census demographics, election returns, and other criteria, the city has a high proportion of residents who identify as gay and lesbian a high number of same-sex households, and is a popular destination for the LGBT community. Northampton is considered part of the Springfield Metropolitan Area, one of Western Massachusettss two separate metropolitan areas and it sits approximately 15 miles north of the city of Springfield, Massachusetts. Northampton is home to Smith College, Northampton High School, Northampton is also known as Norwottuck, or Nonotuck, meaning the midst of the river, named by its original Pocumtuc inhabitants. The Pocumtuc confederacy occupied the Connecticut River Valley from what is now southern Vermont, the Pocumtuc tribes were Algonquian and traditionally allied with the Mahican confederacy to the west. By 1606 an ongoing struggle between the Mahican and Iroquois confederacies led to attacks on the Pocumtuc by the Iroquoian Mohawk nation. The Mahican confederacy had been defeated by 1628, limiting Pocumtuc access to routes to the west. It was in context that the land making up the bulk of modern Northampton was sold to settlers from Springfield, Massachusetts. On May 18,1653 a petition for township was approved by the court of Springfield. While some settlers visited the land in the fall of 1653, they waited till early Spring 1654 to arrive and establish a permanent settlement. This coincided with a souring of relations between the Wampanoag and the Massachusetts Bay colonists, eventually leading to the expanded Algonquian alliance, Northampton was part of the Equivalent Lands compromise. Its territory would be enlarged beyond the settlement, but later portions would be carved up into separate cities, towns. Southampton, for example, was incorporated in 1775 and included parts of the territories of modern Montgomery, Westhampton was incorporated in 1778 and Easthampton in 1809. A section of Northampton called Smiths Ferry was once separated from the rest of the town by the boundaries of Easthampton, the shortest path to downtown was a road near the Connecticut River oxbow, which was subject to frequent flooding. Smiths Ferry was ceded to Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1909, congregational preacher, theologian and philosopher Jonathan Edwards was a leading figure in a 1734 Christian revival in Northampton. In the winter of 1734 and the spring it reached such intensity that it threatened the towns businesses
33.
Thomas Hooker
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Thomas Hooker was a prominent Puritan colonial leader, who founded the Colony of Connecticut after dissenting with Puritan leaders in Massachusetts. He was known as a speaker and a leader of universal Christian suffrage. Called today “the Father of Connecticut, ” Thomas Hooker was a figure in the early development of colonial New England. Most likely coming out of the county of Leicestershire, in the East Midlands region, there is known to have been a great Hooker family in Devon, well known throughout Southern England. The Devon branch produced the great theologian and clergyman, the Rev. Richard Hooker who, family genealogist Edward Hooker linked the Rev. Thomas to the Rev. Richard and the Devon branch. Other Hooker genealogists, however, have traced the Rev. Thomas back to Leicestershire where, in fact, positive evidence linking Thomas to Leicestershire is lacking since the Marefield parish records from before 1610 perished. Any link to the Rev. Richard is likewise lacking since the Rev. Thomas’s personal papers were disposed of, there remains no evidence giving positive information as to which region Hooker came from, so the issue remains unsettled. Thomas Hooker was likely born at Marefield or Birstall, Leicestershire, in March 1604, he entered Queens College, Cambridge as a scholarship student. He received his Bachelor of Arts from Emmanuel College, Cambridge in 1608 and he stayed at Emmanuel as a fellow for a few years. After his stay at Emmanuel, Hooker preached at the Esher parish sometime between 1618-20, where he earned a reputation as an excellent speaker. And became famous for his care of Mrs. Joan Drake. While associated with the Drake household, he met and married Susannah Garbrand, Mrs. Drakes woman-in-waiting in Amersham. Around 1626, Hooker became a lecturer or preacher at what was then St. Marys parish church, Chelmsford and curate to its rector, however, in 1629 Archbishop William Laud suppressed church lecturers, and Hooker was forced to retire to Little Baddow. His leadership of Puritan sympathizers brought him a summons to the Court of High Commission, from Holland, after a final clandestine trip to England to put his affairs in order, he immigrated to the Massachusetts Bay Colony aboard the Griffin. Hooker arrived in Boston and settled in Newtown, where he became the pastor of the earliest established church there and his congregation, some of whom may have been members of congregations he had served in England, became known as Mr. Hookers Company. Voting in Massachusetts was limited to freemen, individuals who had been admitted to their church after a detailed interrogation of their religious views. Hooker disagreed with this limitation of suffrage, putting him at odds with the influential pastor John Cotton and this led to the founding of the Connecticut Colony. Hooker became more active in politics in Connecticut, the General Court representing Wethersfield, Windsor and Hartford met at the end of May 1638 to frame a written constitution in order to establish a government for the commonwealth
34.
Guilford, Connecticut
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Guilford is a town in New Haven County, Connecticut, United States, that borders Madison, Branford, North Branford and Durham, and is situated on I-95 and the coast. The population was 22,375 at the 2010 census, currently the population stands at approximately 22,500 people. It was named one of the top 100 places to live in the United States by Money magazine in 2005, Guilford was named after the town of Guildford, in England, whose name differs from its own less in pronunciation than in spelling. There are five historic house museums, including Dudley Farm and the Henry Whitfield House, the oldest dwelling house in Connecticut and the oldest stone house in North America. The Comfort Starr House is one of the oldest wooden framed private dwellings in Connecticut, and one of the few houses remaining of the original signers who settled Guilford. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 49.7 square miles. The primary settlement in Guilford, known as Guilford Center, is located in the part of town around the intersection of U. S. Route 1. It is served by three exits of Interstate 95, which passes just north of the town center, the Guilford Center census-designated place had a population of 2,597 at the 2010 census. The northwest side of Guilford is flanked by the Metacomet Ridge, the 50-mile Mattabesett Trail traverses Bluff Head, a shorter network of trails criss-cross the Sugarloaves. Guilford also contains the Westwoods Trail System which covers 39 miles of trails on 1,200 acres of land, Guilford Center Leetes Island North Guilford Nut Plains Sachems Head Other minor communities and geographic features in Guilford are Guilford Lakes, Indian Cove, and Old Quarry. As of the census of 2000, there were 21,398 people,8,151 households, the population density was 454.8 people per square mile. There were 8,724 housing units at a density of 185.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 04% White,0. 93% African American,0. 05% Native American,1. 65% Asian,0. 41% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 13% of the population. 21. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.04. In the town, the population was out with 25. 4% under the age of 18,4. 4% from 18 to 24,26. 2% from 25 to 44,31. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $76,843, and the median income for a family was $87,045. Males had an income of $60,623 versus $40,307 for females
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Sherborne
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Sherborne is a market town and civil parish in north west Dorset, in South West England. It is sited on the River Yeo, on the edge of the Blackmore Vale,6 miles east of Yeovil, the A30 road, which connects London to Penzance, runs through the town. In the 2011 census the population of Sherborne parish and the two wards was 9,523. 28. 7% of the population is aged 65 or older, much of the old town, including the abbey and many medieval and Georgian buildings, is built from distinctive ochre-coloured ham stone. The town is served by Sherborne railway station, the town was named scir burne by the Saxon inhabitants, a name meaning clear stream and is referred to as such in the Domesday book. Sherborne was made the capital of Wessex, one of the seven Saxon kingdoms of England, in 705 the diocese was split between Sherborne and Winchester, and King Ine founded an abbey for St Aldhelm, the first bishop of Sherborne. In 933, King Æthelstan granted land at Sherborne to the nuns of Shaftesbury Abbey under the condition that they would recite the Psalter once a year on All Saints day and say prayers for the king. The bishops seat was moved to Old Sarum in 1075 and the church at Sherborne became a Benedictine monastery, in the 15th century the church was burnt down during tensions between the town and the monastery, and rebuilt between 1425 and 1504 incorporating some of the Norman structure remains. In 1539 the monastery was bought by Sir John Horsey and became a conventional church, Sherborne was the centre of a hundred of the same name for many centuries. See the article Sherborne Abbey for more on the history of the abbey, in the 12th century Roger de Caen, Bishop of Salisbury and Chancellor of England, built a fortified palace in Sherborne. The palace was destroyed in 1645 by General Fairfax, and its ruins are owned by English Heritage, in 1594 Sir Walter Raleigh built an Elizabethan mansion in the grounds of the old palace, today known as Sherborne Castle. In the UK national parliament, Sherborne is within the West Dorset parliamentary constituency, in local government, Sherborne is administered by Dorset County Council at the highest tier, West Dorset District Council at the second tier, and Sherborne Town Council at the lowest tier. In national parliament and district elections, West Dorset is divided into 24 electoral wards. In county council elections, Dorset is divided into 42 electoral divisions, there has been a school in Sherborne since the time of King Alfred, who was educated there. The school was re-founded in 1550 as King Edwards grammar school, using some of the old abbey buildings, though it is now known simply as Sherborne School. The school remains one of the top independent schools in Britain, boasting numerous successful alumni, including Alan Turing, Jeremy Irons, Chris Martin, John le Carré, until 1992 there were also two grammar schools, Fosters School for Boys and Lord Digbys School for Girls. Both schools merged with local school to form The Gryphon School. Other well-established schools in the area include Sherborne Abbey Primary School, Sherborne Prep, Sherborne Girls, Sherborne International caters to international students
36.
Dorset
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Dorset /ˈdɔːrsᵻt/ is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The ceremonial county comprises the county, which is governed by Dorset County Council. Covering an area of 2,653 square kilometres, Dorset borders Devon to the west, Somerset to the north-west, Wiltshire to the north-east, the county town is Dorchester which is in the south. After the reorganisation of government in 1974 the countys border was extended eastward to incorporate the Hampshire towns of Bournemouth. Around half of the lives in the South East Dorset conurbation. The county has a history of human settlement stretching back to the Neolithic era. The Romans conquered Dorsets indigenous Celtic tribe, and during the early Middle Ages, the first recorded Viking raid on the British Isles occurred in Dorset during the eighth century, and the Black Death entered England at Melcombe Regis in 1348. During the Second World War, Dorset was heavily involved in the preparations for the invasion of Normandy, the former was the sailing venue in the 2012 Summer Olympics, and both have clubs or hire venues for sailing, Cornish pilot gig rowing, sea kayaking and powerboating. Dorset has a varied landscape featuring broad elevated chalk downs, steep limestone ridges, over half the county is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Three-quarters of its coastline is part of the Jurassic Coast Natural World Heritage Site due to its geological and it features notable landforms such as Lulworth Cove, the Isle of Portland, Chesil Beach and Durdle Door. Agriculture was traditionally the major industry of Dorset but is now in decline, there are no motorways in Dorset but a network of A roads cross the county and two railway main lines connect to London. Dorset has ports at Poole, Weymouth and Portland, and an international airport, the county has a variety of museums, theatres and festivals, and is host to one of Europes largest outdoor shows. It is the birthplace of Thomas Hardy, who used the county as the setting of his novels. Dorset derives its name from the county town of Dorchester, the Romans established the settlement in the 1st century and named it Durnovaria which was a Latinised version of a Common Brittonic word possibly meaning place with fist-sized pebbles. It is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in AD845 and in the 10th century the countys archaic name, the first human visitors to Dorset were Mesolithic hunters, from around 8000 BC. The first permanent Neolithic settlers appeared around 3000 BC and were responsible for the creation of the Dorset Cursus, from 2800 BC onwards Bronze Age farmers cleared Dorsets woodlands for agricultural use and Dorsets high chalk hills provided a location for numerous round barrows. During the Iron Age, the British tribe known as the Durotriges established a series of forts across the county—most notably Maiden Castle which is one of the largest in Europe. The Romans arrived in Dorset during their conquest of Britain in AD43, Maiden Castle was captured by a Roman legion under the command of Vespasian, and the Roman settlement of Durnovaria was established nearby
37.
Ransom Eli Olds
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Ransom Eli Olds was a pioneer of the American automotive industry, for whom both the Oldsmobile and REO brands were named. He claimed to have built his first steam car as early as 1894, the modern assembly line and its basic concept is credited to Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash, beginning in 1901. Olds was born in Geneva, Ohio, the youngest son of blacksmith and pattern-maker Pliny Fiske Olds and his wife and his parents moved the family to Cleveland, Ohio, when Olds was still a boy. He eventually settled in Lansing, Michigan, where he married Metta Ursula Woodward on June 5,1889 and he was of English ancestry with the first paternal line coming from Dorset, England in 1667. He founded the Olds Motor Vehicle Company in Lansing, Michigan, the company was bought by a copper and lumber magnate named Samuel L. Smith in 1899 and renamed Olds Motor Works. The new company was relocated from Lansing to Detroit, Smith became President while Olds became vice president and general manager. By 1901 Olds had built 11 prototype vehicles, including at least one of each mode, steam, electricity. He was the only American automotive pioneer to produce and sell at least one of each mode of automobile, on March 9,1901, the Olds Motor Works factory burned to the ground. Only one model, the little Curved Dash runabout, was saved from the flames, Ransom Olds claimed it was the fire that made him select the runabout, from among his many other models, to put into production. His biographer questions the veracity of this story and he points to an Olds advertising blitz that had already led to more than 300 Curved Dash orders even before the fire took place. Olds did not need the one rescued car from which to reconstruct the plans and patterns for the runabout, later that year, Olds had his companys test driver, Roy Chapin, drive a Curved Dash runabout to the second annual New York Automobile Show. Along the way, Chapin opted to drive up onto the Erie Canal tow path to escape the mire of New York state roads, after eight days of driving, he reached the Waldorf Astoria hotel but was turned away at the door. His mud-spattered attire was so disreputable that he was sent to the entrance in back. During the auto show his employer, Ransom Olds, pushed hard to make sales, when one dealer offered to purchase 500, Olds retorted, I would like to see you make this order for a thousand cars. Then the public would drop its jaw and take notice, the deal was signed, and though the dealer ended up selling only 750 to the public, it was the original number that everyone remembered. The Curved Dash Oldsmobile sold for $650, equal to $18,712 today, about 600 were sold in 1901, about 3,000 in 1902 and at least 4,000 in 1904. It was this car, rather than Henry Fords Model T and he went on to form the R. E. Its name was changed to REO Motor Car Company to avoid a lawsuit from the Olds Motor Works
38.
Copperhead (politics)
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Republicans started calling anti-war Democrats Copperheads, likening them to the venomous snake. Those Democrats accepted the label, reinterpreting the copper head as the likeness of Liberty, Democratic supporters of the war, by contrast, were called War Democrats. The Copperheads represented the extreme wing of the Northern Democrats. Notable Copperheads included two Democratic congressmen from Ohio, Clement L. Vallandigham and Alexander Long, Republican prosecutors accused some prominent Copperheads of treason in a series of trials in 1864. Copperheadism, a highly contentious, grass-roots movement, had its strongest base in the area just north of the Ohio River, historians agree that the Copperheads goal of restoring the Union with slavery was naive and impractical, for the Confederates refused to consider giving up their independence. The Copperheads became a target of the Union party in the 1864 presidential election. Copperhead support increased when Union armies did poorly, and decreased when they won great victories, after the fall of Atlanta in September 1864, Union military success seemed assured, and Copperheadism collapsed. They wanted President Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans ousted from power, seeing the president as a tyrant destroying American republican values with despotic, some Copperheads tried to persuade Union soldiers to desert. They talked of helping Confederate prisoners of war seize their camps and they sometimes met with Confederate agents and took money. The Confederacy encouraged their activities whenever possible, the Copperheads had numerous important newspapers, but the editors never formed an alliance. In Chicago, Wilbur F. Storey made the Chicago Times into Lincolns most vituperative enemy, the New York Journal of Commerce, originally abolitionist, was sold to owners who became Copperheads, giving them an important voice in the largest city. A typical editor was Edward G. Roddy, owner of the Uniontown and he was an intensely partisan Democrat who saw African Americans as an inferior race and Abraham Lincoln as a despot and dunce. Although he supported the war effort in 1861, he blamed abolitionists for prolonging the war, by 1864, he was calling for peace at any price. John Mullalys Metropolitan Record was the official Catholic newspaper in New York City, reflecting Irish American opinion, it supported the war until 1863 before becoming a Copperhead organ. In the spring and summer of 1863, the paper urged its Irish working-class readers to pursue armed resistance to the draft passed by Congress earlier in the year, on August 19,1864, John Mullaly was arrested for inciting resistance to the draft. Even in an era of extremely partisan journalism, Copperhead newspapers were remarkable for their angry rhetoric, the Copperheads sometimes talked of violent resistance, and in some cases started to organize. They never actually made an attack, however. As war opponents, Copperheads were suspected of disloyalty, and their leaders were sometimes arrested, one famous example was General Ambrose Burnsides 1863 General Order Number 38, issued in Ohio, which made it an offence to criticize the war in any way
39.
Edson Baldwin Olds
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Edson Baldwin Olds was a three-term U. S. During the American Civil War, he was a member of the Peace Democrats. He was the great-grandfather of United States Army Air Forces Maj. Gen. Robert Olds, born in Marlboro, Vermont, Olds completed preparatory studies. He moved to Ohio about 1820 and taught school and he was graduated from the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1824 and commenced the practice of medicine in Kingston, Ohio, in 1824. He moved to Circleville, Ohio, in 1828 and continued practice until 1837 and he served as member of the Ohio House of Representatives in 1842,1843,1845, and 1846. He served in the Ohio Senate 1846–1848 and was its presiding officer in 1846 and 1847, Olds was elected as a Democrat to the Thirty-first, Thirty-second, and Thirty-third Congresses. He served as chairman of the Committee on the Post Office and he was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1854 to the Thirty-fourth Congress. He moved to Lancaster, Ohio, in 1857, during the Civil War, Olds was outspoken in his opposition to the policies of the Radical Republicans. On July 27,1862, a resident of Lancaster. In the letter, he accused Olds of discouraging enlistments. He attributed a statement to Olds accusing the government of “tyranny engaged in a war to destroy the Union, overthrow the Constitution, and liberate the slaves. ”Tod sent a copy of the letter to William H. Seward. In his letter to Seward, Tod stated that Olds was a “shrewd, cunning man, with capacity for great mischief and he was confined at Fort Lafayette. He refused to take an oath of allegiance and was discharged on December 15,1862. ”Olds suffered from bouts of dysentery and was recuperating at the time of his arrest. While in prison, he was elected a member of the Ohio House of Representatives. After his release from prison, Olds served in the house from 1862 to 1866, following his retirement from political life, he resumed his various mercantile pursuits. In 1824 Olds married Anna Maria Carolus and they had three sons, Mark Lafayette Olds, a lawyer and Episcopalian minister of Christ Church in Washington, D. C. Joseph Olds, a lawyer and judge in Columbus, Ohio, and Edson Denny Olds, a physician and surgeon in the Mexican Army, another son and two daughters died in infancy. His brother was Chauncey N. Olds, Edson Baldwin Olds died in Lancaster, January 24,1869, and was interred in Forest Cemetery at Circleville
40.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
41.
Robert Olds
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Robert Olds was a general officer in the United States Army Air Forces, theorist of strategic air power, and proponent of an independent United States Air Force. Olds is best known today as the father of Brig. Gen. Robin Olds, an ace fighter pilot of World War II. With eight colleagues at the ACTS, he was a member of the Bomber Mafia, Olds was also an accomplished aviator and flight leader. Olds showcased the capabilities of the new weapon by leading several highly publicized goodwill flights to South America, despite his advocacy for strategic bombing, during the United States participation in World War II Olds did not command bombers in the field. Health problems resulted in his transfer to a command and led to his early death in 1943. Olds was born Robert Oldys June 15,1896, in Woodside, Maryland, to Henry Oldys and he was the eldest of four siblings. His father was an ornithologist employed by the Division of Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture, the Olds family traced its roots back to Sherborne, Dorset, emigrating to America in approximately 1667. Early generations lived in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont before moving to Ohio in 1820, another paternal branch descending from the original emigrant included the automotive pioneer Ransom E. Olds. A forebear, Benjamin Olds, served in the Massachusetts militia during the American Revolution. Olds great-grandfather, Edson Baldwin Olds, who served as Speaker of the Ohio Senate, through his mother, Olds forebears include Revolutionary War Colonel Return Jonathan Meigs, who commanded a regiment of light infantry at the storming of the British fort at Stony Point, New York. His first marriage, to Eloise Wichman Nott in Honolulu, Hawaii, on October 22,1921, resulted in sons Robert Jr. born in 1922, Eloise died in 1926 while Olds was assigned to the headquarters of the Air Service in Washington, D. C. In 1928 he remarried, to Marjorie Langley, and was divorced in 1930 and his third marriage, in 1933 to Helen Sterling, also resulted in two sons, Sterling in 1935, and Frederick,1936. They separated in 1939 and were divorced in 1940 and his last marriage was to Nina Gore Auchincloss, daughter of Senator Thomas Gore, in June 1942. Olds was personable and charismatic, and highly outspoken, the latter influenced by his association with General William Billy Mitchell. Commendations and efficiency reports consistently praised him for enthusiasm, energy, initiative, drive and he developed a knack for generating favorable publicity during his tour in Hawaii that resulted in his often being in the public spotlight during his entire career. While noted as being skilled in the art of diplomacy, particularly as an emissary for air power and his leadership was professionally esteemed by prominent Air Force leaders and historians, several of whom wrote that but for his early death, he would have risen to four-star rank. He was exceptionally capable of inspiring subordinates, and of delegating authority, of his decision-making ability, he was described as having quick reactions, sharp responses, and the courage of his convictions. His friend and Bomber Mafia associate, Lt. Gen. Harold L. George, wrote and he could grasp instantly, vexing details which usually make up difficult problems and, grasping them, he had the priceless ability to make a decision
