1.
EMD MP15DC
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The EMD MP15DC was a 1,500 hp switcher-type diesel locomotive model produced by General Motors Electro-Motive Division between March 1974 and January 1983. An MP15AC variant, with an AC drive, was also offered, between August 1975 and August 1984246 MP15ACs were built, including 25 for export to Mexico, and four built in Canada. The MP15DC replaced the SW1500 in EMDs catalog, and is very similar to the predecessor model, using the same engine in a similar design of hood. The primary difference is the MP15’s standard Blomberg B trucks, switchers up to the SW1500 had been restricted to AAR type A switcher or Flexicoil lightweight trucks, both with a 96 in wheelbase. In 197360 special order Mexico-only SW1504s were built on a longer frame, allowing EMD’s standard Blomberg B trucks, with a 108 in wheelbase. In EMDs eyes this made the new locomotive a road rather than a pure switcher, since it was capable of transition. The new model MP15DC designation thus meant Multi-Purpose locomotive,1500 hp, originally the locomotive was simply designated the MP15, the arrival of the alternator/rectifier MP15AC in 1975 changed the name. With the success of the MP15, there was a demand for a model with an advanced AC drive system, the MP15AC replaced the MP15DC’s DC generator with an alternator producing AC power which is converted to DC for the traction motors with a silicon rectifier. The MP15AC is 1.5 ft longer than an MP15DC, the alternator-rectifier combination is more reliable than a generator, and this equipment became the standard for new diesel-electric locomotive designs. The MP15AC is easily distinguished from the DC models, instead of the front-mounted radiator intake and belt-driven fan used on all previous EMD switchers, these have intakes on the lower forward nose sides and electric fans. Side intakes allowed the unit to take in air. The MP15 used a 12-cylinder version of the 645E series engine developing 1500 hp at 900 r. p. m, introduced in the SW1500, this was a 2-stroke, 45-degree V type, with a 9-inch bore by 10-inch stroke, giving 645 cubic inches displacement per cylinder. The 645 series, introduced in 1966, was EMD’s standard engine through the 1980s, early railroad buyers were the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie, with 25, and the Missouri Pacific, who would buy 62 between 1974 and 1982. The Chicago & Northwestern, Southern Pacific, Louisville & Nashville, later, from 1977 to 1982, Southern bought the largest fleet,160 units under six names. Over 50 more were sold to 37 other customers,36 more units were sold to 8 other customers. The Union Pacific Railroad is perhaps the largest current user of the MP15DC, none were originally owned by the UP, instead, they were acquired by merger or takeover, or bought on the second-hand locomotive market. The vast majority came from the Missouri Pacific Railroad, while locomotives were acquired from the Chicago and North Western Railway. A further 15 were acquired from the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad, being surplus to their requirements, the Alaska Railroad had four MP15DCs used as yard switching engines, numbered 1551-1554
2.
British Rail Class 08
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The British Rail Class 08 is a class of diesel-electric shunting locomotive. The pioneer locomotive, number 13000, was built in 1952 although it did not enter service until 1953, production continued until 1962,996 locomotives were produced, making it the most numerous of all British locomotive classes. As the standard BR general-purpose diesel shunter, almost any duty requiring shunting would involve a Class 08, the class became a familiar sight at many major stations and freight yards. Since their introduction, though, the nature of traffic in Britain has changed considerably. Freight trains are now mostly fixed rakes of wagons, and passenger trains are mostly multiple units, consequently, a large proportion of the class has been withdrawn from mainline use and stored, scrapped, exported or sold to industrial or heritage railways. As of 2011, around 100 locomotives remain working on industrial sidings, on heritage railways, they have become common, appearing on many of the preserved standard-gauge lines in Britain, with over 60 preserved including the first one built. The Class 08 design was based on the LMS12033 series design, the locomotives were built at the BR Works of Crewe, Darlington, Derby, Doncaster and Horwich between 1952 and 1962. In 1985, three locomotives were reduced in height for use on the Burry Port and Gwendraeth Valley Railway in south west Wales, the remainder of the class were reclassified as sub-class 08/0. A further two locomotives were converted to 08/9 in 1987, the first locomotive to be withdrawn was D3193 in 1967. 4 other machines were withdrawn before TOPS reclassification in 1973, withdrawals continued in subsequent decades until by the beginning of the 1990s most of the class were no longer in service. At the same time as the withdrawals, many were purchased by heritage railways, when British Rail was privatised and sold in the 1990s, EWS inherited most of the class. More units were disposed of, being sent to EWSs Component Recovery & Distribution Centre in Wigan for stripping of reusable components prior to scrapping, others were stored in case of an increase in traffic. In mid 2008, EWS had over 40 class 08 locomotives in operation, freightliner also had about 5 locomotives in operation, as did locomotive company Wabtec. FirstGroup operated less than 5, additionally, some work at industrial sidings –2 for Foster Yeoman, one for Mendip Rail, one for Corus, one at ICI Wilton,2 for English China Clays, a few other businesses in railway-related business operated single examples. 5 examples of the Class 08 were exported to Liberia, numbers,3047,3092,3094,3098 and 3100, with over 70 examples preserved, they are the second most numerous class of preserved locomotive in the UK. The Class 08 design was based on the LMS12033 series design, the engine is an English Electric 6 cylinder, 4-stroke, 6KT. Traction motors are 2 EE506 motors with double reduction gear drive, the main generator is an EE801. In 2007, a few of locomotives were used on the Manchester Metrolink track relaying project
3.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
4.
Pennsylvania Railroad
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The Pennsylvania Railroad was an American Class I railroad, founded in 1846. Commonly referred to as the Pennsy, the PRR was headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the PRR was the largest railroad by traffic and revenue in the U. S. for the first half of the 20th century. Over the years, it acquired, merged with or owned part of at least 800 other rail lines and companies and its only formidable rival was the New York Central, which carried around three-quarters of PRRs ton-miles. At one time, the PRR was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world, with a larger than that of the U. S. government. The corporation still holds the record for the longest continuous dividend history, in 1968, PRR merged with rival NYC to form the Penn Central Transportation Company, which filed for bankruptcy within two years. The viable parts were transferred in 1976 to Conrail, which was broken up in 1999, with 58 percent of the system going to the Norfolk Southern Railway. Amtrak received the electrified segment east of Harrisburg, with the opening of the Erie Canal and the beginnings of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Philadelphia business interests became concerned that the port of Philadelphia would lose traffic. The state legislature was pressed to build a canal across Pennsylvania and it soon became evident that a single canal would not be practical and a series of railroads, inclined planes, and canals was proposed. Because freight and passengers had to change several times along the route and canals froze in winter, it soon became apparent that the system was cumbersome. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania granted a charter to the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1846 to build a rail line that would connect Harrisburg to Pittsburgh. The Directors chose John Edgar Thomson, an engineer from the Georgia Railroad, to survey, the crest of the mountain was penetrated by the 3, 612-foot Gallitzin Tunnels and then descended by a more moderate grade to Johnstown. The western end of the line was built from Pittsburgh east along the banks of the Allegheny. In 1857, the PRR purchased the Main Line of Public Works from the state of Pennsylvania, the line was double track from its inception, and by the end of the century a third and fourth track were added. Over the next 50 years, PRR expanded by gaining control of railroads by stock purchases. This line is still an important cross-state corridor, carrying Amtraks Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line and he served as PRRs first Chief Engineer and third President. Track connection in Philadelphia was made via the PRRs Connecting Railway, the PRRs Baltimore and Potomac Rail Road opened on July 2,1872, between Baltimore and Washington, D. C. This route required transfer via horse car in Baltimore to the lines heading north from the city. On June 29,1873, the Baltimore and Potomac Tunnel through Baltimore was completed, the PRR started the misleadingly named Pennsylvania Air Line service via the Northern Central Railway and Columbia, Pennsylvania
5.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
6.
Locomotive
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A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
7.
Train
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A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
8.
Railroad car
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A railroad car or railcar, railway wagon or railway carriage, also called a train car or train wagon, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system. Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either single railcars or make up multiple units. The term car is used by itself in American English when a rail context is implicit. Indian English sometimes uses bogie in the manner, though the term has other meanings in other variants of English. In American English, railcar is a term for a railway vehicle, in other countries railcar refers specifically to a self-propelled, powered. Tables may be provided between seats facing one another, alternatively, seats facing in the same direction may have access to a fold-down ledge on the back of the seat in front. If the aisle is located between seats, seat rows may face the direction, or be grouped, with twin rows facing each other. In some vehicles intended for services, seats are positioned with their backs to the side walls. This gives a wide accessway and allows room for standing passengers at peak times, if the aisle is at the side, the car is usually divided into small compartments. These usually contain six seats, although sometimes in second class they contain eight, modern cars usually have either air-conditioning or windows that can be opened, or sometimes both. Various types of onboard train toilet facilities may also be provided, other types of passenger car exist, especially for long journeys, such as the dining car, parlor car, disco car, and in rare cases theater and movie theater car. In some cases another type of car is converted to one of these for an event. Observation cars were built for the rear of many trains to allow the passengers to view the scenery. Sleeping cars outfitted with small bedrooms allow passengers to sleep through their night-time trips, long-distance trains often require baggage cars for the passengers luggage. In European practice it used to be common for day coaches to be formed of compartments seating 6 or 8 passengers, in the UK, Corridor coaches fell into disfavor in the 1960s and 1970s partially because open coaches are considered more secure by women traveling alone. Another distinction is between single- and double deck train cars, an example of a double decker is the Amtrak superliner. A trainset is a semi-permanently arranged formation of cars, rather than one created ad hoc out of cars are available. These are only broken up and reshuffled on shed, trains are then built of one or more of these sets coupled together as needed for the capacity of that train
9.
Shunting (rail)
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Shunting, in railway operations, is the process of sorting items of rolling stock into complete trains, or the reverse. In the United States this activity is known as switching, motive power is normally provided by a locomotive known as a shunter or switcher. Most shunter/switchers are now diesel-powered but steam and even electric locomotives have been used, where locomotives could not be used shunting operations have in the past been effected by horses or capstans. The terms shunter and switcher are applied not only to locomotives and this was particularly so in the past. The Midland Railway company, for example, kept an ambulance wagon permanently stationed at Toton Yard to give treatment to injured shunters, marshalling or classification yard Shunter or switcher Switching and terminal railroad Bostel, Nathalie, and Pierre Dejax. Models and algorithms for container allocation problems on trains in a rapid transshipment shunting yard, shunting yard operations, Theoretical aspects and applications. European Journal of Operational Research 220.1, 1-14
10.
Classification yard
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A classification yard or marshalling yard is a railway yard found at some freight train stations, used to separate railway cars on to one of several tracks. First the cars are taken to a track, sometimes called a lead or a drill, from there the cars are sent through a series of switches called a ladder onto the classification tracks. Larger yards tend to put the lead on an artificially built hill called a hump to use the force of gravity to propel the cars through the ladder, freight trains that consist of isolated cars must be made into trains and divided according to their destinations. Thus the cars must be shunted several times along their route in contrast to a unit train and this shunting is done partly at the starting and final destinations and partly in classification yards. Flat yards are constructed on ground, or on a gentle slope. Freight cars are pushed by a locomotive and coast to their required location, hump yards are the largest and most effective classification yards, with the largest shunting capacity, often several thousand cars a day. The heart of these yards is the lead track on a small hill over which an engine pushes the cars. As concerns speed regulation, there are two types of hump yards—without or with mechanisation by retarders, in the old non-retarder yards braking was usually done in Europe by railroaders who laid skates onto the tracks. The skate or chock was manually placed on one or both of the rails so that the treadles or rims of the wheel or wheels caused frictional retardation, in the United States this braking was done by riders on the cars. In the modern retarder yards this work is done by mechanized rail brakes called retarders and they are operated either pneumatically or hydraulically. Pneumatic systems are prevalent in the United States, France, Belgium, Russia and China, while hydraulic systems are used in Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. In the United States, many classification bowls have more than 40 tracks—up to 72—which are often divided into six to ten tracks in each balloon loop. Bailey Yard in North Platte, Nebraska, United States, the worlds largest classification yard, is a hump yard, notably, in Europe, Russia and China, all major classification yards are hump yards. Europes largest hump yard is that of Maschen near Hamburg, Germany, the second largest is in the port of Antwerp, Belgium. According to the PRRT&HS PRR Chronology, the first hump yard in the United States was opened May 11,1903 as part of the Altoona Yards at Bells Mills. Other sources report the PRR yard at Youngwood, PA which opened in the 1880s to serve the Connellsville coke fields as the first U. S. hump yard. Gravity yards are operated similarly to hump yards but, in contrast to the latter, thus, only few gravity yards were ever built, sometimes requiring massive earthwork. Most gravity yards were built in Germany and Great Britain, a few also in some other European countries, in the USA, there were only very few old gravity yards, one of the few gravity yards in operation today is CSXs Readville Yard south of Boston, Massachusetts
11.
Branch line
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A branch line is a secondary railway line which branches off a more important through route, usually a main line. A very short branch line may be called a spur line, david Blyth Hanna, the first president of the Canadian National Railway, said that although most branch lines cannot pay for themselves, they are essential to make main lines pay. Many British branch lines were closed as a result of the Beeching Axe in the 1960s, the smallest branch line that is still in operation in the UK is the Stourbridge Town Branch Line from Stourbridge Junction going to Stourbridge Town. Operating on a track, the journey is 0.8 miles long. Examples of spur lines in Singapore include, Changi Extension Line, examples of spur lines in Hong Kong include, Lok Ma Chau Spur Line, South Tseung Kwan O Spur Line, Racecourse Spur Line. In North America, little-used branch lines are sold by large railroads to become new common carrier short-line railroads of their own. They were typically built to standards, utilizing lighter rail. In the United States, abandonment of branch lines was a byproduct of deregulation of the rail industry through the Staggers Act. The Princeton Branch is a rail line and service owned and operated by New Jersey Transit in the U. S. state of New Jersey. The line is a branch of the Northeast Corridor Line. Also known as the Dinky Line, at 2.9 mi it is the shortest scheduled commuter rail line in the United States. The run takes 4 minutes,47 seconds, New Zealand once had a very extensive network of branch lines, especially in the South Island regions of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. Many were built in the late 19th century to open up inland regions for farming, today, many of the branch lines have been closed, including almost all of the general-purpose country lines. Those that remain serve ports or industries far from main lines such as mines, logging operations, large dairying factories. In Auckland and Wellington, two lines in each city exist solely for commuter passenger trains. For more, see the list of New Zealand railway lines
12.
Switching and terminal railroad
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A switching and terminal railroad is a freight railroad company whose primary purpose is to perform local switching services or to own and operate a terminal facility. Switching is a type of operation done within the limits of a yard and it generally consists of making up and breaking up trains, storing and classifying cars, serving industries within yard limits, and other related purposes. These movements are made at speed under special yard rules. A terminal facility can include a freight station, train ferry. Its purpose is to connect larger carriers to other modes of transport or other carriers and these companies may be jointly owned by several major carriers, examples include the Belt Railway of Chicago, Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis, and Conrail Shared Assets Operations. The Internal Revenue Service provides tax incentives for this type of company and they may also be created when a larger railroad abandons an unprofitable line, and a short-line railroad takes over operations to connect shippers to the larger company
13.
Tractive force
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In railway engineering, the term tractive effort is often used synonymously with tractive force to describe the pulling or pushing capability of a locomotive. The published tractive force value for any vehicle may be theoretical—that is, the term tractive effort is often qualified as starting tractive effort, continuous tractive effort and maximum tractive effort. The product of μ and m is the factor of adhesion, Starting tractive effort, Starting tractive effort is the tractive force that can be generated at a standstill. This figure is important on railways because it determines the maximum weight that a locomotive can set into motion. Maximum tractive effort, Maximum tractive effort is defined as the highest tractive force that can be generated under any condition that is not injurious to the vehicle or machine. In most cases, maximum tractive effort is developed at low speed, due to the relationship between power, velocity and force, described as, P = vF or P/v = F tractive effort inversely varies with speed at any given level of available power. Continuous tractive effort is often shown in graph form at a range of speeds as part of a tractive effort curve, the period of time for which the maximum continuous tractive effort may be safely generated is usually limited by thermal considerations. Such as temperature rise in a traction motor, specifications of locomotives often include tractive effort curves, showing the relationship between tractive effort and velocity. The shape of the graph is shown at right, the line AB shows operation at the maximum tractive effort, the line BC shows continuous tractive effort that is inversely proportional to speed. Tractive effort curves often have graphs of rolling resistance superimposed on them—the intersection of the rolling resistance graph, once in motion, the train will develop additional drag as it accelerates due to aerodynamic forces, which increase with the square of the speed. Drag may also be produced at speed due to truck hunting, if acceleration continues, the train will eventually attain a speed at which the available tractive force of the locomotive will exactly offset the total drag, causing acceleration to cease. This top speed will be increased on a due to gravity assisting the motive power. Tractive effort can be calculated from a locomotives mechanical characteristics, or by actual testing with drawbar strain sensors. Power at rail is a term for the available power for traction, that is. An estimate for the effort of a single cylinder steam locomotive can be obtained from the cylinder pressure, cylinder area, stroke of the piston. The torque developed by the motion of the piston depends on the angle that the driving rod makes with the tangent of the radius on the driving wheel. For a more useful value an average value over the rotation of the wheel is used, the driving force is the torque divided by the wheel radius. Modern locomotives with roller bearings were probably underestimated, european designers used a constant of 0.6 instead of 0.85, so the two cannot be compared without a conversion factor
14.
Torque
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Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
15.
Driving wheel
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On a steam locomotive, a driving wheel is a powered wheel which is driven by the locomotives pistons. On diesel and electric locomotives, the wheels may be directly driven by the traction motors. Coupling rods are not usually used, and it is common for each axle to have its own motor. Jackshaft drive and coupling rods were used in the past but their use is now confined to shunting locomotives, on an articulated locomotive or a duplex locomotive, driving wheels are grouped into sets which are linked together within the set
16.
Tugboat
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A tug is a boat or ship that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them. Tugboats are powerful for their size and strongly built, and some are ocean-going, some tugboats serve as icebreakers or salvage boats. Early tugboats had steam engines, but today most have diesel engines, many tugboats have firefighting monitors, allowing them to assist in firefighting, especially in harbors. Seagoing tugs fall into four categories, The standard seagoing tug with model bow that tows its payload on a hawser. The notch tug which can be secured in a notch at the stern of a specially designed barge and this configuration is dangerous to use with a barge which is in ballast or in a head- or following sea. Therefore, notch tugs are usually built with a towing winch and these units stay combined under virtually any sea conditions and the tugs usually have poor sea-keeping designs for navigation without their barges attached. Vessels in this category are considered to be ships rather than tugboats. These vessels must show navigation lights compliant with those required of ships rather than required of tugboats. Articulated tug and barge units also utilize mechanical means to connect to their barges, the tug slips into a notch in the stern and is attached by a hinged connection. ATBs generally utilize Intercon and Bludworth connecting systems, aTBs are generally staffed as a large tugboat, with between seven and nine crew members. The typical American ATB operating on the east coast customarily displays navigational lights of a towing vessel pushing ahead, compared to seagoing tugboats, harbour tugboats are generally smaller and their width-to-length ratio is often higher, due to the need for a lower draught. In smaller harbours these are also termed lunch bucket boats, because they are only manned when needed and only at a minimum. The number of tugboats in a harbour varies with the harbour infrastructure, things to take into consideration includes ships with/without bow thrusters and forces like wind, current and waves and types of ship. River tugs are also referred to as towboats or pushboats and their hull designs would make open ocean operation dangerous. River tugs usually do not have any significant hawser or winch and their hulls feature a flat front or bow to line up with the rectangular stern of the barge, often with large pushing knees. Tugboat engines typically produce 500 to 2,500 kW, for safety, tugboats engines often feature two of each critical part for redundancy. A tugboats power is stated by its engines horsepower and its overall bollard pull. The largest commercial harbour tugboats in the 2000s-2010s, used for towing container ships or similar, had around 60-65 tons of bollard pull, Tugboats are highly maneuverable, and various propulsion systems have been developed to increase maneuverability and increase safety
17.
Coupling rod
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A coupling rod or side rod connects the driving wheels of a locomotive. Steam locomotives in particular usually have them, but some diesel and electric locomotives, especially older ones and shunters, the coupling rods transfer the power to all driving wheels. Locomotion No 1 was the first locomotive to employ coupling rods rather than chains, in the 1930s reliable roller bearing coupling rods were developed. In general, all vehicles have spring suspension, without springs, irregularities in the track could lift wheels off the rail. Driving wheels are mounted so that they have around 1 inch of vertical motion. When there are only 2 coupled axles, this range of motion places only slight stress on the crank pins, with more axles, however, provision must be made to allow each axle to move vertically independently of the others without bending the rods. This may be done by hinging the side rod at each intermediate crank pin, either using the pin itself as a pin, or adding a hinge joint adjacent to the pin. An alternative is to use a rod that spans multiple axles with a scotch yoke used at each intermediate axle. This approach was common when side rods were used to link a jackshaft to 2 or more driving wheels on electric locomotives. The Swiss Ce 6/8II Crocodile locomotive is a prominent example, the coupling rods off-center attachment to the crank pin of the driving wheel inevitably creates an eccentric movement and vibration when in motion. To compensate for this, the wheels of an inside-frame locomotive always had built-in counterweights to offset the angular momentum of the coupling rods. On outside-frame locomotives, the counterweight could be on the wheel itself, or it could be on the crank outside the frame. Where part of the motion is non-circular, for example, the motion of a piston rod. As a result, a chosen to minimize the total vibration will not minimize the vertical component of the vibration. The vertical component of the vibration that could not be eliminated because of the weight needed to balance the pistons is called hammering and this is destructive to both the locomotive and the roadbed. In some locomotives, this hammering can be so intense that at speed, unfortunately, hammering is inherent to conventional two-cylinder piston-driven steam locomotives and that is one of the several reasons they have been retired from service. Initially, coupling rods were made of steel
18.
SJ U
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They were built by ASEA, Nyqvist och Holm, Motala, ASJ Falun and Thune between 1926 and 1956. NSB gave the class the designation El 10, during the 1920s the Swedish State Railways started a program to electrify parts of their network. This caused a need for electric shunters on the West Main Line, a procurement was attempted from Switzerland, but no order was ever made. With the order of the D Class locomotives, SJ decided to order a shunter built with the same components, the initial order was for three Ua-locomotives were made in 1926 with delivery the following year. The motors were built by ASEA while the components were built by Nydqvist och Holm. The locomotives worked well, but had problems with the sight from the cab in one direction, the Ub series was built by both NOHAB and ASJ Falun. The first delivery was ordered in 1929, and from 1930 to 1950,90 units were delivered, from 1942 some of the units were also built by Motala. The proved highly economic, as they could replace steam locomotives for shunting. In 1933, a single version was delivered, and given the designation Uc. The final batch of 25 units was ordered in 1954 and delivered 1955 and 1956, the Motala-built units had a different configuration with a higher maximum speed and were designated Ud. During the 1980s SJ started a program to upgrade the class, with the improvement being the installation of a new. From 1987 to 1991, Sixty Ub and sixteen Ud were rebuilt and given the designation Ue and Uf, the first rebuilt unit was painted gray, but all later units were instead painted orange after complaints from the employees. During the 1990s, the need for shunters decreased and the units started to become unreliable, SJ also started selling upgraded units to private operators. The last units were out of service in 2006. LKAB ordered 15 shunters for use at Narvik Port in Norway, of which 13 were delivered in 1931 and 1932 and these were built in Norway by Thune, with the electrical equipment supplied by ASEA, and numbered 22 through 35. Seven units became casualties after Narvik was bombed in 1940, two were scrapped and five were sent to ASEA to be reconstructed, after the repairs in 1942, the remained leased to Swedish operators until 1945, when they returned to Narvik. LKAB had a declining need for shunters due to effectivsation of the unloading of the ore trains in Narvik, by 1984, there was not more need for the units, and the limited shunting was instead done by a few diesel shunters. One of the units is preserved at the city museum, the Norwegian State Railways was also in need of electric shunters, and ordered 13 locomotives from ASJ with delivery from 1949 to 1952
19.
Diesel locomotive
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A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which power is conveyed to the driving wheels. Early internal combustion engine-powered locomotives and railmotors used gasoline as their fuel, soon after Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1892, it was considered for railway propulsion. Progress was slow, however, as several problems had to be overcome, power transmission was a primary concern. As opposed to steam and electric engines, internal combustion engines work efficiently only within a range of turning frequencies. In light vehicles, this could be overcome by a clutch, in heavy railway vehicles, mechanical transmission never worked well or wore out too soon. Experience with early gasoline powered locomotives and railcars was valuable for the development of diesel traction, one step towards diesel-electric transmission was the petrol-electric vehicle, such as the Acsev Weitzer railmotor, which could operate from batteries and electric overhead wires too. Steady improvements in diesel design gradually reduced its size and improved its power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Once the concept of drive was accepted, the pace of development quickened. In 1930, Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom delivered two 1,200 hp locomotives using engines of Sulzer design to Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway of Argentina, currently, almost all diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, although the diesel-hydraulic type was widely used between the 1950s and 1970s. The Soviet diesel locomotive TEP80-0002 lays claim to the speed record for a diesel railed vehicle. In 1894, a 20 h. p. two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks, in 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine, following the expiration of Dr. Rudolf Diesels patent in 1912, his engine design was successfully applied to marine propulsion and stationary applications. However, the massiveness and poor power-to-weight ratio of early engines made them unsuitable for propelling land-based vehicles. Therefore, the potential as a railroad prime mover was not initially recognized. This changed as development reduced the size and weight of the engine, the worlds first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur-Romanshorn Railroad in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam, Sulzer had been manufacturing Diesel engines since 1898. During further test runs in 1913 several problems were found, after the First World War broke out in 1914, all further trials were stopped
20.
Hood (car)
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The hood or bonnet is the hinged cover over the engine of motor vehicles that allows access to the engine compartment for maintenance and repair. In British terminology, hood refers to a cover over the passenger compartment of the car. On passenger cars, a hood may be held down by a concealed latch and it is designed to protect a car from thefts, damage and sudden hood opening on the road. The hood release system is common on the most of vehicles and usually consists of interior hood latch handle, hood release cable, the hood latch handle is usually located below the steering wheel, beside the drivers seat or set into the door frame. When a driver pulls a hood latch handle the hood panel pops up, on race cars or cars with aftermarket hoods the hood may be held down by hood pins. A hood may sometimes contain a hood ornament, hood scoop, power bulge, hoods are typically made out of steel, but aluminum is rapidly gaining popularity with auto companies. Aftermarket manufacturers may construct hoods out of fiberglass, carbon fiber, dry carbon, aftermarket hoods are usually sold unpainted or come primered in flat matte black paint. It means that such hoods require additional painting, to choose a paint that match vehicles original shade and hue, special color code is used. This code is printed in the label that is located under the hood or on the driver side door jamb. Some car owners however prefer to leave their black primed hoods unpainted, carbon fiber custom hoods require no painting, as they already come with protective clear coating. In Japan and Europe, regulations have come into effect in recent years that place a limit on the severity of head injury when struck by a motor vehicle. This is leading to more advanced designs, as evidenced by multicone hood inner panel designs as found on the Mazda RX-8. Other changes are being made to use the hood as an active structure and this may be achieved by mechanical or pyrotechnic devices
21.
Slug (railroad)
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A railroad slug is an accessory to a diesel-electric locomotive. Instead, it is connected to a locomotive, called the mother, which provides the electrical power to operate the traction motors. A slug is used to increase adhesive weight, allowing power to be applied at a lower speed. They are often used in low-speed operations such as switching operations in yards, at low speeds, a diesel-electric locomotive prime mover is capable of producing more electricity than its traction motors can use effectively. Extra power would cause the wheels to slip and possibly overheat the traction motors. A slug increases the number of traction motors available to the locomotive, in addition the load on each traction motor is reduced, which helps prevent overheating from excess current. Slugs typically carry ballast to increase their weight and improve traction, large blocks of concrete are frequently used for this purpose, substituting for the weight of the now-absent prime mover. Slugs can be new or converted from existing locomotives. Conversion has enjoyed popularity as a way to reuse otherwise obsolete locomotives, especially those with worn-out diesels, there are several types of slug, distinguished by intended use. Note that as with diesel locomotives in general, this division is not absolute, a yard slug is designed for switching, and therefore is built to increase visibility in low speed operation. It has a low body and no cab, allowing the engineer or driver in the unit to see past it. Mother-slug sets are used in switching, hump yard switching. Some are radio controlled without an operating engineer present in the cab, a hump slug is designed for even slower operation than a yard slug. They are often 6 axle slugs and are paired with lower powered six axle locomotives. They are designed for the purpose of pushing a long cut of cars over a hump at 2 to 3 miles per hour. Road slugs are intended to serve as part of a locomotive consist for road haulage. They usually retain dynamic brakes, a feature useless at the low speeds encountered in switching service, in operation, they are used to provide extra traction at low speeds. As speed increases they are disconnected from the circuit and function as a control cab if they are in the lead
22.
Cow-calf
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In North American railroading, a cow-calf locomotive is a set of switcher-type diesel locomotives. The set usually is a pair, some 3-unit sets were built, a cow is equipped with a driving cab, a calf is not. The two are coupled together and are connected with MU cables and brake lines so that both units can be operated from a single cab. Cows are analogous to A units and calves to B unit road locomotives, like the early EMD FT locomotives, the Cow-calf sets were typically built as mated pairs, with the Cow and calf sharing a number. However this was not always the case, with time many of the sets being broken up. Most cow-calf sets were built between the 1930s and the 1950s and they were built by several different makers, although General Motors Electro-Motive Division built far more than the others. As originally constructed, the units were typically used in hump yards where they spent much of their life pushing long trains over the hump for classification. There were, however, a few cases where this was not so. However, as with the three unit Cow-calf sets, such was very rare. The cow-calf concept was adopted on Queensland 2 ft gauge sugar cane railways with two locomotives being coupled permanently in multiple-unit mode with the cab of one removed and this was utilised by Isis Mill and by Mackay Sugar. The concept was used in the United Kingdom by British Rail to produce the unique Class 13 locomotives. EMD TR EMD TR1 EMD TR2 EMD TR3 EMD TR4 EMD TR5 EMD TR6 ALCO SSB-9 Baldwin S-8 British Rail Class 13 Russian TGEM10 Slug Twin unit
23.
Swiss Federal Railways
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Swiss Federal Railways is the national railway company of Switzerland. It is usually referred to by the initials of its German, French and Italian names, either concatenated as SBB CFF FFS, the Romansh version of its name, Viafiers federalas svizras, is not officially used. The company is headquartered in Bern and it used to be a government institution, but since 1999 it has been a special stock corporation whose shares are held by the Swiss Confederation or the Swiss cantons. Swiss Federal Railways is divided into three divisions and two groups, Passenger traffic Freight traffic Infrastructure Real estate Core services The corporation is led in an entrepreneurial manner, a performance agreement between Swiss Federal Railways and the Swiss Confederation defines the requirements and is updated every four years. At the same time the rates per train and track-kilometre are defined. Subsidiary SBB GmbH is responsible for traffic in Germany. It operates the Wiesentalbahn and the Seehas services, further subsidiaries are Thurbo, RegionAlps, AlpTransit Gotthard AG, Cisalpino AG and TiLo. The Swiss Federal Railways hold significant shares of the Zentralbahn and Lyria SAS, to maintain heritage, the Stiftung Historisches Erbe der SBB was founded in 2002. This foundation takes care of the rolling stock and runs a technical library in Bern, document and photographic archives. The metre gauge Brünigbahn was SBBs only non-standard gauge line, until it was out-sourced and merged with the Luzern-Stans-Engelberg-Bahn to form the Zentralbahn, SBB is often known as the worlds most on time type of transportation In the 19th century, all Swiss railways were owned by private ventures. The economic and political interests of companies led to lines being built in parallel. On 20 February 1898 the Swiss people agreed in a referendum to the creation of a railway company. In the meantime, the trains were run by the Swiss Confederation on behalf of the private companies, on 1 January 1999 the Swiss Federal Railway has been excluded from the Federal Administration and became a fully state-owned limited company regulated by public law. First class compartments were discontinued on 3 June 1956, and second and third class accommodation was reclassified as first and second class, in 1982 SBB introduced the Taktfahrplan, with trains for certain destinations leaving every 60 minutes, greatly simplifying the timetable. On December 12,2004 the first phase of Bahn2000, a programme to improve the companys services, was put into effect. The core element was the Zurich-Bern-Basel triangle, where travel times between the cities was reduced to one hour, resulting in good connections from these stations for most trains. Some connections between cities got two trains in each direction per hour or more, and the S-Bahn services were intensified to four or more trains per hour, because of these changes 90% of the timetable was changed, 12% more trains were scheduled and travel times generally improved. It was the greatest timetable change since the introduction of the Taktfahrplan, on 22 June 2005 a short circuit on a long distance power transmission line in central Switzerland led to a chain reaction
24.
Electrification
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Electrification is the process of powering by electricity and, in many contexts, the introduction of such power by changing over from an earlier power source. The broad meaning of the term, such as in the history of technology, economic history and this included the change over from line shaft and belt drive using steam engines and water power to electric motors. The electrification of particular sectors of the economy is called by such as factory electrification, household electrification. Electrification was called the greatest engineering achievement of the 20th Century by the National Academy of Engineering, the earliest commercial uses of electricity were electroplating and the telegraph. In the years of 1831–1832, Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic generators. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. Around 1832, Hippolyte Pixii improved the magneto by using a wire wound horseshoe, with the coils of conductor generating more current. André-Marie Ampère suggested a means of converting current from Pixiis magneto to DC using a rocking switch, later segmented commutators were used to produce direct current. William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone developed a telegraph around 1838-40, in 1840 Wheatstone was using a magneto that he developed to power the telegraph. Wheatstone and Cooke made an important improvement in electrical generation by using an electromagnet in place of a permanent magnet. The self-excited magnetic field dynamo did away with the battery to power electromagnets and this type of dynamo was made by several people in 1866. The first practical generator, the Gramme machine was made by Z. T Gramme, crompton improved the generator to allow better air cooling and made other mechanical improvements. Compound winding, which gave more stable voltage with load, improved operating characteristics of generators, the improvements in electrical generation technology increased the efficiency and reliability greatly in the 19th century. The first magnetos only converted a few percent of energy to electricity. By the end of the 19th century the highest efficiencies were over 90%, Sir Humphry Davy invented the carbon arc lamp in 1802 upon discovering that electricity could produce a light arc with carbon electrodes. However, it was not used to any extent until a practical means of generating electricity was developed. Carbon arc lamps were started by making contact between two electrodes, which were then separated to within a narrow gap. Because the carbon burned away, the gap had to be constantly readjusted, several mechanisms were developed to regulate the arc
25.
Electric locomotive
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An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board energy storage such as a battery or fuel cell. Electricity is used to smoke and take advantage of the high efficiency of electric motors. One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives, electrification results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs and lower energy costs. Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive engines, the power can come from clean or renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power and wind turbines. Electric locomotives are quiet compared to locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means electric locomotives are easier on the track, Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. They are used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the U. S. Shinkansen in Japan, China Railway High-speed in China, Electric locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently high traffic volumes, or in areas with advanced rail networks. Electric locomotives benefit from the efficiency of electric motors, often above 90%. Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows energy to be recovered during braking to put power back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems provide for regenerative braking. The chief disadvantage of electrification is the cost for infrastructure, overhead lines or third rail, substations, public policy in the U. S. interferes with electrification, higher property taxes are imposed on privately owned rail facilities if they are electrified. In Europe and elsewhere, railway networks are considered part of the transport infrastructure, just like roads, highways and waterways. Operators of the rolling stock pay fees according to rail use and this makes possible the large investments required for the technically and, in the long-term, also economically advantageous electrification. Because railroad infrastructure is owned in the U. S. railroads are unwilling to make the necessary investments for electrification. The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen and it was powered by galvanic cells. Davidson later built a locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a cylinder on each axle. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour for a distance of one and it was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use
26.
Newcastle upon Tyne
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Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
27.
North Eastern Railway (United Kingdom)
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The North Eastern Railway was an English railway company. It was incorporated in 1854, when four existing companies were combined and its main line survives to the present day as part of the East Coast Main Line between London and Edinburgh. Unlike many other pre-Grouping companies the NER had a compact territory. That district extended through Yorkshire, County Durham and Northumberland, with outposts in Westmorland and Cumberland, the only company penetrating its territory was the Hull & Barnsley, which it absorbed shortly before the main grouping. The NER was the only English railway to run regularly into Scotland. The total length of line owned was 4,990 miles, the headquarters were at York and the works at Darlington, Gateshead, York and elsewhere. Befitting the successor to the Stockton & Darlington Railway, the NER had a reputation for innovation and it was a pioneer in architectural and design matters and in electrification. In its final days it also began the collection became the Railway Museum at York. In 1913 the company achieved a revenue of £11,315,130 with working expenses of £7,220,784. Constituent companies of the NER are listed in order under the year of amalgamation. Their constituent companies are indented under the parent company with the year of amalgamation in parenthesis, if a company changed its name, the earlier names and dates are listed after the later name. The information for this section is drawn from Appendix E in Tomlinson. E. R. The four largest, at Newcastle, Darlington, York and Hull survive in transport use, York station was the hub of the system, and the headquarters of the line was located here. The basis for the present station was opened on 25 June 1877, until the advent of modern signalling, the 295-lever box was the largest manually worked signal box in Britain. Newcastle Central station, opened on 29 August 1850, became the largest on the NER, other principal stations were located at Sunderland, Darlington and Hull. The station at Leeds was a joint undertaking with the London, the NER was the first railway company in the world to appoint a full-time salaried architect to work with its chief engineer in constructing railway facilities. Some of the men appointed were based in, or active in, George Townsend Andrews was the first architect associated with the North Eastern Railway. He designed the first permanent station at York, along with others on the NER route and he also designed the Assembly Rooms in York
28.
LNER Class ES1
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British Rail Class ES1 is a class of two electric locomotives commissioned by the North Eastern Railway in 1902. Both locomotives passed to the London and North Eastern Railway in 1923 and then to British Railways in 1948, the North Eastern Railway was an enthusiastic and relatively early adopter of electric traction for railways. Passing through three tunnels, this line had gradients as steep as 1,27 and a number of sharp curves, the end-to-end journey on the branch was to be completed in 4.5 minutes. In 1900 General Electric and Thomson-Houston designed and built a locomotive of the type for the Milan-Varese railway in Italy. That railway opened in 1901, and the design proved successful. A contract was signed with the British Thomson-Houston company on 15 December 1902, British Thomson-Houston sub-contracted the mechanical parts to Brush Electrical Engineering Co. The electrified line was operational from 5 June 1905 and in the year both locomotives performed exceptionally well. In 1906 they were fitted with heaters, the men having complained they were too cold on a wintry mornings. A few years later the bow collectors originally fitted on their bonnets were removed, with few other changes they remained in operation until the line was de-electrified and they were replaced with diesel locomotives on 29 February 1964. The line was closed five years later, early photographs show the locomotives with CLASS ELECTRIC1 painted on the bufferbeams, but this does not appear in official records. In common with other LNER electric locomotives, no classification was given to these locomotives until 4 October 1945, on 14 June 1946, nos.1 &2 were renumbered to 6480/1, and under British Railways, they became nos. From 1968 ES1 was transferred to Leicester Railway Museum, after that closed, in 1977 it was taken into the National Collection of the National Railway Museum, and is currently on display at Locomotion, Shildon. SNCF BB1280, contemporary design, originally built for the Compagnie du chemin de fer de Paris à Orléans, also deriving from GE design The LNER Encyclopaedia on the ES1 Hoole, the Electric Locomotives of the North Eastern Railway. Hennigan, W. Hoole, Ken, Mallaband, Peter, Neve, E. Price, J. H. Proud, P. Yeadon, W. B. Fry, part 10B, Railcars and Electric Stock
29.
National Railway Museum Shildon
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National Railway Museum Shildon, also known as Locomotion, the National Railway Museum at Shildon or Shildon Locomotion Museum is a railway museum in Shildon, County Durham, England. The museum is a branch of the National Railway Museum, which is part of the Science Museum Group, Shildon acts as an annex, with important exhibits on display in the NRMs headquarters at York, though major exhibits are regularly rotated. The museum was opened on 22 October 2004 by Prime Minister Tony Blair, built at a cost of £11.3 million, it is based on the former Timothy Hackworth Victorian Railway Museum. The museum is operated in partnership with Durham County Council and was expected to bring 60,000 visitors a year to the small town, however, during its first six months, the museum attracted 94,000 visits. In the 12 months to March 2013, the museum had 230,000 visitors, NRM Shildon was shortlisted as one of the final five contenders in the Gulbenkian Prize, which is the largest arts prize in the United Kingdom. The museum is sited near Timothy Hackworths Soho Works on the worlds first passenger railway, the town was to become a major centre for British railway engineering thanks to the Shildon wagon works, which closed in 1984. It is served by all services on the line, operated by Northern, the museum is arranged as stops along the 1 km demonstration line with station direction board signs and information points on the trail between the car parks and the main collection building. The museum has an apron in front of the main shed and another short length of track for showing off resident locomotives. The trail starts at the 19th-century welcome building, the original Sans Pareil is on display here. The second building is Timothy Hackworths house and it contains several activities about the history of Shildon. Soho is a building that was a railway workshop, having originally been an iron merchant’s store. The fourth stop is the goods shed for the town, with most incoming and outgoing goods being delivered to the railway by horse. The building is partially from recycled stone sleeper blocks, the old fixing slots being visible in the wall. As private vehicles are not allowed beyond here for the 750-yard journey to the Collection a courtesy link bus, the Eco Bus, runs from near here on its 15-minute sequence. The railway stations parcel office is the part of the trail and at the junction. The coal drops were a point for steam locomotives. Wagons were hauled up an incline and the coal dropped down wooden chutes into the tender below, the light engine is an interactive pole that displays colours. You can change the name of the if you text in
30.
Shildon
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Shildon is a town in County Durham, in England. The population taken at the 2011 Census was 9,976 and it is situated 2 miles south east of Bishop Auckland,11 miles north of Darlington,13 miles from Durham,23 miles from Sunderland and 30 miles from Newcastle upon Tyne. Shildon is part of the Bishop Auckland parliamentary constituency, which has represented since 2005 by Helen Goodman MP for the Labour Party. Shildons earliest settlers were groups of people who lived during the Mesolithic period some 6,000 years ago and they lived by collecting wild plants and hunting wild animals. There was a prehistoric flint tool found in the Brusselton area which may have been of this date. Romans arrived in County Durham in the 1st century AD and built a line of forts along the Roman road leading north to Hadrians Wall, traces of Roman roads have been found at several places in Shildon, such as Brusselton Wood. Small settlements grew up in places alongside the course of the road, by the end of the Anglo-Saxon period the village was established as one of the settlements in the area. Various mediaeval settlements stood around Thickley, the Shildon area owes its growth to the rise of the East Durham coalfields in the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th century. The expansion of coal mining during the Industrial Revolution meant the traditional way of moving the coal along horse-drawn wagon ways was insufficient, at first static engines pulled the wagons, but were replaced by moving engines on railways. Shildon is considered to be the cradle of the railways, the town grew when the Stockton and Darlington Railway established its workshops in 1825. Steam locomotives such as the Sans Pareil and Royal George were built there, during this period the population grew to around 9,000. By 1855 it was a complex of workshops and other buildings. After the Second World War, Shildon had one of the biggest sidings complexes in Europe, the Shildon Works eventually closed in 1984. The site now houses Shildon Locomotion Museum, which opened in September 2004 and is an extension of the National Railway Museum, George Stephenson built a track from Witton Park to Stockton-on-Tees. Static engines pulled the wagons over Brussleton, after which they were attached to steam engines. The remains of an engine house can be seen at Brusselton. Originally the railway carried only coal, but demand led to passengers being carried, the first passenger train began its journey in Shildon on 27 September 1825. Shildon was the home of Timothy Hackworth, an innovator of the industry and builder of one of the first ever engines
31.
South Shields
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South Shields is a coastal town at the mouth of the River Tyne, England, about 4.84 miles downstream from Newcastle upon Tyne. Historically in County Durham, the town has a population of 75,337 and it is part of the metropolitan borough of South Tyneside which includes the towns of Jarrow and Hebburn. South Shields is represented in Parliament by Labour MP Emma Lewell-Buck, the first evidence of a settlement within what is now the town of South Shields dates from pre-historic times. Stone Age arrow heads and an Iron Age round house have been discovered on the site of Arbeia Roman Fort, the Roman garrison built a fort here around AD160 and expanded it around AD208 to help supply their soldiers along Hadrians Wall. Divisions living at the fort included Tigris bargemen, infantry from Iberia and Gaul, the fort was abandoned as the Roman Empire declined in the 4th century AD. Many ruins still exist today and some structures have been rebuilt as part of a modern museum, there is evidence that the site was used in the early post-Roman period as a British settlement. It is said in local folklore that a Viking ship was wrecked at Herd Sands in South Shields in its attempts to disembark at a cove nearby, other Viking ships were uncovered in South Shields Denmark Centre and nearby Jarrow. The current town was founded in 1245 and developed as a fishing port, the name South Shields developed from the Schele or Shield, which was a small dwelling used by fishermen. Another industry that was introduced, was that of salt-panning, later expanded upon in the 15th century, polluting the air, at the outbreak of the war in 1642, the North, West and Ireland supported the King, the South East and Presbyterian Scotland supported Parliament. In 1644 Parliaments Scottish Covenanter allies, in a battle, seized the town and its Royalist fortification. They also seized the town of Newburn, in the 19th century, coal mining, alkaline production and glass making led to a boom in the town. The population increased from 12,000 in 1801 to 75,000 by the 1860s, bolstered by migration from Ireland, Scotland. These industries played a part in creating wealth both regionally and nationally. Shipbuilding, previously a monopoly of the Freemen of Newcastle, became another prominent industry in the town, during World War I, German Zeppelin airships bombed South Shields in 1916. Later during World War II, the German Luftwaffe repeatedly attacked the town and caused damage to industries which supported the war effort. Particularly, a shelter in the market place of South Shields. Later controversially removed and the bodies interred elsewhere, in the 21st century, the local economy primarily includes port-related, ship repair and offshore industries, manufacturing, retail, the public sector and the ever-increasing role of tourism. This is illustrated by the new multi-million haven centre, dunes centre and seaside improvements in the coastal area, South Shields is situated in a peninsula setting, where the River Tyne meets the North Sea
32.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
33.
Coke (fuel)
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Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous, while coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes. Coke is used in preparation of producer gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, producer gas is produced by passing air over red-hot coke. Coke is also used to water gas. Historical sources dating to the 4th century describe the production of coke in ancient China, the Chinese first used coke for heating and cooking no later than the ninth century. By the first decades of the century, Chinese ironworkers in the Yellow River valley began to fuel their furnaces with coke. In 1589 a patent was granted to Thomas Proctor and William Peterson for making iron and steel and melting lead with earth-coal, sea-coal, turf, the patent contains a distinct allusion to the preparation of coal by cooking. In 1590 a patent was granted to the Dean of York to purify pit-coal, in 1620 a patent was granted to a company composed of William St. John, Robert Follensbee and other knights, mentioning the use of coke in smelting ores and manufacturing metals. In 1627 a patent was granted to Sir John Hacket and Octavius de Strada for a method of rendering sea-coal and pit-coal as useful as charcoal for burning in houses, without offense by smell or smoke. In 1603 Hugh Plat suggested that coal might be charred in an analogous to the way charcoal is produced from wood. In 1709 Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, cokes superior crushing strength allowed blast furnaces to become taller and larger. The ensuing availability of iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Before this time, iron-making used large quantities of charcoal, produced by burning wood, in the late 18th century, brick beehive ovens were developed, which allowed more control over the burning process. In 1768 John Wilkinson built a more practical oven for converting coal into coke, with greater skill in the firing, covering and quenching of the heaps, yields were increased from about 33 per cent to 65 per cent by the middle of the 19th century. The Scottish iron industry expanded rapidly in the second quarter of the 19th century. In 1802 a battery of beehives was set up near Sheffield, by 1870, there were 14,000 beehive ovens in operation on the West Durham coalfields, capable of producing 4.2 million tons of coke
34.
Third rail
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A third rail is a method of providing electric power to a railway locomotive or train, through a semi-continuous rigid conductor placed alongside or between the rails of a railway track. It is used typically in a transit or rapid transit system. Third rail systems are supplied from direct current electricity. The third-rail system of electrification is unrelated to the third used in dual gauge railways. Third-rail systems are a means of providing electric power to trains. On most systems, the rail is placed on the sleeper ends outside the running rails. The conductor rail is supported on ceramic insulators or insulated brackets, the trains have metal contact blocks called shoes which make contact with the conductor rail. The traction current is returned to the station through the running rails. The conductor rail is made of high conductivity steel. The conductor rails have to be interrupted at level crossings, crossovers, tapered rails are provided at the ends of each section, to allow a smooth engagement of the trains contact shoes. Because third rail systems present electric shock hazards close to the ground, a very high current must therefore be used to transfer adequate power, resulting in high resistive losses, and requiring relatively closely spaced feed points. The electrified rail threatens electrocution of anyone wandering or falling onto the tracks. This can be avoided by using platform screen doors, or the risk can be reduced by placing the rail on the side of the track away from the platform. There is also a risk of pedestrians walking onto the tracks at level crossings, the Paris Metro has graphic warning signs pointing out the danger of electrocution from urinating on third rails, precautions which Chicago did not have. The end ramps of conductor rails present a practical limitation on speed due to the impact of the shoe. The world speed record for a rail train is 174 km/h attained on 11 April 1988 by a British Class 442 EMU. In the event of a collision with an object, the beveled end ramps of bottom running systems can facilitate the hazard of having third rail penetrate the interior of a passenger car. This is believed to have contributed to the death of five passengers in the Valhalla train crash of 2015, third rail systems using top contact are prone to accumulations of snow, or ice formed from refrozen snow, and this can interrupt operations
35.
Pantograph (transport)
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A pantograph is an apparatus mounted on the roof of an electric train, tram or electric bus to collect power through contact with an overhead catenary wire. It is a type of current collector. Typically, a wire is used, with the return current running through the track. The term stems from the resemblance of some styles to the mechanical pantographs used for copying handwriting, the pantograph was invented in 1879 by Walter Reichel, chief engineer at Siemens & Halske in Germany. A flat slide-pantograph was invented in 1895 at the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad The familiar diamond-shaped roller pantograph was invented by John Q. Brown of the Key System shops for their commuter trains ran between San Francisco and the East Bay section of the San Francisco Bay Area in California. They appear in photographs of the first day of service,26 October 1903, for many decades thereafter, the same diamond shape was used by electric-rail systems around the world and remains in use by some today. The most common type of today is the so-called half-pantograph. Louis Faiveley invented this type of pantograph in 1955, the half-pantograph can be seen in use on everything from very fast trains to low-speed urban tram systems. The electric transmission system for electric rail systems consists of an upper. The pantograph is spring-loaded and pushes a contact shoe up against the underside of the wire to draw the current needed to run the train. The steel rails of the act as the electrical return. As the train moves, the shoe slides along the wire and can set up standing waves in the wires which break the contact. This means that on some systems adjacent pantographs are not permitted, pantographs are the successor technology to trolley poles, which were widely used on early streetcar systems. However, many of these networks, including Torontos, are undergoing upgrades to accommodate pantograph operation, as a precaution against loss of pressure in the second case, the arm is held in the down position by a catch. For high-voltage systems, the air supply is used to blow out the electric arc when roof-mounted circuit breakers are used. Pantographs may have either a single or a double arm, double-arm pantographs are usually heavier, requiring more power to raise and lower, but may also be more fault-tolerant. On railways of the former USSR, the most widely used pantographs are those with a double arm, some streetcars use double-arm pantographs, among them the Russian KTM-5, KTM-8, LVS-86 and many other Russian-made trams, as well as some Euro-PCC trams in Belgium
36.
Greenwood & Batley
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Greenwood & Batley were a large engineering manufacturer with a wide range of products, including armaments, electrical engineering, and printing and milling machinery. They also produced a range of railway locomotives under the brand name Greenbat. The works was in Armley, Leeds, UK, Thomas Greenwood and John Batley first set up their business in 1856, both having previously worked at Fairburn’s Wellington Foundry in Leeds. Their first premises, the Albion Foundry, was taken over from Thomas W. Lord, the foundry was located on East Street by the River Aire, however this quickly became too small for their needs and in 1859 they constructed the Albion Works in Armley Road, Leeds. In 1885 the company branched out into Flour and Oil Milling Machinery as a result of the acquisition of the business of Joseph Whitham, Perseverance Iron Works, Kirkstall Road, by 1888 the works covered 11 acres and employed around 1600 men. A rail connection with the Great Northern Railway was installed in 1890 to bring in raw materials, Greenwood & Batley rapidly became a giant of a company, manufacturing an incredible range of products. Their primary business was military equipment both in terms of machinery to make armaments and the production of such as bullets. They also produced some of the first tanks in the First World War, an early innovation was the installation of their own electricity generating station, completed in 1894. This allowed machine tools to be electrically driven rather than the traditional common shafts driven by steam, a further acquisition in 1896 saw Greenwood & Batley take over Smith, Beacock & Tannett, Victoria Foundry, Water Lane, Leeds. This company were the successors to the Murray Round Foundry and were involved in the manufacture of Machine Tools. The company was bought by Hunslet Holdings for £1. 65M who continued to use the Greenbat name for their battery locomotives, by 1984 the work had been transferred to Jack Lane and the Albion Works were mothballed. In 1987 the site was sold and the works demolished, testing Machines for strength of Material. For making Armour Plates, Ordnance, Gun Mountings and Ammunition, also for Small Arms Cartridges, Gunpowder, &c. rolling Mills for Metal Coining, Presses and Minting Machinery. The Albion, Leeds, and Anglo-American systems for Extraction of every kind of Vegetable Oil including Machinery for Preparing and Decorticating Seeds, Presses for making Cattle Feeding Cakes, Seed and Grain Elevators and Warehousing machinery. Improved Patented Machines for Preparing and Spinning Waste Silk, China Grass, Rhea, Ramie, frickarts Improved Corliss Steam Engines, single compound and triple expansion of the largest powers, for driving Factories, Mills, Electrical Installations, &c. Sole Manufacturers of The Brayton Patent Oil Engine, all kinds of Dynamos and Motors for Lighting or Transmission of Power. Speciality, Motors for electrically driven Machine Tools &c, de Lavals Patent Steam Turbine Motors, Turbine Dynamos, Turbine Pumps and Fans. Manufacturers of all kinds of Military Small Arms Ammunition e. g.303 British, self-propelling Torpedoes for the Navy, and Horse Shoes for the British Government
37.
Armley
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Armley is a district in the west of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. It starts less than 1 mile from Leeds city centre, like much of Leeds, Armley grew in the Industrial Revolution and had several mills, one of which is now the Armley Mills museum. Armley is predominantly and historically a working class area of the city, still retains many smaller industrial businesses. Armley is mentioned in the 1086 Domesday Book reference to, Ristone, at the time there were eight villagers in Ristone and Ermelai. The actual population is indeterminable as this only accounts for the head of household, Armley Mills, now the Armley Mills Industrial Museum, was the worlds largest woollen mill when it was built in 1788. In the 18th and 19th centuries Armley was, through its mills, many of the buildings standing in and around Armley were built in the 1800s, including many of the churches, schools, shops and houses. Ledgard Way is named after the entrepreneur, Samuel Ledgard, Armley also has picturesque views over the rest of Leeds from certain vantage points. William Tetley started his business of malters in Armley in 1700, from the 1870s until 1956, Armley was home to the J W Roberts asbestos mattress and boiler lining factory. This facility exposed residents to asbestos fibres and resulted in a cancer cluster which persists to this day. One of the victims June Hancock launched a court action against Turner & Newall, although the court case was successful, corporate restructuring had, as of 2005, avoided the case being settled. Hancocks story was the subject of a play, Dust, by Kenneth F. Yates, performed in Armley, the parish church, St Bartholomews, is home to a notable pipe organ built by the German organbuilder, Edmund Schulze. Originally built for Meanwood Towers in 1866-69, it was opened by S. S. Wesley and it was moved to St Bartholomews in 1879. Schulzes work, and this organ in particular, had influence on the development of British organ building in the 19th century. Both church and organ have been restored, the smaller Christ Church is located at the end of Theaker Lane nearer the centre of Armley. Legend has it that a pedlar called Charlie used to rest and water his pony and he apparently sold spicy shortbread to the citizens of Upper Armley for 1d a piece. Today the triangular-shaped park is known as Charlie or Charley Cake Park, according to Armley Through the Camera, written in 1901, the park was within memory of many present residents of Armley, a patch of wasteland. Some of them regularly played cricket on its turf There were two stations in Armley. Armley Moor railway station closed 1966, and Armley Canal Road railway station closed 1965, Armley Town Street includes two high street names, charity shops and food and independent retailers
38.
Leeds
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Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
39.
Middleton Railway
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The Middleton Railway is the worlds oldest continuously working public railway. It was founded in 1758 and is now a heritage railway, Coal has been worked in Middleton since the 13th century, from bell pits, gin pits and later day level or adits. Anne Leigh, heiress to the Middleton Estates, married Ralph Brandling from Felling near Gateshead on the River Tyne and they lived in Gosforth and left running of the Middleton pits to agents. In 1754, Richard Humble, from Tyneside, was his agent, Brandling was in competition with the Fentons in Rothwell who were able to transport coal into Leeds by river, putting the Middleton pits at considerable disadvantage. Humbles solution was to build waggonways which were common in his native north east, the first waggonway in 1755 crossed Brandling land and that of friendly neighbours to riverside staithes. In 1757 he began to build a waggonway towards Leeds, and to ensure its permanence Brandling sought ratification in an Act of Parliament, the first authorising the building of a railway. The Middleton Railway, the first railway to be granted powers by Act of Parliament, carried coal cheaply from the Middleton pits to Casson Close, not all the land belonged to Brandling, and the Act gave him power to obtain wayleave. Otherwise the line was privately financed and operated, initially as a waggonway using horse-drawn waggons, around 1799 the wooden tracks began to be replaced with superior iron edge rails to a gauge of 4 ft 1 in. In 1812 the Middleton Railway became the first commercial railway to use steam locomotives successfully, murrays design was based on Richard Trevithicks Catch me who can, adapted to use Blenkinsops rack and pinion system, and probably was called Salamanca. This 1812 locomotive was the first to use two cylinders and these drove the pinions through cranks which were at right angles, so that the engine would start wherever it came to rest. In 1812, Salamanca was the first commercial steam locomotive to operate successfully, three other locomotives were built for the Middleton colliery, and the railway was locomotive-operated for more than twenty years. A number of other firsts can be claimed by the railway, being the first line to use steam locomotives regularly on freight trains it was naturally the first line to employ a train driver. The worlds first regular, professional train driver was a former pit surface labourer named James Hewitt who had trained by Fenton. The first member of the public to be killed by a locomotive was almost certainly a 13-year-old boy named John Bruce killed in February 1813 whilst running alongside the tracks, Leeds Mercury reported that this would operate as a warning to others. Though it was considered a marvel at the time, a child who witnessed it was less impressed, the child, David Joy, became a successful engineer. Once I remember going with my nurse, who held my hand while we stood to watch the engine with its train of coal-wagons pass and we were told it would come up like a flash of lightning, but it only came lumbering on like a cart. This was the result of the tampering with the safety valves. Another boiler explosion occurred on 12 February 1834, again killing the driver and this time the most likely cause was a badly worn boiler, kept going by in-house repairs which were no longer expertly carried out after Blenkinsops death
40.
Tyne and Wear Metro
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It has been described as the first modern light rail system in the United Kingdom. The initial network opened between 1980 and 1984, using converted former railway lines, linked with new tunnel infrastructure, extensions to the original network were opened in 1991 and 2002. In 2015/1640 million passenger journeys were made on the network and it is the second-largest of the four metro systems in the United Kingdom, after the London Underground, the others being the Docklands Light Railway and the Glasgow Subway. The system is owned and operated by the transport authority Nexus. Between 2010 and 2017 it was operated under contract by DB Regio Tyne & Wear Limited, on 1 April 2017, this contract ended, and Nexus took over direct operation of the system for a planned period of two years. The present system uses much former railway infrastructure, mostly constructed between 1839 and 1882, one of the oldest parts being the Newcastle & North Shields Railway opened in 1839. In 1938, the south of the Tyne between Newcastle and South Shields was also electrified. The Newcastle-South Shields line was de-electrified in 1963, and the north Tyneside routes were de-electrified in 1967 and this new system was intended to form the centrepiece of an integrated transport network, with buses acting as feeders to purpose-built interchanges. The plans were approved by the Tyneside Metropolitan Railway Bill which was passed by Parliament in July 1973, around 70% of the funding for the scheme came from a central government grant, with the remainder coming from local sources. The final cost of the project in 1984 prices was £265 million Some extensions to the system have since been built. A short 3. 5km extension from Bank Foot to Newcastle Airport was opened in 1991, in 2002 an 11-mile extension was opened from Pelaw to South Hylton via Sunderland. Three intermediate stations on the route were rebuilt, and three new ones were added, when the Metro opened it was intended to form part of an integrated public transport system, with the local bus network reconfigured to act as feeders for the Metro. Integration lasted until deregulation of bus routes in 1986 and it is however still possible to buy Transfare tickets that combine a Metro and bus journey. New ticket machines accepting notes and cards at all stations and barriers at 13 main stations were installed between 2011 and 2014, the modernisation of Haymarket station, funded through private development, was completed on 29 March 2010, and a new station at Simonside opened in March 2008. An upgrade of platforms at Sunderland and the modernisation of several other stations was included in this phase, lifts have been replaced at several Metro stations since 2009 as part of the programme. The programme also includes overhauling infrastructure including communications, track and overhead lines, structures. Refurbishment of 90 Metro trains and modernisation of 45 stations, a new system, overhaul and maintenance of structures such as bridges, tunnels, track. North Shields station has also been rebuilt and this work started in 2010 and cost £255. 3m
41.
Hunslet Engine Company
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The Hunslet Engine Company was founded in 1864 in Hunslet, Leeds, England. The company manufactured steam-powered shunting locomotives for over 100 years, as of 2012 the company is part of the LH Group, a subsidiary The Hunslet Steam Company maintains and manufactures build steam locomotives. The first engine built in 1865 was Linden, a standard gauge 0-6-0 saddle tank delivered to Brassey and Ballard and this basic standard gauge shunting and short haul industrial engine was to be the main-stay of Hunslet production for many years. In 1871, James Campbell bought the company for £25,000, in 1870, Hunslet constructed their first narrow gauge engine Dinorwic, a diminutive 1 ft 10 3⁄4 in gauge 0-4-0 saddle tank for the Dinorwic Slate Quarry at Llanberis. This engine later renamed Charlie was the first of twenty similar engines built for this quarry and this quarry was linked to Port Dinorwic by a 4 ft gauge line for which Hunslet built three 0-6-0T engines Dinorwic, Padarn and Velinheli. A large number of short wheelbase tank locomotives were supplied to the Manchester Ship Canal Company in 1881, the first Hunslet engine built for export was their No. 10, an 0-4-0ST shipped via Hull and Rotterdam to Java, by 1902, Hunslet had supplied engines to over thirty countries worldwide, often opening up new markets. From 1873 onwards a number of Hunslet locomotives were exported to Australia for use on both main line and lesser lines. In 1902, the company was reorganised as a limited company with the name Hunslet Engine Company Ltd. but was still a family business. Following family disagreements both Will and the youngest brother Gordon soon left the company and an injury left Robert disabled. The post of manager was advertised and Edgar Alcock, then assistant works manager at the Gorton Foundry of Beyer-Peacock, was appointed in 1912. Alcock came to Hunslet at a time of change when the industry was being asked for far larger and this was true at Hunslet which found its overseas customers asking for very large engines. One example was an order for two 86 ton 2-8-4 tank locomotives from the Antofagasta, Chile & Bolivia Railway and it continued to produce limited numbers of locomotives, significant examples being lightweight narrow gauge 4-6-0T designs for the War Department Light Railways. A year or so later the design formed the basis for an 0-8-0 tender engine for India. Many other large-engine orders were received in these inter-war years, throughout the 1930s Hunslet worked on the perfecting of the diesel locomotive. During the second war, the company again served the country well in the manufacture of munitions. Noteworthy is their role in the production of the Austerity 0-6-0ST shunting locomotive and this was an austerity revision of the 50550 shunter design, itself a development of the Hunslet 48150 shunter design, of which 16 had been built pre-war. Hunslet produced 149 Austerities during the hostilities, and sub-contracted construction of almost 200 more, a total of 485 Austerities being built by Hunslet between 1943 and 1964 of which over 70 examples have entered preservation
42.
Flywheel energy storage
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Flywheel energy storage works by accelerating a rotor to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as rotational energy. Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the flywheel, advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon-fiber composites, suspended by magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure. Such flywheels can come up to speed in a matter of minutes – reaching their energy capacity much more quickly than other forms of storage. A typical system consists of a rotor suspended by bearings inside a chamber to reduce friction, connected to a combination electric motor. First generation flywheel energy storage systems use a large steel flywheel rotating on mechanical bearings, newer systems use carbon-fiber composite rotors that have a higher tensile strength than steel and are an order of magnitude less heavy. Magnetic bearings are used instead of mechanical bearings, to reduce friction. Other components are hub and shaft, the expense of refrigeration led to the early dismissal of low-temperature superconductors for use in magnetic bearings. However, high-temperature superconductor bearings may be economical and could extend the time energy could be stored economically. Hybrid bearing systems are most likely to see use first, high-temperature superconductor bearings have historically had problems providing the lifting forces necessary for the larger designs, but can easily provide a stabilizing force. Therefore, in hybrid bearings, permanent magnets support the load, the reason superconductors can work well stabilizing the load is because they are perfect diamagnets. If the rotor tries to drift off center, a force due to flux pinning restores it. This is known as the stiffness of the bearing. Since flux pinning is an important factor for providing the stabilizing and lifting force, HTSC powders can be formed into arbitrary shapes so long as flux pinning is strong. Compared with other ways to store electricity, FES systems have long lifetimes, high specific energy, the energy efficiency of flywheels, also known as round-trip efficiency, can be as high as 90%. Typical capacities range from 3 kWh to 133 kWh, rapid charging of a system occurs in less than 15 minutes. The high specific energies often cited with flywheels can be a little misleading as commercial systems built have much lower energy, for example 11 W·h/kg. The maximum specific energy of a rotor is mainly dependent on two factors, the first being the rotors geometry, and the second being the properties of the material being used. A constant-thickness disc geometry has a factor of K =0.606
43.
Sentinel Waggon Works
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Sentinel Waggon Works Ltd was a British company based in Shrewsbury, Shropshire that made steam-powered lorries, railway locomotives, and later, diesel engined lorries and locomotives. Alley & MacLellan was founded in 1875 and was based in Polmadie and this company continued in operation until the 1950s. They began producing steam road vehicles in 1905 and in 1906 introduced a 5 ton vertical-boiler wagon, around 1915 Alley & McLellan moved the steam wagon production to a new factory in England and it continued under a separate company. And in 1918 the company opened a third factory in Worcester specialising in valve manufacture. Both factory buildings were prefabricated in Glasgow for local assembly and in both cases core Scottish employees transferred to the new sites, Alley & MacLellan continued to operate in the original Sentinel Works in Jessie Street, Glasgow until the 1950s. They produced a range of engineering products including compressors, valves. The Sentinel name continued to be used for the products of the original Glasgow works until the mid 20th Century, a new company Sentinel Waggon Works Ltd was formed when steam wagon production was switched to a new factory, opened at Shrewsbury in 1915. There were several slight changes to the name over the companys lifetime when further infusions of working capital were required to obviate financial problems. Alley & MacLellans early wagon was so successful that it remained in production with few updates until the launch of Sentinels famous Super in 1923. The company also produced steam locomotives and railcars, for railway companies. In 1917, the company was bought by William Beardmore & Co. Ltd, in 1920, after financial problems, the company was reorganised as Sentinel Waggon Works Ltd. In 1934 Sentinel launched a new and advanced steamer – the S type which had a single-acting 4-cylinder underfloor engine with longitudinal crankshaft and an overhead worm-drive axle. Their Sentinel Waggon Works design of 1935 led to the production of 3,750 Sentinel Standards in the seventeen years that followed, the biggest selling steam lorry ever. It was lighter and featured a drivers cab with a set-back boiler and was available in four, six and eight-wheel form, designated S4, S6. In spite of its design, however, it could not compete with contemporary diesel trucks for all-round convenience and payload capacity. It was not the end of Sentinels involvement with steam, however and it has been stated that Sentinel were never paid for the last batch of the Río Turbio production run. At least two of the Río Turbio waggons survive in Argentina to this day, in 1946 Thomas Hills signed an agency agreement with Sentinel for repair and maintenance of diesel vehicles. In 1947 Sentinel offered to extend the agreement for diesel vehicles to include the steam locomotives, in 1947 the company became Sentinel Ltd, and had developed a new range of diesel lorries
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Electro-diesel locomotive
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An electro-diesel locomotive is powered either from an electricity supply or by using the onboard diesel engine. For the most part, these locomotives are built to serve regional and they may be designed or adapted mainly for electric use, mainly for diesel use or to work well as either electric or diesel. This is effectively an electric locomotive with a small auxiliary diesel prime mover intended only for low-speed or short-distance operation. Some of these, such as the British Rail Class 74, were converted from electric locomotives, the Southern Region of British Railways used these locomotives to cross non-electrified gaps and to haul boat trains that used tramways at the ports of Southampton and Weymouth. For economy, the engine and its generator are considerably smaller than the electric capacity. The Southern types were of 1,600 hp or Type 3 rating as electrics, later classes had as much as 2,500 hp on electric power, but still the same diesel engines. Despite this large difference, their comparable tractive efforts were much closer and so they could start and work equally heavy trains as diesels and this is effectively a diesel locomotive with auxiliary electric motors, usually operating from 750 V DC third rail where non-electric traction is banned. Once out of the tunnels, the engines are started and operation is as a diesel locomotive. With modern electronics, it is easier to construct an electro-diesel locomotive or multiple-unit which is equally at home running at high speeds both under the wires and under diesel power. They may also be used on long routes to take advantage of shorter sections of electrified main lines. Bombardier has built dual-mode variants of its AGC series for the French operator SNCF, voith Futura, a concept locomotive rebuilt from DB240002. Bombardier TRAXX Last Mile Diesel, mainly electric, orders signed 2010, to be delivered probably 2012. Five Electro-diesel versions of the Stadler Flirt have been ordered for service in the Valle dAosta region, PESA 111Ed Gama Marathon – mainly electric, with auxiliary diesel engine enabling last-mile operation on non-electrified tracks. Gama Marathon was first presented in 2012 at InnoTrans Berlin, the locomotive then underwent a series of tests with rail operators Lotos Kolej and PKP Intercity, after successful conclusion it was offered on the market. In July 2015 the Polish train-operating company Locomotiv bought the prototype, newag Dragon – version of this electric freight locomotive for the Freightliners Polish branch, Freightliner PL Sp. Z o. o. is equipped with diesel engine. These included, ED16, ED18, and TEU1 narrow gauge models OPE1, OPE2, NP1, PE2 and this series is a rebuild of FEVE1.000 Series locomotive. CAF Bitrac 3600,3000 V DC overhead wires, october 2007 order for 9 freight Co-Co locomotives
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GWR 9400 Class
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The Great Western Railway 9400 Class is a class of 0-6-0 pannier tank steam locomotive, used for shunting and banking duties. The first ten 9400s were the last steam engines built by the GWR, after nationalisation in 1948, another 200 were built by private contractors for British Railways. Most had very short working lives as the duties for which they were designed disappeared through changes in working practices or were taken over by diesel locomotives, two locomotives survived into preservation, one as part of the National Collection. The 9400 class was the development in a long lineage of tank locomotives that can be directly traced to the 645 Class of 1872. Over the decades details altered, the most significant being the adoption of Belpaire fireboxes necessitating pannier tanks, the advantage was a useful increase in boiler power, but there was a significant weight penalty that restricted route availability. The 10 GWR-built locomotives had superheaters but the remainder did not, the first ten 9400s were built by the Great Western and were the last steam engines built by the company. After the nationalisation of Britains railways in 1948, private contractors built another 200 for British Railways, the 9400s were numbered 9400–9499, 8400–8499 and 3400–3409. BR gave them the power classification 4F, the 9400 class were used on Paddington empty stock work right up to the end of steam on the Western Region of British Railways. A familiar sight at the stops at departure side in 1964–1965 was a filthy 9400 class locomotive devoid of number plates simmering at the head of a rake of British Railways Mark 1 coaches. Numbers 8400 to 8406 served as bank engines on the Lickey Incline after its transferral to the Western Region, in retrospect they were a wasteful investment, many having very short lives of less than 10 years as their intended work dried up and diesels took over their remaining duties. 8447 holds the record of the shortest life of any GWR loco in BR times, beginning in August 1954 and ending four years. No.3409 was the last locomotive built for British mainline use by private contractors and it was ordered by GWR in December 1947 and delivered by Yorkshire Engine Company in October 1956. Two have been preserved,9400 at Swindon Steam Railway Museum 9466 is based at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre, the locomotive is operational and mainline certificated. 9466 is currently in working order, lima produced a model of the class in 00 gauge between 1978 and 1985 Graham Farish manufacture a model of the 94xx in N scale. Bachmann are producing a model of the 94xx in 00 scale, GWR 0-6-0PT – list of classes of GWR 0-6-0 pannier tank, including table of preserved locomotives Atkins, Philips. The Golden Age of Steam Locomotive Building, penryn, Cornwall, Atlantic Transport Publishers and the National Railway Museum. A Pictorial Record of Great Western Engines, Great Western engines, names, numbers, types, classes,1940 to preservation. Pp.32,70, 73–74,82,102,158, the Pannier Papers No.1 94XX 84XX 34XX
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Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
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Tank locomotive
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A tank locomotive or tank engine is a steam locomotive that carries its water in one or more on-board water tanks, instead of a more traditional tender. A tank engine may also have a bunker to hold fuel, there are several different types of tank locomotive, distinguished by the position and style of the water tanks and fuel bunkers. The most common type has tanks mounted either side of the boiler and this type originated about 1840 and quickly became popular for industrial tasks, and later for shunting and shorter distance main line duties. Tank locomotives have advantages and disadvantages compared to traditional tender locomotives, the first tank locomotive was the Novelty that ran at the Rainhill Trials in 1829. It was an example of a Well Tank and these were E. B. Wilson and Company, William Fairbairn & Sons, George England, Kitson Thompson and Hewitson and William Bridges Adams. By the mid-1850s tank locomotives were to be performing a variety of main line and industrial roles. There are a number of types of locomotive, based on the location. These include the side tank, the tank, the pannier tank. A configuration very common in the U. K, the water is contained in rectangular tanks mounted on either side of the locomotive, near to the boiler but not quite touching. The tank sides extend down to the platform, if such is present. The length of side tanks was limited in order to give access to the inside motion. If it was desired to extend them to the front of the locomotive for greater capacity, with larger side tanks it was sometimes necessary to taper the tanks slightly at the front end to improve forward visibility. Side tanks almost all stopped at, or before, the end of the boiler barrel, a few designs did reach to the front of the smokebox and these were termed flatirons. The water tank sits on top of the boiler like a saddle sits atop a horse, usually the tank is curved in cross-section, although in some cases there were straight sides surmounted by a curve, or even an ogee shape. Saddle tanks were a popular arrangement especially for smaller locomotives in industrial use and it gave a greater water supply, but limited the size of the boiler and restricted access to it for cleaning. However, the locomotive has a centre of gravity and hence must operate at lower speeds. The drivers vision may also be restricted, again restricting the safe speed, Water in the tank is slightly pre-heated by the boiler, which reduces the loss of pressure found when cold feedwater is injected into the boiler. However if the water becomes too hot, injectors lose efficiency, for this reason, the tanks often stopped short of the hotter and uninsulated smokebox
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Tender (rail)
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A tender or coal-car is a special rail vehicle hauled by a steam locomotive containing its fuel and water. Steam locomotives consume large quantities of water compared to the quantity of fuel, a locomotive that pulls a tender is called a tender locomotive. Locomotives that do not have tenders and carry all their fuel, a brake tender is a tender that is heavy and used to provide greater braking efficiency. The largest steam locomotives are coupled by a drawbar to a tender that carries the water. The fuel source used depends on what is available locally. In the UK and parts of Europe, a supply of coal made this the obvious choice from the earliest days of the steam engine. Until around 1850 in the United States, the vast majority of burned wood until most of the eastern forests were cleared. Subsequently coal burning became more widespread, and wood burners were restricted to rural, according to Steamlocomotive. com, By the mid-1800s, most steam locomotive tenders consisted of a fuel bunker surrounded by a U shaped water jacket. The overall shape of the tender was usually rectangular, the bunker which held the coal was sloped downwards toward the locomotive providing easier access to the coal. The ratio of water to fuel capacities of tenders was normally based on two water-stops to each fuel stop because water was readily available than fuel. One pound of coal could turn six pounds of water to steam, therefore, tender capacity ratios were normally close to 14 tons of coal per 10,000 gallons of water. The water supply in a tender was replenished at water stops, refilling the tender is the job of the fireman, who is responsible for maintaining the locomotives fire, steam pressure, and supply of fuel and water. Water carried in the tender must be forced into the boiler, early engines used pumps driven by the motion of the pistons. Later, steam injectors replaced the pump while some engines used turbopumps, in the UK, the USA and France, water troughs were provided on some main lines to allow locomotives to replenish their water supply while moving. The fuel and water capacities of a tender are usually proportional to the rate at which they are consumed, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central Railroad used track pans on many of their routes, allowing locomotives to pick up water at speed. The result was that the tanks on these tenders were proportionally much smaller. In the UK water troughs were used by three of the Big Four railways, the Southerns decision to electrify its routes into London with a third rail system also made the installation of water troughs impractical. Only on the former London and South Western Railway routes west of Salisbury, rather than install troughs the L&SWR equipped its express locomotives with special high-capacity tenders with a water capacity of 4,000 gallons running on a pair of twin-axle bogies
