1.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
2.
Name
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A name is a term used for identification. Names can identify a class or category of things, or a thing, either uniquely. A personal name identifies, not necessarily uniquely, an individual human. The name of an entity is sometimes called a proper name and is, when consisting of only one word. Other nouns are sometimes called names or general names. A name can be given to a person, place, or thing, for example, caution must be exercised when translating, for there are ways that one language may prefer one type of name over another. Also, claims to preference or authority can be refuted, the British did not refer to Louis-Napoleon as Napoleon III during his rule. The word name comes from Old English nama, cognate with Old High German namo, Sanskrit नामन्, Latin nomen, Greek ὄνομα, perhaps connected to non-Indo-European terms such as Tamil namam and Proto-Uralic *nime. In the ancient world, particularly in the ancient near-east names were thought to be powerful and to act, in some ways. By invoking a god or spirit by name, one was thought to be able to summon that spirits power for some kind of miracle or magic, in the Old Testament, the names of individuals are meaningful, and a change of name indicates a change of status. For example, the patriarch Abram and his wife Sarai are renamed Abraham, simon was renamed Peter when he was given the Keys to Heaven. This is recounted in the Gospel of Matthew chapter 16, which according to Roman Catholic teaching was when Jesus promised to Saint Peter the power to take binding actions. Throughout the Bible, characters are given names at birth that reflect something of significance or describe the course of their lives, for example, Solomon meant peace, and the king with that name was the first whose reign was without war. Likewise, Joseph named his firstborn son Manasseh, when Joseph also said, “God has made me all my troubles. However, they were known as the child of their father. For example, דוד בן ישי meaning, David, son of Jesse, the Talmud also states that all those who descend to Gehenna will rise in the time of Messiah. However, there are three exceptions, one of which is he who calls another by a derisive nickname, Street names within a city may follow a naming convention, some examples include, In Manhattan, roads that cross the island from east to west are called Streets. Those that run the length of the island are called Avenues, in Ontario, numbered concession roads are east–west whereas lines are north–south routes
3.
Child
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Biologically, a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a younger than the age of majority. There are many issues that affect children, such as childhood education, bullying, child poverty, dysfunctional families, child labor, hunger. Children can be raised by parents, by fosterers, guardians or partially raised in a day care center. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines child as a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child and this is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. Biologically, a child is generally anyone between birth and puberty, some English definitions of the word child include the fetus. In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage, recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries. Society began to relate to the not as a miniature adult but as a person of a lower level of maturity needing adult protection, love. This change can be traced in paintings, In the Middle Ages, in the 16th century, images of children began to acquire a distinct childlike appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were playing with toys. Every child goes through stages of social development. An infant or very young child will play alone happily, if another child wanders onto the scene, he or she may be physically attacked or pushed out of the way. Next, the child can play with another child, gradually learning to share, eventually, the group grows larger, to three or four children. By the time a child enters kindergarten, he or she can join in. Children with ADHD and learning disabilities may need help to develop social skills. The impulsive characteristics of an ADHD child may lead to poor peer relationships, children with poor attention spans may not tune into social cues in their environment, making it difficult for them to learn social skills through experience. The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions has changed over time. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, in the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime
4.
Edward Burnett Tylor
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Sir Edward Burnett Tylor was an English anthropologist, the founder of cultural anthropology. Tylors ideas typify 19th-century cultural evolutionism, in his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a basis for the development of society and religion. Tylor maintained that all societies passed through three stages of development, from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. Tylor is considered by many to be a figure of the science of social anthropology. He believed that research into the history and prehistory of man, could be used as a basis for the reform of British society. Tylor reintroduced the term animism into common use and he regarded animism as the first phase of development of religions. He was born in 1832, in Camberwell, London, and was the son of Joseph Tylor and Harriet Skipper and his elder brother, Alfred Tylor, became a geologist. He was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, but due to the deaths of Tylors parents during his adulthood he never gained a university degree. After his parents deaths, he prepared to help manage the family business, following advice to spend time in warmer climes, Tylor left England in 1855, travelling to Mexico. The experience proved to be an important and formative one, sparking his lifelong interest in studying unfamiliar cultures, during his travels, Tylor met Henry Christy, a fellow Quaker, ethnologist and archaeologist. Tylors association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, Tylors first publication was a result of his 1856 trip to Mexico with Christy. His notes on the beliefs and practices of the people he encountered were the basis of his work Anahuac, Or Mexico, Tylor continued to study the customs and beliefs of tribal communities, both existing and prehistoric. He published his work, Researches into the Early History of Mankind. Following this came his most influential work, Primitive Culture, G. Frazer, who were to become Tylors disciples and contribute greatly to the scientific study of anthropology in later years. Tylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, in 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the history of the Pitt Rivers Museum. 1871 Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,1875 Honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Laws from the University of Oxford
5.
Austronesian peoples
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Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin with curly or wavy hair. Before the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and of Vietnam and it has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” – is broadly consistent with available data, alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia. Genomic analysis of cultivated coconut has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples, by examining 10 microsatelite loci, researchers found that there are 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut – one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, there is evidence of admixture, the transfer of genetic material, given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, it seems possible that individuals from one population could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa. This pattern coincides with the trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Other research has suggested that, according to dates, Austronesians may have migrated from mainland China to Taiwan as late as 4000 BC. Before Taiwan, Austronesian speakers are thought to have descended from the neolithic cultures of Southeastern China. According to the mainstream model, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000–2500 BC. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration, over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BC and 500 AD respectively, the Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 BC and these people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Rapa Nui by 300 AD, Hawaii by 400 AD, there is evidence, based in the spreading of the sweet potato, that they reached South America where they traded with the Native Americans. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia and this out of Taiwan model has been recently challenged by a 2008 study. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia for a period than previously believed. Population dispersals occurred at the time as sea levels rose
6.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
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The territory consists of two atolls and 27 coral islands, of which two, West Island and Home Island, are inhabited with a total population of approximately 600. The islands have been called the Cocos Islands, the Keeling Islands, the Cocos–Keeling Islands, Cocos refers to the abundant coconut trees, while Keeling is William Keeling, reputedly the first European to sight the islands, in 1609. John Clunies-Ross, who sailed there in the Borneo in 1825, called the group the Borneo Coral Isles, restricting Keeling to North Keeling, the form Cocos Islands, attested from 1916, was made official by the Cocos Islands Act 1955. The climate is pleasant, moderated by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year, tropical cyclones may occur in the early months of the year. North Keeling Island is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, the island measures 1.1 square kilometres in land area and is uninhabited. The lagoon is about 0.5 square kilometres, North Keeling Island and the surrounding sea to 1.5 km from shore form the Pulu Keeling National Park, established on 12 December 1995. It is home to the surviving population of the endemic. South Keeling Islands is an atoll consisting of 24 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, only Home Island and West Island are populated. The Cocos Malays maintain weekend shacks, referred to as pondoks, there are no rivers or lakes on either atoll. Fresh water resources are limited to water lenses on the larger islands and these lenses are accessed through shallow bores or wells. Cocos Islands experiences tropical climate according to Köppen climate classification as the archipelago lies approximately in the midway between the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The archipelago has two distinct precipitation totals between the wet season and the dry season, the wettest month is April with precipitation total 250.0 millimetres, while the driest month is October with precipitation total 50.9 millimetres. The temperature varies a little as its away from the Equator. The hottest month is March with average high temperature 29.8 °C, in 2010, the population of the islands is estimated at just over 600. The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on Home Island. A Cocos dialect of Malay and English are the languages spoken, and 80% of Cocos Islanders are Sunni Muslim. In 1609, Captain William Keeling was the first European to see the islands, while serving in the East India Company, but they remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Hare had previously served as resident of Banjarmasin, a town in Borneo, Clunies-Ross returned two years later with his wife, children and mother-in-law, and found Hare already established on the island and living with a private harem
7.
Balinese people
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The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
8.
Betsileo people
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The Betsileo are a highland ethnic group of Madagascar, the third largest in terms of population, numbering around 1.5 million and making up about 12.1 percent of the population. They chose their name, meaning The Many Invincible Ones, after an invasion by King Ramitraho of the Menabe kingdom in the early 19th century. The Betsileo occupy the south of the Madagascar plateau, most of the Betsileo region lies within the boundaries of the Malagasy province of Fianarantsoa, where their capital city of the same name can be found. Traditionally their territory and their people are divided into three major parts, the Northern Betsileo is defined by the Ivato and Manandona rivers in the north and the Sahanivotry and Mania rivers to the south. The Central Betsileo is found between the Ivato and the Matsiatra rivers, the Southern Betsileo is all the Betsileo territory to the south of the Matsiatra river. The different Betsileo kingdoms existed independently of other with oral traditions dating back to the 17th century. They were all eventually conquered and reorganized by Radama I, a large portion of the Betsileo people were made into slaves and traded domestically or sold to European slave traders. Radama I made Fianarantsoa the administrative capital of the central and southern Betsileo people, the north was attached to Antsirabe. Thus the Betsileo as a group began in the 19th century as a subdivision by the Malagasy government. The Betsileo identity is associated with the Merina culture, since they are both highland-dwelling groups. The Betsileo social structure is determined by a complex system of kinship. There is a connection between family members permeating society to the level of administrative roles and jobs, as most Betsileo are obligated to join their relatives in the family occupation. There is also emphasis on the role of elders as community leaders. Community elders often hold more authority than those in government positions. Betsileo society is influenced by a history of slavery before its abolition during the French colonization. The Betsileo have a system of social organization determined through a number of stratifications. The status structure of the Betsileo is principally determined by the ancestry of an individual’s family, status was historically split between andriana, hova and andevo, the latter being a highly stigmatized term for the lowest social class in contemporary Betsileo society. Since the arrival of European missionaries in the century, much of the Malagasy population has since been converted to Christianity
9.
Zafimaniry
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The Zafimaniry are a sub-group of the Betsileo ethnic group of Madagascar. They live in the mountains of the southern central highlands southeast of Ambositra. There are approximately 100 Zafimaniry villages, which support a population of approximately 25,000, the Zafimaniry speak a dialect of the Malagasy language, which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group which comes from the Barito languages, that are spoken in southern Borneo. They are known for their knowledge and art, which was added in 2003 to UNESCOs list of the worlds Intangible Cultural Heritage. This style of woodworking was once common throughout Madagascar but has decreased because of deforestation and their art is considered by historians to provide insight into the applied arts of the past in Madagascar. There are an estimated 25,000 Zafimaniry in Madagascar today, the Zafimaniry are descendants of both the Betsimisaraka and Tanala ethnic groups, but are differentiated from both primarily by the nature of the damp and cold mountain forests where they settled. The Zafimaniry people migrated to the forests of southeastern Madagascar in the 18th century due to increasing deforestation in other parts of the island. As French forces secured various portions of Zafimaniry territory, they arrested the local inhabitants and sent them to concentration camps, Zafimaniry society is comparatively less hierarchical than that of the Merina people. This has historically manifested as an opposition to centralized government and they are generally non-violent and place a high degree of value on civility and politeness, as well as gentleness in regards to disciplining children. The climate of Zafimaniry country is highland rainforest, where the weather is often cold, the area sits at an altitude of 1, 000-1,800 meters and the weather is usually cloudy, resulting in only around 100 rain-free days per year. The largest Zafimaniry town is Antoetra, with a population of around 1000, there are 17 larger Zafimaniry villages, and around 100 in total, although only Antoetra is accessible by car. Monogamous marriage and family life are seen as central to the stability of society, the value placed on this vision of family is symbolically represented in the construction and decorations of Zafimaniry homes. Zafimaniry women tend to much earlier than men and become mothers at a young age. By contrast, young men have an extended adolescence during which time they engage in young mens activities like hunting, young peoples pairings are fluid and even a formal marriage can end without complications, it is the birth of children that serves to cement a relationship. Parents are considered successful as adults when they are able to raise a larger number of children. Rather, they were clustered in just two villages that had a role as hosting a sort of court where disputes were resolved. They served these administrative units by fetching salt from the coast and other such errands, nonetheless, these two groups do not intermarry. The free Zafimaniry class is expected to marry other Zafimaniry in order to form social alliances that will provide them access to new land for cultivation
10.
Madurese people
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Common to most Madurese throughout the archipelago is the Islamic religion and the use of the Madurese language. The Madurese are an ethnicity, often affiliated with Nahdlatul Ulama. Pesantren has a role in Madurese life. While the Madurese have their roots on Madura off the northeastern coast of Java, the Madurese people have migrated out of Madura over several hundred years, mostly driven by poor agricultural resources in their home island. The majority have settled on Java, where a six million Madurese live. The Madurese people speak Madurese, which is part of the Malayo-Sumbawan Austronesian languages, the majority of Madurese practice Sunni Islam. Pesantren Muslim schools play an important role in their spiritual and social life, there are also Madurese who practice other religions, such as Christianity, and Hinduism, however, their numbers are extremely small. Culturally the Madurese people are close enough to oriental Javanese that they share similar forms of folklore, music, dance, the traditional attire, however, is very specific to the Madurese people. Men would wear a completely black long-skirted coat with a wide belt, while women would have donned a dark blue or mottled jacket over a sarong. A truly unique tradition of the islanders is bull racing, known as Karapan sapi, such competitions are typical of Madura, where they serve as its main tourist attraction. Races are held annually in August and October in different localities, after which their winners compete in the final round, races are usually accompanied by gamelan performances and festivities. By the end of the 1980s, the popularity of Madurese bull racing had grown so much that the winner of the competition would be awarded with a prize on behalf of the President of Indonesia. In addition, the scene of the races was depicted on the reverse of coins of 100 Indonesian rupiah, traditionally in terms of socio-economic life of the Madurese people, there had been a visible impact on their national character. In rural areas, the Madurese still practice an ancient tradition of vendetta and it is noteworthy that the killing may provoke resentment, quite small by the standards of ordinary European or Indonesian, but it is often interpreted as a grave insult to the tribal honor. In such cases, the avenger usually prepares the celurit in advance in an event of dueling by casting spells on the weapon. Sometimes in the battle of honor are involved several people from each side - relatives and friends of the offender and the offended, on the territory of Java, Madurese people had live for several centuries, forming in some of the north-eastern regions of the islands ethnic majority. However, they tend to get well with the Javanese people in relation to language, culture. A widespread of Javanese mixed Madurese marriages are also common, some of these migrant groups have been the subject of conflict with Dayak communities
11.
Mentawai people
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Mentawai people are the native people of the Mentawai Islands, West Sumatra province, Indonesia. They live a semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle in the coastal and rainforest environments of the islands, the Mentawai population is estimated to be about 64,000. The Mentawai language belongs to the Austronesian language family, the people are characterised by their heavy spirituality, body art and their tendency to sharpen their teeth, a practice they feel makes one beautiful. The main clothing for men is a loin cloth, Mentawai adorn themselves with necklaces and flowers in their hair and ears. Women wear a cloth wound around the waist and small sleeveless vests, Mentawai sharpen their teeth with a chisel for aesthetic reasons. Tattooing is done with a needle and wood which is hammered on the needle by a shaman called sikerei, during the pre-independence era, the cultural influence of foreign colonials and other islanders had systematically displaced or obliterated indigenous customs and religions. In postcolonial times, the Indonesian government continued this policy with a 1954 decree that prohibited indigenous religions, effectively abolishing tattooing, the traditional knife of the Mentawai people is called Palitai, while their traditional shield is called Kurabit. Men hunt wild pigs, deer and primates, women and children gather wild yams and other wild food. Small animals are hunted by women, the Mentawai people keep pigs, dogs, monkeys and sometimes chickens as pets. Surfaid is an organisation dedicated to improving the lives of Mentawain people. A film titled As Worlds Divide, which document the lives of modern Mentawai people, is due to be released on March 24th 2017. Thom Henley, Taveepong Limapornvanich, Living Legend of the Mentawai, ISBN 0-9689091-2-4 Anthropology of the Mentawai Islands Native Planet, The Mentawai
12.
Yami people
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The Yami people, also known as the Tao people, are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the tiny outlying Orchid Island of Taiwan. These indigenous peoples have more commonly recognized as the Yami people. However, as a collective, these Orchid Island inhabitants typically prefer Tao people as their group identifier and they are part of the Austronesian family, and designated members of the Taiwanese aborigines. Despite being linked to both indigenous Taiwanese and Filipino populations, the Tao people remain unique in their customs and cultural practices, composed of approximately 3,100 individuals, the island populace relies heavily on fishing for survival. Their ways of life have been threatened by the emigration to the mainland of Taiwan in search of jobs. As a result, the continuation of past traditions has been hindered, citing threats to their cultures and health concerns, the Tao people have been protesting the nuclear waste plant imposed on their island by the government in 1982 and advocating for its removal. The origin of the Tao people is largely unknown, however they are presumed more closely related to individuals of the Philippines than those of Taiwan. A common theory tracing their ancestry posits that their ancestors left the Batan Archipelago in the Philippines and this reasoning is based primarily on the language similarities of the Batanese and the Tao people. Also, it appears that two groups traded goats, pigs, weapons, and gold until about 300 years ago due to continuous warfare. However, there is no certainty as to how the Tao people began their lives on Orchid Island. In addition to the Tao people of Orchid Island, there is a population of Taiwanese and Chinese individuals. These populations add approximately 1,000 people to the number of inhabitants on the island, the word Tao simply means people in the language of the Tao people. The word Yami originated from Japanese ethnologist Torii Ryūzō and he used the term to refer to the culture and language of the Tao People. In recent years some Tao people have rejected the name however opinion remains divided, while this indigenous group identifies collectively by the name Tao or Yami, individual communities on the island affiliate with unique names tied to their locality. The language of the Tao people can be referred to simply as Tao or Yami and it is a Malayo-Polynesian language, a subgroup of Austronesian languages. More specifically, it is considered a Western Malayo-Polynesian language, one of two branches in the Austronesian subgroup—the other being Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian. As of 1994, there were a total of 3,000 speakers, Orchid Island, also referred to as Lanyu or Pongso no Tao, is located approximately 40 miles off the southeastern coast of Taiwan, and directly north of the Batanes Islands of the Philippines. It is an island of about 45 square kilometers with an estimated total population of 4,000 inhabitants
13.
Korean language
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It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of the Peoples Republic of China. Approximately 80 million people worldwide speak Korean and this implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a small family. There is still debate on whether Korean and Japanese are related with each other, the Korean language is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. A relation of Korean with Japonic languages has been proposed by linguists like William George Aston, Chinese characters arrived in Korea together with Buddhism during the pre-Three Kingdoms period. Mainly privileged elites were educated to read and write in hanja, however, today, the hanja are largely unused in everyday life, but in South Korea they experience revivals on artistic works and are important in historic and/or linguistic studies of Korean. Since the Korean War, through 70 years of separation, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation, verb inflection, the Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in North Korea and South Korea. In South Korea, the Korean language is referred to by names including hanguk-eo Korean language, hanguk-mal, Korean speech and uri-mal. In hanguk-eo and hanguk-mal, the first part of the word, hanguk, refers to the Korean nation while -eo and -mal mean language and speech, Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo, literally national language. This name is based on the same Chinese characters meaning nation + language that are used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China, the language is most often called Chosŏn-mal, or more formally, the English word Korean is derived from Goryeo, which is thought to be the first dynasty known to Western countries. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram and Goryeo In, the majority of historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate. Such factors of typological divergence as Middle Mongolians exhibition of gender agreement can be used to argue that a relationship with Altaic is unlikely. Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list, a good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asa, meaning hemp. Also, the doublet wo meaning hemp is attested in Western Old Japanese and it is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. Among ancient languages, various relatives of Korean have been proposed. Some classify the language of Jeju Island as a distinct modern Koreanic language, Other famous theories are the Dravido-Korean languages theory and the mostly unknown southern-theory which suggest an Austronesian relation. Korean is spoken by the Korean people in North Korea and South Korea and by the Korean diaspora in countries including the Peoples Republic of China, the United States, Japan. Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of cultural assimilation into host countries, Korean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea
14.
Arab world
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The Arab world, also known as the Arab nation or the Arab states, consists of the 22 Arabic-speaking countries of the Arab League. The contemporary Arab world has a population of around 422 million inhabitants. In the Middle Ages, the Arab world was synonymous with the historic Arab empires and caliphates, Arab nationalism arose in the second half of the 19th century along with other nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire. The Arab League was formed in 1945 to represent the interests of Arab people and especially to pursue the political unification of the Arab countries, the linguistic and political denotation inherent in the term Arab is generally dominant over genealogical considerations. In Arab states, Modern Standard Arabic is the language used by the government. The language of a nation is called Darija, which means everyday/colloquial language. Although no globally accepted definition of the Arab world exists, all countries that are members of the Arab League are generally acknowledged as being part of the Arab world. This standard territorial definition is seen to be inappropriate or problematic. These parameters may be applied to the states and territories of the Arab League, typical parameters that may be applied include, whether Arabic is widely spoken, whether Arabic is an official or national language, or whether an Arabic cognate language is widely spoken. While Arabic dialects are spoken in a number of Arab League states, several states have declared Arabic to be an official or national language, although Arabic is today not as widely spoken there. As members of the Arab League, however, they are considered part of the Arab world under the territorial definition. Somalia has two official languages today, Arabic and Somali, both of which belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic language family, although Arabic is widely spoken by many people in the north, Somali is the most widely used language, and contains many Arabic loan words. Similarly, Djibouti has two languages, Arabic and French. It also has several formally recognized national languages, besides Somali, many people speak Afar, the majority of the population speaks Somali and Afar, although Arabic is also widely used for trade and other activities. Comoros has three languages, Arabic, Comorian and French. Comorian is the most widely spoken language, with Arabic having a religious significance, Israel is not part of the Arab world. By some definitions, Arab citizens of Israel may concurrently be considered a constituent part of the Arab world, Iran has about 1.5 million Arabic speakers. Iranian Arabs are mainly found in Ahvaz, a region in the Khuzestan Province, others inhabit the Bushehr Qushasha and Hipi-Lipi Hormozgan provinces
15.
Swahili language
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Swahili, also known as Kiswahili, is a Bantu language and the first language of the Swahili people. The closely related Comorian language, spoken in the Comoros Islands, is considered a dialect. Estimates of the number of Swahili speakers vary widely, from 50 million to over 100 million. Swahili serves as a language of three nations, Tanzania, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Shikomor, the language in Comoros and also spoken in Mayotte, is related to Swahili. Swahili is also one of the languages of the African Union. A significant fraction of Swahili vocabulary is derived from Arabic through contact with Arabic-speaking Muslim inhabitants of the Swahili Coast, Swahili is traditionally regarded as being the language of coastal areas of Tanzania and Kenya. It was formalised after independence by presidents of the African Great Lakes region and it spread as a fishermans language to the various islands surrounding the Swahili Coast. Traders from these islands had extensive contact with the peoples from at least the 2nd century A. D. There is also evidence of early Zaramo people settlement on Zanzibar from Dar es Salaam in present-day Tanzania. Clove farmers from Oman and the Persian Gulf farmed the Zanzibar Archipelago, the earliest known documents written in Swahili are letters written in Kilwa in 1711 A. D. in the Arabic script that were sent to the Portuguese of Mozambique and their local allies. The original letters are now preserved in the Historical Archives of Goa, the British did not do so in neighbouring Kenya even though they made moves in that direction. Swahili was the only candidate in the two colonies. In the aftermath of Germanys defeat in the First World War, Swahili was to be subordinate to English, university education, much secondary education and governance at the highest levels would be conducted in English. One key step in spreading Swahili was to create a written language. In June 1928, a conference took place at Mombasa, at which the Zanzibar dialect. Swahili has become a language spoken by tens of millions in three African Great Lakes countries where it is an official or national language. In 2016 it was made a subject in all Kenyan schools
16.
Abyssinian people
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The Abyssinian people, also known as the Habesha, are a people inhabiting the Horn of Africa. They include a few linguistically, culturally and ancestrally related ethnic groups in the Ethiopian Highlands, members cultural, linguistic, and in certain cases, ancestral origins trace back to the Kingdom of Dʿmt and the Kingdom of Aksum. Scholars have classified the Amhara and the Tigreans as Abyssinians proper, the Geez speaking people, minimally affected by Sabaean influence, formed the ethnic and cultural stock for both the pre-Axumite and Axumite states. Geez, which is related to Tigrinya and Tigre, is also believed to be the ancestor of the diverse southern Ethiopian Semitic languages including Amharic. Together, the Amhara and Tigray constitute over 35% of Ethiopias population, the Abyssinians are believed to be descendants of the Axumites, who spoke the ancient Geez language. Geez is most closely related to Tigrinya and Tigre languages, the Aksumites inhabited northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. They already lived in area by the early 1st millennium BC, and founded the Axumite empire. These people formed the basic stock of both the pre-Axumite and Axumite states. By the medieval period, the Semitic languages would have spread southward as far as southern Shewa, eastward into the Hararghe highlands, linguistic analysis further indicates that the Ethiopian Semitic languages have retained a Cushitic substratum, which also belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. The Geez language, Tigre and Tigrinya spoken in the north were influenced by Beja, Agaw and Saho-Afar substrates, with Amharic and Gafat in the south also partially influenced by these substrates. The Amharic, Argobba, Harari and Gurage tongues spoken in central Ethiopia are characterized by an Eastern Sidamo or Highland East Cushitic substratum, as well as Oromo, overall, the linguistic impact of the Cushitic languages is more marked toward the south. In Arabic, the plateau on the east of the Nile, from which most of the waters of that river are derived, is called Habesh. The modern term derives from the vocalized Geez, ሐበሣ, Ḥabaśā, first written with a script that did not mark vowels as ሐበሠ ḤBŚ or in pseudo-Sabaic as ḤBŠTM. The earliest known use of the dates to the second or third century Sabaean inscription recounting the defeat of the nəgus GDRT of Aksum. The term Habashat appears to refer to a group of peoples, a Sabaean inscription describes an alliance between Shamir Yuhahmid of the Himyarite Kingdom and King DBH of Aksum in the first quarter of the third century. The submission of Shamir of dhū Raydān and the clans of Habashat, the term Habesha was formerly thought by some scholars to be of Arabic descent because the English name Abyssinia comes from the Arabic form. Based on the inscriptions the Aksumites left behind, they did not regard themselves or their territory as Habesha and he believed the etymology of Habesha must have derived from the Mehri language, which means “gatherers”. It was not until long after Aksumite kingdom had ended that Gulf Arab travelers and geographers began to describe the Horn region as Al-Habash, the first among these travelers were Al-Masudi and Al-Harrani
17.
Yoruba language
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Yoruba is a language spoken in West Africa. The number of speakers of Yoruba is approaching 30 million and it is a pluricentric language spoken principally in Benin and Nigeria, with communities in other parts of Africa, the Americas, and Europe. A variety of the language, Lucumi, is the language of the Santería religion of the Caribbean. Many Yoruba words are used in the Afro-Brazilian religion known as Candomblé, Yoruba is most closely related to the Itsekiri language and to Igala. The linguistic unity of the Niger–Congo family dates to deep prehistory, main article, Yoruboid languages The Yoruba group is assumed to have developed out of undifferentiated Volta–Niger populations by the 1st millennium BC. Settlements of early Yoruba speakers are assumed to correspond to those found in the wider Niger area from about the 4th century BC, especially at Ife. According to the Kay Williamson Scale, the following is the degree of relationship between Itsekiri and other Yoruboid dialects, using a word list of the most common words. A similarity of 100% would mean a total overlap of two dialects, while a similarity of 0 would mean two speech areas that have no relationship. The result of the wordlist analysis shows that Itsekiri bears the strongest similarity to the SEY dialects and most especially Ilaje and Ikale, at 80. 4% and 82. 3% similarity. Thus while the shows that Igala, with an overlap of 60% is a completely different language. The Yoruba dialect continuum itself consists of several dialects, the various Yoruba dialects in the Yorubaland of Nigeria can be classified into Five major dialect areas, Northwest, Northeast, Central, Southwest and Southeast. Clear boundaries cannot be drawn, peripheral areas of dialectal regions often having some similarities to adjoining dialects, north-West Yoruba Egba, Ibadan, Egbado/Yewa, Ọyọ, Western Ogun, Lagos/Eko. North-East Yoruba Yagba, Owe, Ijumu, Oworo, Gbede, Central Yoruba Igbomina, Ijesha, Ifẹ, Ekiti, Akurẹ, Ẹfọn. South-East Yoruba Ikale, Ilaje, Ondo City, Ọwọ, Idanre, Akoko, Remo, south-West Yoruba Ketu, Awori, Sakété, Ifè, Idasha, Ipokia/Anago. North-West Yoruba is historically a part of the Ọyọ Empire, ethnographically, traditional government is based on a division of power between civil and war chiefs, lineage and descent are unilineal and agnatic. South-East Yoruba was probably associated with the expansion of the Benin Empire after c, in contrast to NWY, lineage and descent are largely multilineal and cognatic, and the division of titles into war and civil is unknown. Linguistically, SEY has retained the /gh/ and /gw/ contrast, while it has lowered the nasal vowels /ịn/ and /ụn/ to /ẹn/ and /ọn/, the emergence of a plural of respect may have prevented coalescence of the two in NWY dialects. Central Yoruba forms an area in that the lexicon has much in common with NWY
18.
Korean name
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A Korean name consists of a family name followed by a given name, as used by the Korean people in both South Korea and North Korea. In the Korean language, ireum or seongmyeong usually refers to the family name, traditional Korean family names typically consist of only one syllable. There is no name in the English language sense. Many Koreans have their names made of a generational name syllable. The generational name syllable is shared by siblings in North Korea, married men and women usually keep their full personal names, and children inherit the fathers family name. The family names are subdivided into bongwan, i. e. extended families which originate in the system used in previous historical periods. Each clan is identified by a place, and traces its origin to a common patrilineal ancestor. During periods of Mongol influence, the ruling class supplemented their Korean names with Mongolian names, some keep the original order of names, while others reverse the names to match the usual Western pattern. Fewer than 300 Korean family names were in use in 2000, for various reasons, there is a growth in the number of Korean surnames. Each family name is divided into one or more clans, identifying the city of origin. For example, the most populous clan is Gimhae Kim, that is, clans are further subdivided into various pa, or branches stemming from a more recent common ancestor, so that a full identification of a persons family name would be clan-surname-branch. Traditionally, Korean women keep their names after their marriage. In the premodern, patriarchal Korean society, people were extremely conscious of familial values, Korean women keep their surnames after marriage based on traditional reasoning that it is what they inherited from their parents and ancestors, and cannot be changed. According to traditions, each clan publishes a comprehensive genealogy every 30 years, around a dozen two-syllable surnames are used, all of which rank after the 100 most common surnames. The five most common names, which together make up over half of the Korean population, are used by over 20 million people in South Korea. After the 2015 census, it was revealed that family names were becoming more common in South Korea. Between 2000 and 2015, more than 4,800 new surnames were registered, during the census, a total of 5,582 distinct surnames were collected, 73% of which do not have corresponding hanja characters. It was also revealed that despite the surge in the number of surnames, the ratio of top 10 surnames had not changed
19.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
20.
Clifford Geertz
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He served until his death as professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. Geertz was born in San Francisco on August 23,1926, after service in the US Navy in World War II, Geertz received his B. A. in philosophy from Antioch College in 1950. After graduating from Antioch he attended Harvard University from which he graduated in 1956 and this interdisciplinary program was led by Talcott Parsons, and Geertz worked with both Parsons and Clyde Kluckhohn. Geertz was trained as an anthropologist, and conducted his first long-term fieldwork, together with his wife, Hildred, in Java and he studied the religious life of a small, upcountry town for 2.5 years, living with a railroad labourers family. After finishing his thesis, Geertz returned to Bali and Sumatra and he earned his Ph. D. in 1956 with a dissertation entitled Religion in Modjukuto, A Study of Ritual Belief In A Complex Society. He taught or held fellowships at a number of schools before joining the faculty of the department at the University of Chicago in 1960. In this period Geertz expanded his focus on Indonesia to include both Java and Bali and produced three books, including Religion of Java, Agricultural Involution, and Peddlers and Princes. In the mid-1960s, he shifted course and began a new project in Morocco that resulted in several publications, including Islam Observed. In 1970, Geertz left Chicago to become professor of science at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey from 1970 to 2000. In 1973, he published The Interpretation of Cultures, which collected essays Geertz had published throughout the 1960s and that became Geertzs best-known book and established him not just as an Indonesianist but also as an anthropological theorist. In 1974, he edited the anthology Myth, Symbol, Culture that contained papers by many important anthropologists on symbolic anthropology, Geertz produced ethnographic pieces in this period, such as Kinship in Bali, Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society and Negara. From the 1980s to his death, Geertz wrote more theoretical and essayistic pieces, as a result, most of his books of the period are collections of essays, including Local Knowledge, Available Light and Life Among The Anthros. He also produced the autobiographical After The Fact and Works and Lives, Geertz received Honorary Doctorate Degrees from some fifteen colleges and universities, including Harvard University, the University of Chicago and the University of Cambridge. He was married first to the anthropologist Hildred Geertz, after their divorce, he married Karen Blu, also an anthropologist. Clifford Geertz died of complications following heart surgery on October 30,2006, Geertz conducted extensive ethnographical research in Southeast Asia and North Africa. This fieldwork was the basis of Geertzs famous analysis of the Balinese cockfight among others and he was the director of the multidisciplinary project Committee for the Comparative Studies of New Nations while he held a position in Chicago in the 1960s. He conducted fieldwork in Morocco as part of project on bazaars, mosques, olive growing. The ethnographic data for the essay on Thick description was collected here
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
23.
Honorific
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An honorific is a title that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes, the honorific is used in a more specific sense to refer to an honorary academic title. It is also conflated with systems of honorific speech in linguistics. Typically, honorifics are used as a style in the third person. Use in the first person, by the honored dignitary, is uncommon or considered very rude, Some languages have anti-honorific first person forms whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded to the person addressed. The most common honorifics in modern English are usually placed immediately before a persons name, someone who does not want to express a gender with their honorific may occasionally use Mx, Ind. or Misc. Other honorifics may denote the persons occupation, for instance Doctor, Esquire, Captain, Coach, Officer, Reverend for all clergy and/or Father. Holders of an academic Doctorate such as PhD are addressed as Doctor, Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as Sir or Maam, or Your Honor. Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking a superior a question or after responding to an order, Yes, sir or even Sir, yes, sir. Judges are often addressed as Your Honor when on the bench, if the judge also has a higher title, that may be the correct honorific to use, Your Lordship. Similarly, a monarch and his consort may be addressed or referred to as Your/His/Her Majesty, Their Majesties, monarchs below kingly rank are addressed as Your/His/Her Highness, the exact rank being indicated by an appropriate modifier, e. g. His Serene Highness for a member of a dynasty, or Her Grand Ducal Highness for a member of a family that reigns over a grand duchy. There are differences between Your Highness and Your Royal Highness, between Princess Margaret and The Princess Margaret, all of these are correct, but apply to people of subtly different rank. An example of a style is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, which was an official style. In music, a conductor or virtuoso instrumentalist may be known as Maestro. In aviation, pilots in command of a civil aircraft are usually addressed as Captain plus their full name or surname. This tradition is diminishing in the United States and most EU countries. In addition, such countries etiquette rules dictate that this title must be placed on all the letters and social invitations, business cards, identification documents
24.
Name change
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Name change generally refers to the legal act by a person of adopting a new name different from their name at birth, marriage or adoption. The procedures and ease of a name change vary between jurisdictions, in general, common law jurisdictions have loose procedures for a name change while civil law jurisdictions are more restrictive. A pseudonym is a name that differs from the original or true name and it is generally adopted to conceal a persons identity, but can also be done for personal, social or ideological reasons. Several federal court rulings have set precedents regarding both court decreed name changes and common law name changes, usually a person can adopt any name desired for any reason. As of 2009,46 states allow a person legally to change names by usage alone, with no paperwork, but a court order may be required for many institutions to officially accept the change. It is necessary to plead that the change is not for a fraudulent or other illegal purpose. Applicants may be required to give an explanation for wanting to change their names. A fee is payable, and the applicant may be required to post legal notices in newspapers to announce the name change. Generally the judge has limited judicial discretion to grant or deny a change of name, usually if the name change is for fraudulent. In 2004, a Missouri man succeeded in changing his name to They, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that a name change to 1069 could be denied, but that Ten Sixty-Nine was acceptable, the North Dakota Supreme Court had denied the same request several years before. Some examples of typically allowed reasons for name changes in the U. S. include, returning to the use of a prior surname upon divorce. Simplification or improved familiarity of spelling or pronunciation and this allows them the opportunity to adopt more Americanized names. During the naturalization interview, a petition for a change is prepared to be forwarded to a federal court. Applicants certify that they are not seeking a change of name for any unlawful purpose such as the avoidance of debt or evasion of law enforcement, such a name change would become final if within their jurisdiction, once a federal court naturalizes an applicant. To maintain an identity, it is desirable to obtain a formal order so there is continuity of personal records. The open and notorious use of a name is often sufficient to allow one to use an assumed name, in some jurisdictions, a trade name distinct from ones legal name can be registered with a county clerk, secretary of state, or other similar government authority. Persons who wish to publish materials and notted with them may publish under pseudonyms, a common law name is a legal name. In most states a statutory method, while quick and definitive, only supplements the common law method, although a person may sue under a common law name
25.
Nickname
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A nickname is a substitute for the proper name of a familiar person, place, or thing, for affection or ridicule. The term hypocoristic is used to refer to a nickname of affection between those in love or with an emotional bond, compared with a term of endearment. The term diminutive name refers to nicknames that convey smallness, hence something regarded with affection or familiarity, the distinction between the two is often blurred. It is a form of endearment and amusement, as a concept, it is distinct from both pseudonym and stage name, and also from a title, although there may be overlap in these concepts. A moniker also means a nickname or personal name, the word often distinguishes personal names from nicknames that became proper names out of former nicknames. English examples are Bob and Rob, nickname variants for Robert, a nickname is often considered desirable, symbolising a form of acceptance, but can sometimes be a form of ridicule. The compound word ekename, literally meaning additional name, was attested as early as 1303 and this word was derived from the Old English phrase eaca an increase, related to eacian to increase. By the fifteenth century, the misdivision of the syllables of the phrase an ekename led to its reanalysis as a nekename, though the spelling has changed, the pronunciation and meaning of the word have remained relatively stable ever since. However, it is common for the nickname to be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text. The middle name is generally eliminated, especially in speech, like English, German uses quotation marks between the first and last names. The latter may cause confusion because it resembles an English convention sometimes used for married, in Viking societies, many people had heiti, viðrnefni, or kenningarnöfn which were used in addition to, or instead of the first name. Slaves have often used nicknames, so that the master who heard about someone doing something could not identify the slave, in capoeira, a Brazilian martial art, the slaves had nicknames to protect them from being caught, as practising capoeira was illegal for decades. In Anglo-American culture, a nickname is based on a shortening of a persons proper name. However, in societies, this may not necessarily be the case. For example, my nickname is farmer Phil In Indian society, for example, generally people have at least one nickname, Indian nicknames very often are a trivial word or a diminutive. In Australian society, Australian men will often give ironic nicknames, for example, a man with red hair will be given the nickname Blue or Bluey. A tall man will be called Shorty, an obese person Slim, in England, some nicknames are traditionally associated with a persons surname. A man with the surname Clark will be nicknamed Nobby, the surname Miller will have the nickname Dusty, there are several other nicknames linked traditionally with a persons surname, including Chalky White, Bunny Warren, Tug Wilson, and Spud Baker
26.
Pseudonym
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A pseudonym or alias is a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which can differ from their original or true name. Historically, they have taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms. Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones, actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to mask their ethnic backgrounds. A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Ellery Queen, the term is derived from the Greek ψευδώνυμον, literally false name, from ψεῦδος, lie, falsehood and ὄνομα, name. A pseudonym is distinct from an allonym, which is the name of another person and this may occur when someone is ghostwriting a book or play, or in parody, or when using a front name, such as by screenwriters blacklisted in Hollywood in the 1950s and 1960s. See also pseudepigraph, for falsely attributed authorship, sometimes people change their name in such a manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name, in many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a persons new legal name. He then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam, likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland and he adopted his Hebrew name in 1910, when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem. Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations to hide their identity, a pen name, or nom de plume, is a pseudonym adopted by an author. Some female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, the Brontë family used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books, anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall under the name Acton Bell. Charlotte Brontë published Shirley and Jane Eyre under the name Currer Bell, emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights as Ellis Bell. A well-known example of the former is Mary Ann Evans, who wrote as George Eliot, Another example is Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, a 19th-century French writer who used the pen name George Sand. In contrast, some twentieth and twenty first century male romance novelists have used pen names. A few examples of male authors using female pseudonyms include Brindle Chase, Peter ODonnell and Christopher Wood. A pen name may be used if a real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers, in some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than his real name
The dictionary definition of teknonym at Wiktionary
