1.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
2.
Name
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A name is a term used for identification. Names can identify a class or category of things, or a thing, either uniquely. A personal name identifies, not necessarily uniquely, an individual human. The name of an entity is sometimes called a proper name and is, when consisting of only one word. Other nouns are sometimes called names or general names. A name can be given to a person, place, or thing, for example, caution must be exercised when translating, for there are ways that one language may prefer one type of name over another. Also, claims to preference or authority can be refuted, the British did not refer to Louis-Napoleon as Napoleon III during his rule. The word name comes from Old English nama, cognate with Old High German namo, Sanskrit नामन्, Latin nomen, Greek ὄνομα, perhaps connected to non-Indo-European terms such as Tamil namam and Proto-Uralic *nime. In the ancient world, particularly in the ancient near-east names were thought to be powerful and to act, in some ways. By invoking a god or spirit by name, one was thought to be able to summon that spirits power for some kind of miracle or magic, in the Old Testament, the names of individuals are meaningful, and a change of name indicates a change of status. For example, the patriarch Abram and his wife Sarai are renamed Abraham, simon was renamed Peter when he was given the Keys to Heaven. This is recounted in the Gospel of Matthew chapter 16, which according to Roman Catholic teaching was when Jesus promised to Saint Peter the power to take binding actions. Throughout the Bible, characters are given names at birth that reflect something of significance or describe the course of their lives, for example, Solomon meant peace, and the king with that name was the first whose reign was without war. Likewise, Joseph named his firstborn son Manasseh, when Joseph also said, “God has made me all my troubles. However, they were known as the child of their father. For example, דוד בן ישי meaning, David, son of Jesse, the Talmud also states that all those who descend to Gehenna will rise in the time of Messiah. However, there are three exceptions, one of which is he who calls another by a derisive nickname, Street names within a city may follow a naming convention, some examples include, In Manhattan, roads that cross the island from east to west are called Streets. Those that run the length of the island are called Avenues, in Ontario, numbered concession roads are east–west whereas lines are north–south routes
3.
Child
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Biologically, a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty. The legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a younger than the age of majority. There are many issues that affect children, such as childhood education, bullying, child poverty, dysfunctional families, child labor, hunger. Children can be raised by parents, by fosterers, guardians or partially raised in a day care center. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines child as a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child and this is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. Biologically, a child is generally anyone between birth and puberty, some English definitions of the word child include the fetus. In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage, recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries. Society began to relate to the not as a miniature adult but as a person of a lower level of maturity needing adult protection, love. This change can be traced in paintings, In the Middle Ages, in the 16th century, images of children began to acquire a distinct childlike appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were playing with toys. Every child goes through stages of social development. An infant or very young child will play alone happily, if another child wanders onto the scene, he or she may be physically attacked or pushed out of the way. Next, the child can play with another child, gradually learning to share, eventually, the group grows larger, to three or four children. By the time a child enters kindergarten, he or she can join in. Children with ADHD and learning disabilities may need help to develop social skills. The impulsive characteristics of an ADHD child may lead to poor peer relationships, children with poor attention spans may not tune into social cues in their environment, making it difficult for them to learn social skills through experience. The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions has changed over time. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, in the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime
4.
Edward Burnett Tylor
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Sir Edward Burnett Tylor was an English anthropologist, the founder of cultural anthropology. Tylors ideas typify 19th-century cultural evolutionism, in his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a basis for the development of society and religion. Tylor maintained that all societies passed through three stages of development, from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. Tylor is considered by many to be a figure of the science of social anthropology. He believed that research into the history and prehistory of man, could be used as a basis for the reform of British society. Tylor reintroduced the term animism into common use and he regarded animism as the first phase of development of religions. He was born in 1832, in Camberwell, London, and was the son of Joseph Tylor and Harriet Skipper and his elder brother, Alfred Tylor, became a geologist. He was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, but due to the deaths of Tylors parents during his adulthood he never gained a university degree. After his parents deaths, he prepared to help manage the family business, following advice to spend time in warmer climes, Tylor left England in 1855, travelling to Mexico. The experience proved to be an important and formative one, sparking his lifelong interest in studying unfamiliar cultures, during his travels, Tylor met Henry Christy, a fellow Quaker, ethnologist and archaeologist. Tylors association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, Tylors first publication was a result of his 1856 trip to Mexico with Christy. His notes on the beliefs and practices of the people he encountered were the basis of his work Anahuac, Or Mexico, Tylor continued to study the customs and beliefs of tribal communities, both existing and prehistoric. He published his work, Researches into the Early History of Mankind. Following this came his most influential work, Primitive Culture, G. Frazer, who were to become Tylors disciples and contribute greatly to the scientific study of anthropology in later years. Tylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, in 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the history of the Pitt Rivers Museum. 1871 Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,1875 Honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Laws from the University of Oxford
5.
Austronesian peoples
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Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin with curly or wavy hair. Before the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and of Vietnam and it has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” – is broadly consistent with available data, alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia. Genomic analysis of cultivated coconut has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples, by examining 10 microsatelite loci, researchers found that there are 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut – one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, there is evidence of admixture, the transfer of genetic material, given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, it seems possible that individuals from one population could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa. This pattern coincides with the trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Other research has suggested that, according to dates, Austronesians may have migrated from mainland China to Taiwan as late as 4000 BC. Before Taiwan, Austronesian speakers are thought to have descended from the neolithic cultures of Southeastern China. According to the mainstream model, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000–2500 BC. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration, over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BC and 500 AD respectively, the Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 BC and these people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Rapa Nui by 300 AD, Hawaii by 400 AD, there is evidence, based in the spreading of the sweet potato, that they reached South America where they traded with the Native Americans. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia and this out of Taiwan model has been recently challenged by a 2008 study. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia for a period than previously believed. Population dispersals occurred at the time as sea levels rose
6.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
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The territory consists of two atolls and 27 coral islands, of which two, West Island and Home Island, are inhabited with a total population of approximately 600. The islands have been called the Cocos Islands, the Keeling Islands, the Cocos–Keeling Islands, Cocos refers to the abundant coconut trees, while Keeling is William Keeling, reputedly the first European to sight the islands, in 1609. John Clunies-Ross, who sailed there in the Borneo in 1825, called the group the Borneo Coral Isles, restricting Keeling to North Keeling, the form Cocos Islands, attested from 1916, was made official by the Cocos Islands Act 1955. The climate is pleasant, moderated by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year, tropical cyclones may occur in the early months of the year. North Keeling Island is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, the island measures 1.1 square kilometres in land area and is uninhabited. The lagoon is about 0.5 square kilometres, North Keeling Island and the surrounding sea to 1.5 km from shore form the Pulu Keeling National Park, established on 12 December 1995. It is home to the surviving population of the endemic. South Keeling Islands is an atoll consisting of 24 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, only Home Island and West Island are populated. The Cocos Malays maintain weekend shacks, referred to as pondoks, there are no rivers or lakes on either atoll. Fresh water resources are limited to water lenses on the larger islands and these lenses are accessed through shallow bores or wells. Cocos Islands experiences tropical climate according to Köppen climate classification as the archipelago lies approximately in the midway between the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The archipelago has two distinct precipitation totals between the wet season and the dry season, the wettest month is April with precipitation total 250.0 millimetres, while the driest month is October with precipitation total 50.9 millimetres. The temperature varies a little as its away from the Equator. The hottest month is March with average high temperature 29.8 °C, in 2010, the population of the islands is estimated at just over 600. The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on Home Island. A Cocos dialect of Malay and English are the languages spoken, and 80% of Cocos Islanders are Sunni Muslim. In 1609, Captain William Keeling was the first European to see the islands, while serving in the East India Company, but they remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Hare had previously served as resident of Banjarmasin, a town in Borneo, Clunies-Ross returned two years later with his wife, children and mother-in-law, and found Hare already established on the island and living with a private harem
7.
Balinese people
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The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
8.
Betsileo people
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The Betsileo are a highland ethnic group of Madagascar, the third largest in terms of population, numbering around 1.5 million and making up about 12.1 percent of the population. They chose their name, meaning The Many Invincible Ones, after an invasion by King Ramitraho of the Menabe kingdom in the early 19th century. The Betsileo occupy the south of the Madagascar plateau, most of the Betsileo region lies within the boundaries of the Malagasy province of Fianarantsoa, where their capital city of the same name can be found. Traditionally their territory and their people are divided into three major parts, the Northern Betsileo is defined by the Ivato and Manandona rivers in the north and the Sahanivotry and Mania rivers to the south. The Central Betsileo is found between the Ivato and the Matsiatra rivers, the Southern Betsileo is all the Betsileo territory to the south of the Matsiatra river. The different Betsileo kingdoms existed independently of other with oral traditions dating back to the 17th century. They were all eventually conquered and reorganized by Radama I, a large portion of the Betsileo people were made into slaves and traded domestically or sold to European slave traders. Radama I made Fianarantsoa the administrative capital of the central and southern Betsileo people, the north was attached to Antsirabe. Thus the Betsileo as a group began in the 19th century as a subdivision by the Malagasy government. The Betsileo identity is associated with the Merina culture, since they are both highland-dwelling groups. The Betsileo social structure is determined by a complex system of kinship. There is a connection between family members permeating society to the level of administrative roles and jobs, as most Betsileo are obligated to join their relatives in the family occupation. There is also emphasis on the role of elders as community leaders. Community elders often hold more authority than those in government positions. Betsileo society is influenced by a history of slavery before its abolition during the French colonization. The Betsileo have a system of social organization determined through a number of stratifications. The status structure of the Betsileo is principally determined by the ancestry of an individual’s family, status was historically split between andriana, hova and andevo, the latter being a highly stigmatized term for the lowest social class in contemporary Betsileo society. Since the arrival of European missionaries in the century, much of the Malagasy population has since been converted to Christianity
The dictionary definition of teknonym at Wiktionary
