1.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
2.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
3.
Analog television
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Analog television or analogue television is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio. In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by variations of either the amplitude. Analog signals vary over a range of possible values which means that electronic noise. So with analog, a weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, a moderately weak signal and a very strong digital signal transmit equal picture quality. Analog television may be wireless or can be distributed over a network using cable converters. All broadcast television systems preceding digital transmission of digital television used analog signals, analog television around the world has been in the process of shutting down since the late 2000s. The earliest systems were mechanical systems which used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver, synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. However these mechanical systems were slow, the images were dim and flickered severely, camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work. Analog television did not really begin as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube, the electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a spinning disc system, all-electronic systems became popular with households after the Second World War. Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using different systems, the official systems of transmission are named, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N. These systems determine the number of lines, channel width, vision bandwidth, vision-sound separation, each frame of a television image is composed of lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness, the set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion, the analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information, so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal. The first commercial systems were black-and-white, the beginning of color television was in the 1950s. A practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance, synchronization, and audio signals, the transmission system must include a means of television channel selection
4.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
5.
Telephony
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The history of telephony is intimately linked to the invention and development of the telephone. The term is used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software, and computer network systems. In this context the technology is referred to as Internet telephony. The first telephones were connected directly in pairs, each user had a separate telephone wired to the locations he might wish to reach. This quickly became inconvenient and unmanageable when people wanted to communicate with more than a few people, the inventions of the telephone exchange provided the solution for establishing telephone connections with any other telephone in service in the local area. Each telephone was connected to the exchange via one wire pair, nearby exchanges in other service areas were connected with trunk lines and long distance service could be established by relaying the calls through multiple exchanges. Initially the switchboards were manually operated by an attendant, a switchboard operator, when a customer cranked a handle on the telephone, it turned on an indicator on the board in front of the operator who would plug the operator headset into that jack and offer service. The caller had to ask for the party by name, later by number. If the called station answered the operator disconnected their headset and completed the station-to-station circuit, trunk calls were made with the assistance of other operators at other exchangers in the network. In modern times, most telephones are plugged into telephone jacks, the jacks are connected by inside wiring to a drop wire which connects the building to a cable. Cables usually bring a number of drop wires from all over a district access network to one wire center or telephone exchange. Most of the exchanges in the world are interconnected through a system of larger switching systems, today, telephony uses digital technology in the provisioning of telephone services and systems. This advancement has reduced costs in communication, and improved the quality of voice services, the first implementation of this, ISDN, permitted all data transport from end-to-end speedily over telephone lines. This service was made much less important due to the ability to provide digital services based on the IP protocol. The integration of software and computer systems is a major development in the evolution of the automated office. The term is used in describing the services of call centers. Its also sometimes used to describe the ability to use your personal computer to initiate, CTI is not a new concept and has been used in the past in large telephone networks, but only dedicated call centers could justify the costs of the required equipment installation. Dialed Number Identification Service on a scale is wide enough for its implementation to bring value to business or residential telephone usage
6.
Advanced Mobile Phone System
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It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18,2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000, in Pakistan by October 2004. and Brazil by 2010 The first cellular network efforts began at Bell Labs and with research conducted at Motorola. In 1960, John F. Mitchell, an engineer who had graduated from the Illinois Institute of Technology. Mitchell oversaw the development and marketing of the first pager to use transistors, Motorola had long produced mobile telephones for automobiles, but these large and heavy models consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobiles engine running. Mitchells team, which included the gifted Dr, the first system was successfully deployed in Chicago, Illinois, in 1979. Motorola and others designed and built the cellular phones for this, in 1992 the first smartphone, called IBM Simon, used AMPS. Frank Canova led its design at IBM and it was demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer-industry trade-show, a refined version of the product was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator. The Simon was the first device that can be referred to as a smartphone. AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or channels and it therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. What really separated AMPS from older systems is the back end call setup functionality, in AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used in various locations without interference. This allowed a number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers coined the term cellular because of its use of small hexagonal cells within a system, AMPS suffered from many weaknesses compared to todays digital technologies. As an analog standard, it was susceptible to static and noise, in the 1990s an epidemic of cloning cost the cellular carriers millions of dollars. An eavesdropper with specialized equipment could intercept a handsets ESN and MDN or CTN, the Electronic Serial Number, a 12-digit number sent by the handset to the cellular system for billing purposes, uniquely identified that phone on the network. The system then allowed or disallowed calls and or features based on its customer file, a person intercepting an ESN/MDN pair could clone the combination onto a different phone and use it in other areas for making calls without paying. Cellular phone cloning became possible with off-the-shelf technology in the 1990s and this signal would feed into the sound-card audio-input of the PC, and Banpaia would decode the ESN/MDN pair from this signal and display it on the screen. The hacker could then copy that data into the Oki 900 phone and reboot it, the problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls
7.
GSM
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As of 2014 it has become the de facto global standard for mobile communications – with over 90% market share, operating in over 219 countries and territories. This expanded over time to include communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then by packet data transport via GPRS. Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation UMTS standards followed by fourth-generation LTE Advanced standards, GSM is a trademark owned by the GSM Association. It may also refer to the most common voice codec used, the decision to develop a continental standard eventually resulted in a unified, open, standard-based network which was larger than that in the United States. In February 1987 Europe produced the very first agreed GSM Technical Specification, the MoU drew-in mobile operators from across Europe to pledge to invest in new GSM networks to an ambitious common date. In 1989, the Groupe Spécial Mobile committee was transferred from CEPT to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, in parallel, France and Germany signed a joint development agreement in 1984 and were joined by Italy and the UK in 1986. In 1986 the European Commission proposed reserving the 900 MHz spectrum band for GSM, the former Finnish prime minister Harri Holkeri made the worlds first GSM call on July 1,1991, calling Kaarina Suonio using a network built by Telenokia and Siemens and operated by Radiolinja. In the following year,1992, saw the sending of the first short messaging service message, work began in 1991 to expand the GSM standard to the 1800 MHz frequency band and the first 1800 MHz network became operational in the UK by 1993 called and DCS1800. Also that year, Telecom Australia became the first network operator to deploy a GSM network outside Europe and the first practical hand-held GSM mobile phone became available. In 1995, fax, data and SMS messaging services were launched commercially, in the same year, the GSM Association formed. Pre-paid GSM SIM cards were launched in 1996 and worldwide GSM subscribers passed 100 million in 1998, in 2000 the first commercial GPRS services were launched and the first GPRS-compatible handsets became available for sale. In 2001 the first UMTS network was launched, a 3G technology that is not part of GSM, worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 500 million. In 2002 the first Multimedia Messaging Service were introduced and the first GSM network in the 800 MHz frequency band became operational, EDGE services first became operational in a network in 2003 and the number of worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 1 billion in 2004. By 2005, GSM networks accounted for more than 75% of the cellular network market. In 2005 the first HSDPA-capable network also became operational, the first HSUPA network launched in 2007. Worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded three billion in 2008, GSM is a second-generation standard employing time-division multiple-Access spectrum-sharing, issued by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute. GSM, for the first time, set a standard for Europe for wireless networks. It was also adopted by many countries outside Europe and this allowed subscribers to use other GSM networks that have roaming agreements with each other
8.
Mobile telephony
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Mobile telephony is the provision of telephone services to phones which may move around freely rather than stay fixed in one location. Mobile phones connect to a cellular network of base stations. Both networks are interconnected to the switched telephone network to allow any phone in the world to be dialed. In 2010 there were estimated to be five billion mobile cellular subscriptions in the world. S, public mobile phone systems were first introduced in the years after the Second World War and made use of technology developed before and during the conflict. The first system opened in St Louis, Missouri, USA in 1946 whilst other countries followed in the succeeding decades, the UK introduced its System 1 manual radiotelephone service as the South Lancashire Radiophone Service in 1958. Calls were made via an operator using handsets identical to ordinary phone handsets, the phone itself was a large box located in the boot of the vehicle containing valves and other early electronic components. Although an uprated manual service was extended to cover most of the UK and these cellular systems were based on US Advanced Mobile Phone Service technology, the modified technology being named Total Access Communication System. In 1947 Bell Labs was the first to propose a cellular telephone network. In 1956 the MTA system was launched in Sweden, both problems were solved by Bell Labs employee Amos Joel who, in 1970 applied for a patent for a mobile communications system. However, a consulting firm calculated the entire U. S. As a consequence, Bell Labs concluded that the invention was of little or no consequence, the invention earned Joel induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2008. The first call on a mobile phone was made on April 3,1973 by Martin Cooper. Bell Labs went on to install the first trial cellular network in Chicago in 1978. This trial system was licensed by the FCC to ATT for commercial use in 1982 and, as part of the arrangements for the breakup of ATT. The first commercial system opened in Chicago in October 1983, a system designed by Motorola also operated in the Washington D. C. /Baltimore area from summer 1982 and became a full public service later the following year. Japans first commercial service was launched by NTT in 1978. The first fully automatic first generation system was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system, simultaneously launched in 1981 in Denmark, Finland, Norway. NMT was the first mobile phone network featuring international roaming, the Swedish electrical engineer Östen Mäkitalo started to work on this vision in 1966, and is considered as the father of the NMT system and some consider him also the father of the cellular phone
9.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
10.
ETECSA
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Empresa de Telecomunicaciones de Cuba S. A. is a government owned full telecommunications service provider for the island of Cuba. 27% of the company was owned by Telecom Italia, until they sold their interest to Rafin SA in January 2011 for $706 million, the remainder is owned by the Ministry of Information and Communication. The services provided by ETECSA includes telephone, internet and wireless services, the company provides services to the public of Cuba, as well as the millions of tourists who vacation in the Republic of Cuba. Starting on 4 June 2013 Cubans can sign up with ETECSA for public Internet access under the brand Nauta at 118 centers across the country, juventud Rebelde, an official newspaper, said new areas of the Internet would gradually become available. The cost of Internet access is CUC$2.00 per hour, the first mobile telephone system was Cubacel, using AMPS and later D-AMPS. The company was a joint venture with Sherritt International, later, a second system, C-com, was set up using GSM. In 2005, the Cuban government bought Sherritt out and merged Cubacel, the two names continue as brands. ETECSA announced that its D-AMPS network will be deactivated on March 31,2009, from then on, GSM-900 and GSM-850 will be the only services. Although ETECSA has new rates for their communications, incoming and outgoing phone calls are still being paid in Cuban Convertible Pesos. This makes receiving and making calls very expensive for Cubans, even for tourists, the price of receiving or making a call with a cell phone in Cuba is currently 0. 35CUC/minute during peak hours and 0. 10CUC/minute during off peak hours. In an exclusive interview, it has said that the installation may be delayed because of financial crisis being faced by ETECSA. Telecommunications in Cuba Internet in Cuba ETECSA - ETECSA Homepage E-net - ETECSA Web Portal Cubacel web portal Telecom Italia SpA sale
11.
Intersputnik
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The objective was and continues to be the development and common use of communications satellites. It was created as the Eastern Blocs response to the Western Intelsat organization, as of 2008 the organization has 25 member states, among them the Federal Republic of Germany as the legal successor of the GDR. Intersputnik nowadays is a commercially aligned organization and it operates 12 satellites in orbit and 41 transponders. In June 1997 Intersputnik created the Lockheed Martin Intersputnik joint venture together with Lockheed Martin, in September 2006, Lockheed Martin Intersputnik was acquired by Asia Broadcast Satellite. Communications satellite Eutelsat Inmarsat Intelsat SES S. A, official website Agreement on the legal capacity, privileges and immunities, Berlin,20 September 1976 satnews. com english. pravda. ru un. org dlr. de
12.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
13.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
14.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
15.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
16.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
17.
Venezuela
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Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a federal republic located on the northern coast of South America. It is bordered by Colombia on the west, Brazil on the south, Guyana on the east, Venezuela covers 916,445 km2 and has an estimated population of 31775371. The territory now known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples and it gained full independence as a separate country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. This new constitution changed the name of the country to República Bolivariana de Venezuela. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District. Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River, oil was discovered in the early 20th century, and Venezuela has the worlds largest known oil reserves and has been one of the worlds leading exporters of oil. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports. The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave Venezuela oil funds not seen since the 1980s, the Venezuelan government then established populist policies that initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and increased social spending, significantly reducing economic inequality and poverty. However, such policies later became controversial since they destabilized the economy, resulting in hyperinflation, an economic depression. According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, the stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola Piccola Venezia. The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence, where the suffix -uela is used as a term, thus. The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice, however, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name Venezuela may have evolved from the native word and it is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest, it has been estimated at around one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina, Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, the Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks and their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops, regional crops included potatoes and ullucos
18.
Broadcasting Board of Governors
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The Broadcasting Board of Governors was an independent agency of the United States government. According to its website, its mission was to inform, engage, the BBG supervised Voice of America, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Radio y Television Marti, Radio Free Asia, and the Middle East Broadcast Networks. The BBG was formed in 1994 with the passing of the International Broadcasting Act, the act established a bipartisan board that consisted of nine voting members, eight of whom were to be appointed by the President for a three year term. The ninth was the Secretary of State who would serve as an ex officio board member for the duration of his or her term as secretary, at this point, BBG was considered a part of the U. S. The first voting members of the BBG, confirmed on August 11,1995, were David W. Burke, Ted Kaufman, korologos, Bette Bao Lord, Alberto J. Mora, Cheryl Halpern, Marc Nathanson, and Carl Spielvogel. On October 1,1999, the BBG became an independent agency through the Foreign Affairs Reform, despite this change, the act maintained that the BBG would remain under the supervision of the Inspector General of the State Department and the Foreign Service. Since the formation of BBG, U. S. international broadcasting expanded greatly, particularly in the post 9/11 foreign policy focus on the Middle East. In 2002, BBG launched Radio Sawa, a 24/7 Arabic language radio network broadcasts news. According to the BBG website, Radio Sawa is one of the most popular radio stations where it’s available on FM radio, in 2004, Alhurra TV was created as a televised sister network to Radio Sawa and began broadcasting throughout the Middle East. In 2005, the Middle East Broadcasting Network, Inc was initiated with the purpose of overseeing Arabic broadcasts. S, but it was not only Arabic broadcasting that grew under BBG, other networks grew significantly as well. Voice of America worked with Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty to launch Radio Farda, in 2006, VOA initiated TV Ashna, a one hour televised news broadcast, and Radio Deewa, a daily radio program of sports, music, and local and international news. The BBG was headed by a board with nine members, eight are appointed by the President of the United States. The ninth member ex officio is the Secretary of State, by law, no more than four members could be from the same political party. The president designated one member to serve as Chairman, the Board served as a firewall against political interference in the journalistic product. BBG networks broadcast in 100 countries and 61 languages, the BBG solicited annual funding from Congress via a proposed budget summary, which can be found on the BBG website. The Board submitted an annual budget submission in which lay out specific initiatives. Initiatives in 2011 included improving the global satellite distribution capacity, creating Radio Free Asia video programming and improving distribution of Voice of America content, announced in April 2011, the BBG would receive $10 million from Congress for the purpose of fighting Internet censorship. This work includes anti-censorships campaigns in China and other repressive regimes and their operating budget for FY2016 was US $752 million
19.
American Forces Network
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The American Forces Network is the brand name used by the United States Armed Forces Radio and Television Service for its entertainment and command internal information networks worldwide. AFN broadcasts popular American radio and television programs from the major U. S. networks and it is sometimes referred to as the Armed Forces Network. AFRTS, American Forces Network and AFN are registered trademarks of the U. S. Department of Defense and it is based at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. The American Forces Network is the arm of the American Forces Radio and Television Service. AFN falls under the control of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs. Editorial control is by the Department of Defense, whereas the British Forces Broadcasting Service, for example, is independent of the Ministry of Defence, AFN employs military broadcasters as well as Department of Defense civilians and contractors. Service personnel hold broadcasting occupational specialties for their military branch, since 1997, all of AFNs military personnel receive primary training at the Defense Information School at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. Before 1997, DINFOS was located at Fort Benjamin Harrison in Indianapolis, in 1997, Fort Benjamin Harrison was largely closed as a function of the 1991 Base Closure and Realignment Commission. Additional/Advanced training is available at Fort George G. Meade. In the 1960s, DINFOS was located at Fort Slocum, NY on an island just off the harbor at New Rochelle. At its peak in 1965, the Army Chaplain school was located here. In 1963 this campus operated in a university setting with a military environment. The Army ran the Information School although training was offered to members of all military branches, Radio types took a rather severe audition written by CBS for their network announcers. Those who survived the audition became Broadcast Specialists with a 703 MOS, some of AFNs broadcasters have previous commercial broadcasting experience before enlisting in the military, but it is not a prerequisite for enlistment in the military as a broadcaster. During their training, the broadcasters are taught to use state-of-the-art audio, AFN management is located at DMA headquarters at Fort Meade. Day-to-day AFN broadcast operations are conducted at the AFN Broadcast Center/Defense Media Center in Riverside, California, from all global radio. The American Forces Network can trace its origins to May 26,1942, a television service was first introduced in 1954 with a pilot station at Limestone Air Force Base, Maine. In 1954, the mission of AFRS was officially recognized
20.
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base
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The base is on the shore of Guantánamo Bay at the southeastern end of Cuba. It is the oldest overseas U. S. Naval Base, since 2002, the naval base has contained a military prison, the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, for unlawful combatants captured in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other places during the War on Terror. Cases of torture of prisoners, and their denial of protection under the Geneva Conventions, have been condemned internationally. S. Coast Guard Aviation Detachment Guantanamo Bay U. S. GTMO-5, GTMO-6 and GTMO-7, besides servicemen, the base houses a large number of civilian contractors working for the military. These contractors are largely imported from Jamaica and Philippines, and are thought to constitute up to 40% of the bases population, on 30 April 1494, Christopher Columbus, on his second voyage, arrived and spent the night. The place where Columbus landed is now known as Fishermans Point, Columbus declared the bay Puerto Grande. The bay and surrounding areas came under British control during the War of Jenkins Ear, prior to British occupation, the bay was referred to as Walthenham Harbor. The British renamed the bay Cumberland Bay, the British retreated from the area after a failed attempt to march to Santiago de Cuba. During the Spanish–American War, the U. S. fleet attacking Santiago secured Guantánamos harbor for protection during the season of 1898. The Marines landed at Guantanamo Bay with naval support, and American and Cuban forces routed the defending Spanish troops, the war ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1898, in which Spain formally relinquished control of Cuba. Although the war was over, the US maintained a military presence on the island. In 1901 the US government passed the Platt Amendment as part of an Army Appropriations Bill, the Constitution took effect in 1902, and land for a naval base at Guantanamo Bay was granted to the United States the following year. The 1903 lease agreement was executed in two parts, the second agreement, signed five months later in July 1903, established the amount of USD$2,000 to be paid to Cuba annually by the US. The lease amount was changed in 1933 to $3676.50, payments have been sent annually, but only one lease payment has been cashed since the Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro claimed that this check was deposited due to confusion in 1959, during World War II, the base was set up to use a nondescript number for postal operations. The base used the Fleet Post Office, Atlantic, in New York City, until the 1953–59 revolution, thousands of Cubans commuted daily from outside the base to jobs within. In mid-1958, vehicular traffic was stopped, workers were required to walk through the several gates. Public Works Center buses were pressed into service almost overnight to carry the tides of workers to and from the gate
21.
Internet in Cuba
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The Internet in Cuba is characterized by a low number of connections, limited bandwidth, censorship, and high cost. The Internet in Cuba stagnated since its introduction in the late 1990s because of lack of funding, tight government restrictions, the U. S. embargo, starting in 2007 this situation began to slowly improve. While the Internet is still illegal in private homes, government owned internet cafes offer Internet access, in 2014, Cuba had an Internet penetration rate of 30 percent. In 2015, the Cuban government opened the first public wi-fi hotspots in 35 public locations and they also reduced prices and increased speeds for Internet access at state-run cybercafes. Cubas first connection to the Internet, a 64 kbit/s link to Sprint in the United States, was established in September 1996, since its introduction in the late 1990s, the expansion of Internet access in Cuba has stagnated. S. Embargo, which delayed construction of a cable, and made computers, routers. Internet is also seen as essential for Cuba’s economic development, the political situation in both Cuba and the United States is slowly changing, however. U. S. regulations were modified to encourage communication links with Cuba. Cuba’s domestic telecommunications infrastructure is limited in scope and is appropriate for the early days of the Internet. There is virtually no broadband Internet access in Cuba, Cuba’s mobile network is limited in coverage and uses “second generation” technology, suited to voice conversations and text messaging, but not Internet applications. Telecommunications between Cuba and the rest of the world is limited to the Intersputnik system and aging telephone lines connecting with the United States, total bandwidth between Cuba and the global Internet is just 209 Mbit/s upstream and 379 downstream. About 30 percent of the population had access to the Internet in 2012, Internet connections are through satellite leading the cost of accessing the Internet to be high. Private ownership of a computer or cell phone required a government permit until 2008. A new undersea fiber-optic link to Venezuela was scheduled for 2011, in February 2011 the fiber optic cable linking Cuba to Jamaica and Venezuela arrived and was expected to provide download speeds up to 3,000 times faster than previously available. The fiber optic cable was expected to be in operation by the summer of 2011, the government has not commented on the issue, which has led citizens to believe that the project was never completed due to corruption in the Cuban government. In May 2012 there were reports that the cable was operational, Internet access by the general public still uses the slower and more expensive satellite links, until January 2013 when Internet speeds increased. One network link connects to the global Internet and is used by government officials and tourists, most access is to a government-controlled national intranet and an in-country e-mail system. The intranet contains the EcuRed encyclopedia and websites that are supportive of the government, such a network is similar to the Kwangmyong used by North Korea, a network Myanmar uses and a network Iran has plans to implement
22.
Internet censorship in Cuba
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Internet censorship in Cuba is extensive. The Cuban internet is among the most tightly controlled in the world, a special permit is required to use the Internet and all e-mails are intricately monitored. Cuba has been listed as an Internet Enemy by Reporters Without Borders since the list was created in 2006, the level of Internet filtering in Cuba is not categorized by the OpenNet Initiative due to lack of data. The population is restricted to the first one, which costs €1.20 an hour, foreign visitors who allow Cubans to use their computers are harassed and persecuted. All material intended for publication on the Internet must first be approved by the National Registry of Serial Publications, service providers may not grant access to individuals not approved by the government. One report found that many foreign news outlet websites are not blocked in Cuba, rather than having complex filtering systems, the government relies on the high cost of getting online and the telecommunications infrastructure that is slow to restrict Internet access. Reports have shown that the Cuban government uses Avila Link software to monitor use of the Internet. By routing connections through a server, the government is able to obtain citizens usernames. Authorities claim that 1,600,000 or about twelve percent of the population have access to Internet, and there were 630,000 computers available on the island in 2008, but it is also seen as essential for Cuba’s economic development. Reporters Without Borders suspects that Cuba obtained some of its surveillance technology from China. However, it should be noted that Cuba does not enforce the same level of internet censorship as China. Guillermo Fariñas, a Cuban doctor of psychology, independent journalist and he ended it in the autumn of 2006, with severe health problems, although he was still conscious. He has stated that he is ready to die in the struggle against censorship, in recent times, censorship of the Internet has slowly relaxed. For example, in 2007, it possible for members of the public to legally buy a computer. Digital media is starting to play an important role, bringing news of events in Cuba to the rest of the world. In spite of restrictions, Cubans connect to the Internet at embassies, Internet cafés, through friends at universities, hotels, starting on 4 June 2013 Cubans can sign up with Etecsa, the state telecom company, for public Internet access at 118 centers across the country. Juventud Rebelde, a newspaper, said new areas of the Internet would gradually become available. The cost of the new access at $4.50 an hour is still high in a country where state salaries average $20 a month, alan Phillip Gross, under employment with a contractor for the U. S
23.
Telecommunications in the Bahamas
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Telecommunications in the Bahamas includes telephones, radio, television, and the Internet. Access to the Internet is unrestricted, there were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice, an independent press combined with a relatively effective—albeit extremely backlogged—judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system ensures freedom of speech and press. The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, strict and antiquated libel laws dating to British legal codes are seldom invoked. We have to freedom of the press with protecting the public. Also in April Rodney Moncur was charged with committing an indecent act by posting autopsy photographs of a man who died in police custody on his Facebook page. Phone calls to the Bahamas are monitored by the National Security Agencys MYSTIC program, Bahamas BTC, Bahamas Telecommunications Company, primary telecommunications provider for the Bahamas, partly government owned. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index. html
24.
Telecommunications in Barbados
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Communications in Barbados refers to the telephony, Internet, postal, radio, and television systems of Barbados. Barbados has long been an informational and communications centre in the Caribbean region, electricity coverage throughout Barbados is good and reliable. Usage is high and provided by a monopoly, Barbados Light & Power Company Ltd. The International Telecommunication Union call sign prefix allocated for all radio and television broadcasts in Barbados is 8P, Barbados has had various forms of Communications as early as the 1840s. The first telephone network in the country was developed in 1884, as the former British Empires All Red Line came into existence during the early 1900s, Barbados played an important role as a crucial link in the trans-Atlantic communications network. By 1935 a hard wired cable-based radio network was deployed throughout the country to broadcast the Rediffusion service directly from London to homes. The process was aimed at bringing Barbados sector into compliance with the World Trade Organisation, the plan outlined the first phase commencing on 1 December 2001 and the entire process ending with full liberalisation being achieved on 1 August 2003. As these target dates were missed, the Phase I process was later commenced on 1 November 2002, full liberalisation was attained in February,2005, for the international telecommunications services market. Country Code, +1246International Call Prefix,011 Calls from Barbados to the US, Canada, Calls from Barbados to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code. Number Format, nxx-xxxx The rate of penetration in Barbados ranks among the highest in the world. According to the International Telecommunication Union, telephone service for the period 2000-2004, Telecommunications are virtually universally accessible to all. The report entitled State Of The Worlds Children 2007 stated Barbados had rate of Internet usage which was 55 users for every 100 people, telecoms. gov. bb - Government of Barbados Telecommunications unit The Telecommunications Act,2001 Statistic by the Government of Barbados as of 2010
25.
Telecommunications in Canada
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Present-day Telecommunications in Canada include telephone, radio, television, and internet usage. In the past, telecommunications included telegraphy available through Canadian Pacific, stations owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation use CB through a special agreement with the government of Chile. Some codes beginning with VE and VF are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters, in 1868 Montreal Telegraph began facing competition from the newly established Dominion Telegraph Company. In 1882, Canadian Pacific transmitted its first commercial telegram over telegraph lines they had erected alongside its tracks, great North Western Telegraph, facing bankruptcy, was taken over in 1915 by Canadian Northern. By the end of World War II, Canadians communicated by telephone, in 1967 the CP and CN networks were merged to form CNCP Telecommunications. As of 1951, approximately 7000 messages were sent daily from the United States to Canada, the agreement was complicated by the fact that some Canadian destinations were served by only one of the two networks
26.
Telecommunications in Costa Rica
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Telecommunications in Costa Rica include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Radio stations, more than 100 privately owned stations and a public radio network. Television stations, multiple privately owned TV stations and 1 publicly owned TV station, communications service provider, Grupo ICE, government monopoly. Calling code, +506 International call prefix,00 Main lines,1.0 million lines in use, mobile cellular,6.2 million lines, 100th in the world. Top-level domain. cr, the Academia Nacional de Ciencias is the registrar, Internet users,194,269 users, 154th in the world,34. 7% of the population, 123rd in the world. Fixed broadband,32,192 subscriptions, 120th in the world,5. 7% of population, Internet hosts,147,258 hosts, 78th in the world. IPv4,44,032 addresses allocated, less than 0. 05% of the total,78.6 addresses per 1000 people. Internet Service Providers,2 ISPs, Consumer ADSL services are offered by Grupo ICE. Cable Modem services are offered by two companies countrywide, Cable Tica and Amnet, several other companies offer local cable modem services. Six new ISP licenses were awarded by regulator Sutel in June 2009, the licenses include the right to provide VoIP services. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight, the constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, a judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech. Individuals are generally free to criticize the government openly without reprisal, the law limits hate speech in publications with regard to ethnic origin, race, or color. The government continues to support legislation that imposes criminal penalties, including lengthy jail sentences instead of fines, journalists believe such legislation promotes self-censorship. Journalists and media criticized the law, arguing it restricted access to information of public interest. Radio Club de Costa Rica, a club for amateur radio enthusiasts. Media of Costa Rica This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document 2014 edition and this article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Department of State
27.
Telecommunications in Jamaica
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Telecommunications in Jamaica include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Radio stations, Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple radio stations, country Code, +1876International Call Prefix,011 Calls from Jamaica to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number. Calls from Jamaica to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with area code. Number Format, nxx-xxxx Main lines,265,000 lines in use, mobile cellular,2.7 million, 135th in the world. Jamaica has a digital telephone communication system. Digicel opted for the widely used GSM wireless system, while Oceanic opted for the CDMA standard. Cable and Wireless, which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM, with wireless usage increasing, landlines supplied by Cable and Wireless have declined from just over half a million to roughly about three hundred thousand as of 2006. Two more licenses were auctioned by the Jamaican government to provide services on the island, including one that was previously owned by AT&T Wireless but never utilized. Another entrant to the Jamaican communications market, FLOW, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States and this new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. The companys parent was acquired by Cable and Wireless Communications in November 2014, the new FLOW was re-launched as a successor to LIME and the old Flow on August 31,2015, offering mobile, fixed voice, fixed broadband and TV services to the market. It has now become the first quad-play provider in Jamaica, the company runs a vast copper network islandwide as well as a Hybrid Fiber and Coaxial network in the metropolitan areas of Kingston and Montego Bay. They also have small Fiber-to-the-home operations in certain sections of St. James that began in 2011, on the mobile side, the company had completed its 4G HSPA+ rollout across the island in November 2015 and has announced plans to move to LTE within the year 2016. However, Digicel has become the first LTE network operator in Jamaica, Internet users,1.3 million users, 108th in the world,46. 5% of the population, 94th in the world. Fixed broadband,125,188 subscriptions, 96th in the world,4. 3% of population, Wireless broadband,45,505 subscriptions, 127th in the world,1. 6% of the population, 128th in the world. Internet hosts,3,906 hosts, 149th in the world, iPv4,202,752 addresses allocated, less than 0. 05% of the world total,70.1 addresses per 1000 people. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight, the law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, generally effective judicial protection, and a democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech. The independent media are active and express a variety of views without restriction
28.
Telecommunications in Mexico
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Communications in Mexico are regulated by the Secretariat of Communication and Transportation, a federal executive cabinet ministry and by the Federal Telecommunications Institute. Mexicos communication services market is among the largest in Latin America, liberalized in the 1990s, with the privatization of Teléfonos de México. Since then, new operators have entered the market, but Telmex still remains the dominant player, the SCT has ceded many of its regulatory functions to the Federal Telecommunications Institute. See also Radio in Mexico, List of Mexican television networks and List of television stations in Mexico Usage of radio, television, the first television transmission in Mexico was conducted by Javier Stavoli in 1931. Guillermo González Camarena built his own monochromatic camera in 1934, and in 1940 he developed the first trichromatic system, in addition, many states have their own television networks, and public television has increased its market penetration in recent years. In 2014 there were 1,762 radio stations and 1,063 separately licensed analog, in general, the telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by Telmex and América Móvil. The telecommunications industry was privatized in 1990 under the control of Grupo Carso, Telmex has diversified its operations by incorporating Internet service and mobile telephony. It has also expanded its operations to Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Ecuador, the telecommunications industry is regulated by the government through the Federal Telecommunications Institute. In April 2009, the ITESM reported 25,217,500 users, the satellite system is domestic with 120 earth stations. There is also extensive microwave radio relay network and considerable use of fiber-optic, Mexican satellites are operated by Satélites Mexicanos, a leading private company in Latin America which services both North and South America. Satmex offers broadcast, telephone, and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, through business partnerships, Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services. The system is composed of three main satellites, Solidaridad 2, Satmex 5 and Satmex 6. The Secretariat of Communications and Transportation is also in the process of deploying the Mexican Satellite System, Transportation in Mexico Economy of Mexico
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