1.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
2.
Communication
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Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
3.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
4.
Cellular network
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A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the last link is wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver and this base station provides the cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of voice, data and others. A cell might use a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference, when joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This allows mobile phones and mobile computing devices to be connected to the switched telephone network. Private cellular networks can be used for research or for large organizations and fleets, each of these cells is assigned with multiple frequencies which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of frequencies can be reused in other cells, provided that the frequencies are not reused in adjacent neighboring cells as that would cause co-channel interference. If there is a single transmitter, only one transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is some level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency. This means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap between cells which reuse the same frequency, in the simple case of the taxi company, each radio had a manually operated channel selector knob to tune to different frequencies. As the drivers moved around, they would change from channel to channel, the drivers knew which frequency covered approximately what area. When they did not receive a signal from the transmitter, they would try other channels until they found one that worked, the taxi drivers would only speak one at a time, when invited by the base station operator. With TDMA, the transmitting and receiving time slots used by different users in each cell are different from each other, with FDMA, the transmitting and receiving frequencies used by different users in each cell are different from each other. In a simple system, the taxi driver manually tuned to a frequency of a chosen cell to obtain a strong signal. The principle of CDMA is more complex, but achieves the same result, time division multiple access is used in combination with either FDMA or CDMA in a number of systems to give multiple channels within the coverage area of a single cell. The key characteristic of a network is the ability to re-use frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity. The elements that determine frequency reuse are the distance and the reuse factor. The reuse distance, D is calculated as D = R3 N, cells may vary in radius from 1 to 30 kilometres. The boundaries of the cells can also overlap between adjacent cells and large cells can be divided into smaller cells, the frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be used in the network
5.
Elisa (company)
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Elisa Oyj is a Finnish telecommunications company founded in 1882. It was called HPY HTF until July 2000, the mobile operations of Elisa were previously known as Radiolinja. Today Elisa is a telecommunications, ICT and online service company serving 2.3 million consumer, corporate, Elisa provides environmentally sustainable services for communication and entertainment, and tools for improving operating methods and productivity of organisations. In Finland Elisa is the leader in mobile and fixed network subscriptions. Cooperation with Vodafone and Telenor enables globally competitive services, Elisa is listed on Nasdaq Helsinki Large Cap with approximately 200,000 shareholders. Elisas revenue in 2016 was 1.64 billion euros and it employed 4,300 people, Elisa was originally established on 31 January 1882 by the electrical engineer Daniel Wadén as a telephone cooperative called the Helsinki Telephone Association. HPY began serving customers on 6 June 1882 by connecting 56 phone numbers, HPY started expanding during the 1930s by merging with smaller cooperative telephone operators. The company reached its current geographical operating field in 1958, the original form of incorporation, a mutual association, was changed to a legal cooperative in 1995. The cooperative was finally demutualised in 2000, Elisa launched the first commercial GSM service under the Radiolinja brand in 1991 and the worlds first commercial UMTS900 network on 8 November 2007. Investment company Novator Partners acquired a 10. 4% stake in Elisa in 2005 through a share swap when Elisa bought the smaller operator Saunalahti, Novator tried to revamp Elisa in December 2007, but was opposed by Finnish institutions such as Varma Mutual Pension Insurance Company. In October 2008, during the Icelandic financial crisis, Novator sold its stake in Elisa to Varma for 194 million euros
6.
Telia Company
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Telia Company AB is the dominant telephone company and mobile network operator in Sweden and Finland. The company has operations in countries in Northern and Eastern Europe. It is headquartered in Stockholm and its stock is traded on the Stockholm Stock Exchange, Telia Company is the result of a 2002 merger between the Swedish and Finnish telecommunications companies, Telia and Sonera. This merger followed shortly after Telias failed merger with Norwegian telecommunications company Telenor, before privatisation Telia Company was a state telephone monopoly. Sonera on the hand had a monopoly only on trunk network calls. The separate brand names Telia and Sonera have continued to be used in the Swedish and Finnish markets respectively. Of the stock, 37% is owned by the Swedish government,3. 2% by the Finnish government, and the rest by institutions, companies, Telegrafverket was founded in 1853, when the first electric telegraph line was established between Stockholm and Uppsala. Allmänna Telefon found an equipment supplier in Lars Magnus Ericsson, in this early competition, Telegrafverket with its brand Rikstelefon was a latecomer. However, by securing a monopoly on long distance telephone lines, it was able with time to control. A de facto telephone monopoly position was reached around 1920, in 1953 the name was modernised to Televerket. The operation of the radio and TV broadcast network was spun off into a company named Teracom. On 1 July 1993 the remaining telephone and mobile operator was transformed into a government-owned shareholding company. At the height of the bubble, on 13 June 2000. In the 1980s, Televerket was a mobile network operator with the NMT system. Private competition in mobile phone systems had already broken the telephone monopoly. The most important of Telias Swedish competitors in these areas has been Tele2, SUNAB was founded as the jointly owned company that would in turn build, own and operate the joint 3G network. The history of Sonera dates back to 1917, when Suomen Lennätinlaitos was founded, in 1927, the telegraph agency was merged with the Finnish Post to form a new agency, Post and Telegraph Agency. This agency governed all long distance and international calls until 1994, in the same year, the Post and Telegraph Agency was divided to form two companies, Suomen Posti Oy, and Telecom Finland Oy
7.
DNA Oyj
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DNA Oyj is a Finnish on telecommunications company. It was founded in 2000, and refounded in 2007 after a merger, DNA offers cellular phone services, ADSL, terrestrial television, cable television and regular telephone service. DNA was founded as the phone operator of the Finnet group of telephone cooperatives after there was a split-up in the association. The Helsinki Telephone Association left Finnet and they needed to find a new owner, in 2006, there began to be new difficulties between the remaining Finnet companies. The largest members merged themselves with DNA and left the association, in 2013, DNA acquired the monopoly Pay-per-view-television provider PlusTV, from the Swedish state owned radio and television network operator Teracom AB. PlusTV offers a Pay-per-view television services, on Digitas and DNAs own digital television networks, with DVB-T/MPEG-2
8.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
9.
Estonia
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Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
10.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
11.
Intelsat
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Intelsat, S. A. is a communications satellite services provider. As of March 2017, Intelsat is to merge with Softbank backed OneWeb, the agreement is to merge in a share-for-share deal. SoftBank will buy voting and non-voting shares in the company for $1.7 billion in cash. Shares that Softbank-OneWeb will buy in the company will be bought for $5 per share. As of March 2011, Intelsat operates a fleet of 52 communications satellites and they claim to serve around 1,500 customers and employ a staff of approximately 1,100 people. The intergovernmental organization began on 20 August 1964, with 11 participating countries, on 6 April 1965, Intelsat’s first satellite, the Intelsat I, was placed in geostationary orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket. In 1973, the name was changed and there were 80 signatories, Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies. By 2001, INTELSAT had over 100 members and it was also this year that INTELSAT privatized and changed its name to Intelsat. Since its inception, Intelsat has used versions of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. Intelsat completes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years, Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is Space Systems/Loral, having built 31 spacecraft, or nearly half of the fleet. The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. Fortunately, during the Apollo 11 moonwalk, the moon was over the Pacific Ocean, and so other antennas were used, as well as INTELSAT III, to avert the US governments interference with Intelsat, Intelsats senior management unsuccessfully considered relocating the IGO to another country. On 18 July 2001, Intelsat became a company,37 years after formation. Prior to Intelsats privatization in 2001, ownership and investment in INTELSAT was distributed among INTELSAT members according to their use of services, investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. Satellite services were available to any organization, and all paid the same rates. Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, modern satellites are more robust, lasting longer with much larger capacity. Intelsat Americas-7 experienced a power failure on 29 November 2004. The satellite returned to service with reduced capacity, Intelsat was sold for U. S. $3. 1bn in January 2005 to four private equity firms, Madison Dearborn Partners, Apax Partners, Permira and Apollo Global Management
12.
Satellite
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In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
13.
Inmarsat
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Inmarsat plc is a British satellite telecommunications company, offering global mobile services. It provides telephone and data services to users worldwide, via portable or mobile terminals which communicate with ground stations through twelve geostationary telecommunications satellites. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index, the organisation was created to establish and operate a satellite communications network for the maritime community. The member states owned varying shares of the operational business, the main offices were originally located in the Euston Tower, Euston Road, London. The IMSO and Inmarsat Ltd. signed an agreement imposing public safety obligations on the new company, Inmarsat was the first international satellite organization that was privatized. In 2005, Apax Partners and Permira bought shares in the company, the company was also first listed on the London Stock Exchange in that year. In March 2008, it was disclosed that U. S. hedge fund Harbinger Capital owned 28% of the company, Inmarsat won the 2010 MacRobert Award for its Broadband Global Area Network service. In March 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappeared with 239 passengers, after turning away from its planned path and disappearing from radar coverage, the aircrafts satellite data unit remained in contact with Inmarsats ground station in Perth via the IOR satellite. The aircraft used Inmarsats Classic Aero service, which does not provide information about the aircrafts location. Analysis of these communications by Inmarsat and independently by other agencies determined that the aircraft flew into the southern Indian Ocean and was used to guide the search for the aircraft, the Inmarsat head office is at Old Street Roundabout in the London Borough of Islington. Aside from its services, Inmarsat provides global maritime distress and safety services to ships and aircraft at no charge. Services include traditional voice calls, low-level data tracking systems, and high-speed Internet and other services as well as distress. The most recent of these provides GPRS-type services at up to 492 kbit/s via the Broadband Global Area Network IP satellite modem the size of a notebook computer, other services provide mobile Integrated Services Digital Network services used by the media for live reporting on world events via videophone. The price of a call via Inmarsat has now dropped to a level where they are comparable to, voice call charges are the same for any location in the world where the service is used. Tariffs for calls to Inmarsat country codes vary, depending on the country in which they are placed, Inmarsat primarily uses country code 870. In addition to its own satellites, Inmarsat has an agreement with ACeS regarding handheld voice services. There are three types of related to each Inmarsat I-4 satellite. Global beam coverage Each satellite is equipped with a single beam that covers up to one-third of the Earths surface
14.
Atlantic
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
15.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
16.
Nordic countries
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The Nordic countries or Nordics are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic, where they are most commonly known as Norden. They consist of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, the population of the Nordic countries are mainly Scandinavian or Finnish, with Greenlandic Inuit and the Sami people as minorities. Of todays native languages, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, the non-Germanic languages spoken are Finnish, Greenlandic and several Sami languages. The main religion is Lutheran Christianity, the Nordic countries have much in common in their way of life, history, their use of Scandinavian languages and social structure. Politically, Nordic countries do not form an entity. Especially in English, Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym for the Nordic countries, Scandinavian Peninsula on the other hand covers mainland Norway and Sweden as well as the northernmost part of Finland. At 3,425,804 square kilometers, the area of the Nordic countries would form the 7th-largest country in the world. Uninhabitable icecaps and glaciers comprise about half of area, mostly in Greenland. In January 2013, the region had a population of around 26 million people, the Nordic countries cluster near the top in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, and human development. Although the area is linguistically heterogeneous, with three unrelated groups, the common linguistic heritage is one of the factors making up the Nordic identity. The North Germanic languages Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are considered mutually intelligible and these languages are taught in school throughout the Nordic countries. Swedish, for example, is a subject in Finnish schools. Danish is mandatory in Faroese and Greenlandic schools, as these states are a part of the Danish Realm. Iceland also teaches Danish, since Iceland too was a part of the Danish Realm until 1918, there is a high degree of income redistribution and little social unrest. The Nordic countries consists of historical territories of the Scandinavian countries, areas that share a common history and it is meant unambiguously to refer to this larger group, since the term Scandinavia is narrower and sometimes ambiguous. The Nordic countries are considered to unambiguously refer to Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The term is derived indirectly from the local term Norden, used in the Scandinavian languages, unlike the Nordic countries, the term Norden is in the singular. The demonym is nordbo, literally meaning northern dweller, especially outside of the Nordic region the term Scandinavia is often used incorrectly as a synonym for the Nordic countries
17.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
18.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
19.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
20.
Yle
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Yleisradio Oy, also known as Rundradion or the Finnish Broadcasting Company, abbreviated to Yle, is Finlands national public-broadcasting company, founded in 1926. It is a limited company which is 99. 98% owned by the Finnish state. Yle shares many of its characteristics with its UK counterpart. By far the major part of the Yle tax is collected from individual taxpayers, minors, as well as persons with an annual income of less than €7,813 are exempt. At the lower limit the tax payable by individuals amounts to €50 per annum, Yle receives no advertising revenues as all channels are advertisement-free. Yle has a status that could be described as that of a public body. It is governed by a governing council. Yles turnover in 2010 was €398.4 million, Yle operates four national television channels,13 radio channels and services, and 25 regional radio stations. As is customary in Finnish television and cinemas, foreign films, dubbing is used in cartoons intended for young children who have not yet learned to read, as well as many nature and history documentaries. In the field of broadcasting, one of Yles best known services is Nuntii Latini, the news in Latin. Yle was also one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950, Yle hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, Finland. Yleisradio was founded in Helsinki on 29 May 1926, the first radio programme was transmitted on 9 September in that year, and this is the date generally considered to be the birthday of regular broadcasting activities in Finland. However, it was not until 1928 that Yles broadcasts became available throughout the country, after this the broadcasting network was developed and by the beginning of the 1930s,100,000 households were able to listen Yles programmes. In 1957 Yle made its first television broadcast tests, and the year regular TV programming was started under the name Suomen Televisio. The popularity of television in the country grew rapidly and in 1964, Yle obtained TES-TV and Tamvisio, colour television broadcasts began in 1969 and broadcasts were fully in colour within ten years. During the past few years, Yle has founded a number of new radio and television channels, a completely new digital channel Yle Teema was introduced, and the Swedish-language FST was moved from reserved analogue channel time to its own digital channel YLE FST5. Five channels were reserved, where the channel was initially used for 24-hour news. However, this channel was decommissioned, and the replacement, YLE Extra, was decommissioned in 2007
21.
Television licence
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The licence is sometimes also required to own a radio or receive radio broadcasts. However, in cases the balance between public funding and advertisements is the opposite - the Polish TVP broadcaster receives more funds from advertisements than from its TV tax. The early days of broadcasting presented broadcasters with the problem of how to raise funding for their services, the licence was originally known as a wireless licence. Some countries also have different fees for users with colour or monochrome TV, many give discounts, or charge no fee, for elderly and/or disabled consumers. National public broadcasters in countries also carry supplemental advertising. In 1993, this treaty entered into force when it achieved 7 ratifications including 5 member states and it has since been acceded to by 34 countries, as of 2010. The Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago notes that two-thirds of the countries in Europe and half of the countries in Asia, TV licensing is rare in the Americas, largely being confined to French overseas departments and British Overseas Territories. In some countries, radio channels and broadcasters web sites are funded by a radio receiver licence, giving access to radio. The actual cost and implementation of the television licence varies greatly from country to country, the rest of this section looks at the licence fee in a number of countries around the world. The Albanian licence fee is 800 lekë per year, however, the licence fee makes up only a small part of public broadcaster RTShs funding. RTSh is mainly funded directly from the government through taxes, the remaining 42% comes from commercials, in accordance with the Austria RGG all broadcasting reception equipment in use or operational at a given location must be registered. The location of the equipment is taken to be places of residence or any other premises with a purpose of use. GIS employs some 191 people and approximately 125 freelancers in field service,3.4 million Austrian households are registered at GIS, percentage of licence dodgers in Austria amounts to 2. 5%. The main principle of GIS communication strategy is to instead of control. Annual fees from April 2012 are, The licence fee in Belgiums Walloon Region is €100.00 for a TV and €0.00 for a radio in a vehicle. Only one licence is needed for each household with a functional TV receiver regardless of the number, household radios do not require a licence. The money raised by the fee is used to fund Belgiums French, people with certain disabilities are exempt from paying the television licence fee. Hotels and similar lodging establishments must pay a fee of €50.00 for each additional functional TV receiver and are required to pay between January 1 and March 1 inclusive
22.
Alma Media
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Alma Media is a media company focusing on digital services and publishing. In addition to services, the companys products provide information related to lifestyle, career. The services of Alma Media have expanded from Finland to the Nordic countries and its best known products are Aamulehti, Iltalehti, Kauppalehti, Talouselämä Monster. fi and Etuovi. com. Alma Media employs approximately 2,400 people, one quarter of whom work outside Finland in nine different European countries, the Groups revenue in 2015 totalled approximately EUR291,5 million. Alma Media Group’s reporting structure was changed at the beginning of 2016, the names of the Group’s business segments were also changed. Alma Media Corporation has four units, Alma Markets, Alma News & Life, Alma Regions. Alma Markets segment includes several online services, the services are related to sectors such as housing, recruitment and cars as well as travelling. Alma News & Life segment print news and lifestyle content of the national Iltalehti, the online services Telkku. com, Kotikokki. net and E-kontakti. fi are also included in Alma News & Life. Alma Regions segment includes the print and online publishing business of Aamulehti, Satakunnan Kansa, Lapin Kansa/Pohjolan Sanomat and several local, the printing and distribution unit Alma Manu is also included in Alma Regions. Alma Talent publishes 19 trade and financial magazines and newspapers, as well as a variety of books, the business unit will also offer skills development and growth services to professionals and businesses in different fields, from events and training to information services. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Kirjapainon Osakeyhtiö starts operating in 1849 and prints the Suometar newspaper, alma’s biggest newspapers are founded around the century, Satakunnan Kansa, Aamulehti, Kauppalehti, Pohjolan Sanomat, Kainuun Sanomat and Lapin Kansa. Tampereen Kirjapaino Oy and Uusi Suomi Oy are merged in 1988 to become one of Finlands largest newspaper publishers, the new company was later named Aamulehti Corporation. Over the years, company expands its business from newspapers to online services, television, Alma Media Corporation officially begins operating on 1998. A major restructuring took place in Alma Media in 2005, the company divested its broadcasting business and decided to focus on publishing newspapers, business information and online marketplaces. In December 2011 Alma acquired LMC s. r. o, czech leading provider of Jobs. cz, Prace. cz jobboards and LMC G2 e-recruitment solution. In Sweden, publications by Alma Talent include Affärsvärlden, Ny Teknik and Dagens Media
23.
MTV3
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MTV3 is a Finnish commercial television station owned by Bonnier. It had the biggest audience share of all Finnish TV channels until Finnish Broadcasting Company’s Yle TV1 took the lead, the letters MTV stand for Mainos-TV, due to the channel carrying advertising for revenue. The channels logo was an owl, changed to an owls eye after an image renewal in 2001. MTV3 currently has about 500 employees and it is also known as Maikkari. MTV3 started on 13 August 1957, the first commercial network in Finland. In Finland it was preceded by the regional TES-TV commercial channel and it was originally known as MTV with programmes broadcast on the two channels of Yle. MTV was allocated its own channel after 1986, when Kolmoskanava was born as a joint venture between Yle, MTV, and Nokia. MTV3 was born in 1993 when MTV took over the shares of TV3 from Yle and Nokia, the same year MTV Oy was admitted as a full active member of the European Broadcasting Union. In 2005 Alma Media sold MTV3 and its channels to Swedish Bonnier. MTV3 broadcasts everyday from morning to small hours, the pre-dawn hours are allocated to a SMS-based online chat. Much of the output of MTV3 is a mixture of Finnish versions of popular formats and of American. However, MTV3 has also its own Finnish programming, for example, many of Spede Pasanens productions were produced for MTV3. MTV3 broadcasts two news broadcasts every day on prime time. Seitsemän uutiset at 19,00 EET and Kymmenen uutiset at 22,00 EET, MTV3 also broadcast news every morning and short bulletins at 21,00 EET. MTV3 brought the first daily soap opera to Finland, by showing the American The Bold and the Beautiful, in 1999, MTV3 started showing Finnish daily soap opera Salatut elämät. Juha Taivainen - Commentator Juhani Tamminen - Co-commentator, formula One GP2 GP3 MotoGP MotoGP2 MotoGP3 Niki Juusela - Current race commentary for live broadcasts from 2017. Oskari Saari - Race commentary for broadcasts from 2004 to 2016. Matti Kyllönen has previously provided commentary for the hour-long race summary shown on MTV3, erkki Mustakari - Reporter and interviewer as well as occasional co-commentator with Saari
24.
Sub (TV channel)
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Sub is a Finnish TV channel owned by Bonnier. The previous owner Alma Media sold Sub and its channels to Swedish Bonnier. Sub is an entertainment channel directed at teens and young adults, programs are mostly imported and of U. S. origin. Sub also shows reruns of popular and cult TV shows, recently, the share of domestic programming has grown remarkably. The channels highest viewership of all time was attracted in 2009 and it contained music news, TV schedules and interactive services like chats and mobile phone games and services. Brief introduction to Sub in English
25.
Nelonen
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Nelonen is a Finnish commercial TV channel. It started out as Helsinkis local television channel PTV in 1989 on the HTV cable network and it started on June 1,1997. Nelonen, in Finnish, means the glyph of the number four, the channel is mostly owned by Sanoma Corporation, which owns the Helsingin Sanomat and Ilta-Sanomat newspapers. Its largest owner was Aatos Erkko, much of its programming is Australian, American, British, and European shows, with Finnish captions. Its main market is the 25-44 demographic, Nelonen has 9 sister channels, Nelonen HD, Jim, Nelonen Prime, Nelonen Nappula, Nelonen Maailma, Nelonen Pro 1, Nelonen Pro 2, Liv and Hero. SM-liiga NBA Veikkausliiga Ice Hockey World Cup Nelonen was launched quickly and it has been criticized for importing trash shows, especially during its first years. Mostly the subject of criticism have been related to its weekly imported 4D documentaries concentrating on entertainment value, on the other hand, Nelonens scheduling also contains several award-winning drama series. During the fall of 2007, a day after the Jokela school shooting, the TV series depicts a fictional serial killer Dexter Morgan and it was said to be inappropriate after such dramatic and nationwide turn of events. The episode was shown a week later
26.
News Corporation
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The original News Corporation or News Corp. was an American multinational mass media corporation headquartered in New York City. It was the worlds fourth-largest media group in 2014 in terms of revenue, board members include prominent former Spanish prime minister José María Aznar. News Corporation was a traded company listed on the NASDAQ. Formerly incorporated in Adelaide, South Australia, the company was re-incorporated under Delaware General Corporation Law after a majority of shareholders approved the move on 12 November 2004. News Corporation was headquartered at 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York and its major holdings at the time of the split were News Limited, News International, Dow Jones & Company, the book publisher HarperCollins, and the Fox Entertainment Group. News Corp was created in 1979 by Rupert Murdoch as a company for News Limited. News Limited was created in 1923 in Adelaide, subsequently the controlling interest was bought by The Herald, in 1949, Sir Keith Murdoch took control of The Adelaide News. When he died in 1952, his son Rupert inherited a controlling interest in an Adelaide afternoon tabloid, News Limited operates today as News Corporations Australian brand, The Australian operating out of Surry Hills, in Sydney. News Ltd. made its first acquisition in the United States in 1973, soon afterwards it founded the National Star, a supermarket tabloid, and in 1976 it purchased the New York Post. In 1981, News Corp bought half of the movie studio 20th Century Fox, in 1985, News Corp announced it was buying the Metromedia group of stations, setting the stage for the launch of a fourth U. S. commercial broadcasting television network. On 4 September 1985, Murdoch became a citizen to satisfy the legal requirement that only United States citizens could own American television stations. In 1986, the Metromedia deal closed, and the Fox Broadcasting Company was launched and this network, known on-screen as Fox, can now be picked up in over 96% of U. S. households. In 1986 and 1987, News Corp moved to adjust the production process of its British newspapers, a number of senior Australian media moguls were brought into Murdochs powerhouse, including John Dux, who was managing director of the South China Morning Post. This led to a confrontation with the printing unions National Graphical Association and Society of Graphical, the move of News Internationals London operation to Wapping in the East End resulted in nightly battles outside the new plant. Delivery vans and depots were frequently and violently attacked, in 1993, News Corp acquired a 63. 6% stake of the Hong Kong-based STAR TV satellite network for over $500 million, followed by the purchase of the remaining 36. 4% in July 1995. Murdoch declared that, have proved a threat to totalitarian regimes everywhere. Satellite broadcasting makes it possible for residents of many closed societies to bypass state-controlled television channels. In 1995, the Fox network became the object of scrutiny from the FCC when it was alleged that its Australian base made Murdochs ownership of Fox illegal, the FCC, however, ruled in Murdochs favour, stating that his ownership of Fox was in the publics best interests
27.
Fox (Finland)
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Fox is a Finnish entertainment TV channel owned and produced by Fox Networks Group Nordic. The channel was acquired by FNG Nordic in January 2012, Fox is freely available in Finland both over-the-air and through cable, as it bases its funding on television advertisements. It is FIC Nordics first channel that does not operate on subscriber fees, some of their main shows are, The Walking Dead Legion Outcast American Dad. Top Gear Criminal Minds Family Guy Storage Wars Also they have a movie block called Fox Leffat where they showcase different distributors content. This is the outlet to revive the Fox Kids name. Initially, it utilised the Fox Kids global logo and on-screen branding from early 2000s, the block offers foreign television programs aimed at a young audience dubbed into the Finnish language. foxplay. fi
28.
AM broadcasting
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AM broadcasting is the process of radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation. AM was the first method of impressing sound on a signal and is still widely used today. Commercial and public AM broadcasting is authorized in the wave band worldwide. Commercial AM broadcasting developed from amateur broadcasts around 1920, and was the commercially important form of radio broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War II. This period is known as the Golden Age of Radio, today, AM competes with FM, as well as with various digital radio broadcasting services distributed from terrestrial and satellite transmitters. AM broadcasting was the first broadcasting technology invented, the technology of amplitude modulation radio transmission was developed between 1900 and 1920. This was used for private communication and message traffic, such as telegrams. The entrepreneurs who developed AM radiotelephone transmission did not anticipate broadcasting voice, the term broadcasting, borrowed from agriculture, was applied to this new activity around 1920. Prior to 1920 there was no concept of broadcasting, or that radio listeners could be a market for entertainment. Although there were a number of broadcasts during this period. True radio broadcasting didnt begin until around 1920, when it sprang up spontaneously among amateur stations, AM remained the dominant method of broadcasting for the next 30 years, a period called the Golden Age of Radio, until FM broadcasting started to become widespread in the 1950s. AM remains a popular, profitable entertainment medium today and the dominant form of broadcasting in some such as Australia. The first AM voice transmission was made by Canadian researcher Reginald Fessenden on 23 December 1900, Fessenden is a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He helped develop one of the first – the Alexanderson alternator, the first practical continuous wave AM transmitters were based on versions of the Poulsen arc transmitter invented in 1903, and the huge, expensive Alexanderson alternator, developed 1906–1910. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in low audio quality. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna wire, the limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones, in powerful transmitters water-cooled microphones had to be used. At the receiving end, the crystal radio receivers then in use could not drive loudspeakers, only earphones. The discovery in 1912 of the ability of the Audion vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest
29.
FM broadcasting
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FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation technology. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, it is used worldwide to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio, FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality than AM broadcasting, the chief competing radio broadcasting technology, so it is used for most music broadcasts. FM radio stations use the VHF frequencies, the term FM band describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM broadcasting. Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions, In the former Soviet republics, and some former Eastern Bloc countries, assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries, in those countries the 87. 5–108.0 MHz band is referred to as the CCIR band. In Japan, the band 76–95 MHz is used, the frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines, in some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used, in Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in countries, including 1,10,30,74,500. Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system and this can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used, in the Americas and South Korea,75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions, for stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier, systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis, e. g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong who invented FM was the first to experiment with multiplexing and these original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated
30.
Shortwave radio
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Shortwave radio is radio transmission using shortwave frequencies, generally 1. 6–30 MHz, just above the medium wave AM broadcast band. Radio waves in this band can be reflected or refracted from a layer of charged atoms in the atmosphere called the ionosphere. Therefore, short waves directed at an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth at great distances and this is called skywave or skip propagation. Shortwave radio is used for broadcasting of voice and music to listeners over very large areas. It is also used for military radar, diplomatic communication. The widest popular definition of the frequency interval is the ITU Region 1 definition, and is the span 1. 6–30 MHz, just above the medium wave band. In reality, the definition of the frequency band is a mess. The broadcast medium wave band now extends above the 200 m/1500 kHz limit, early radio telegraphy had used long wave transmissions. The drawbacks to this included a very limited spectrum available for long distance communication. It was also difficult to beam the radio wave directionally with long wave, prior to the 1920s, the shortwave frequencies above 1.5 MHz were regarded as useless for long distance communication and were designated in many countries for amateur use. Franklin rigged up an antenna at Poldhu Wireless Station, Cornwall. In June and July 1923, wireless transmissions were completed during nights on 97 meters from Poldhu to Marconis yacht Elettra in the Cape Verde Islands, in September 1924, Marconi transmitted daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut. Franklin went on to refine the directional transmission, by inventing the curtain array aerial system, the UK-to-Canada shortwave Beam Wireless Service went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia, South Africa, Shortwave communications began to grow rapidly in the 1920s, similar to the internet in the late 20th century. Shortwave also ended the need for investments in massive longwave wireless stations. The cable companies began to lose large sums of money in 1927, the British government convened the Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference in 1928 to examine the situation that had arisen as a result of the competition of Beam Wireless with the Cable Services. The name of the company was changed to Cable and Wireless Ltd. in 1934, long-distance cables had a resurgence beginning in 1956 with the laying of TAT-1 across the Atlantic Ocean, the first voice frequency cable on this route. This provided 36 high quality telephone channels and was followed by even higher capacity cables all around the world
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DVB-T
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This system transmits compressed digital audio, digital video and other data in an MPEG transport stream, using coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing modulation. It is also the format widely used worldwide for Electronic News Gathering for transmission of video, in the case of DVB-T, there are two choices for the number of carriers known as 2K-mode or 8K-mode. These are actually 1,705 or 6,817 sub-carriers that are approximately 4 kHz or 1 kHz apart, DVB-T offers three different modulation schemes. The DVB-T Standard is published as EN300744, Framing structure, channel coding, many countries that have adopted DVB-T have published standards for their implementation. These include the D-book in the UK, the Italian DGTVi, DVB-T has been further developed into newer standards such as DVB-H, which was a commercial failure and is no longer in operation, and DVB-T2, which was initially finalised in August 2011. DVB-T as a digital transmission delivers data in a series of blocks at the symbol rate. DVB-T is a COFDM transmission technique which includes the use of a Guard Interval and it allows the receiver to cope with strong multipath situations. Within a geographical area, DVB-T also allows single-frequency network operation, in such cases the signals from each transmitter in the SFN needs to be accurately time-aligned, which is done by sync information in the stream and timing at each transmitter referenced to GPS. The length of the Guard Interval can be chosen and it is a trade-off between data rate and SFN capability. The longer the interval the larger is the potential SFN area without creating intersymbol interference. It is possible to operate SFNs which do not fulfill the guard interval condition if the self-interference is properly planned and monitored, with reference to the figure, a short description of the signal processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing Compressed video, compressed audio, one or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream, this is the basic digital stream which is being transmitted and received by TV sets or home Set Top Boxes. Allowed bitrates for the transported data depend on a number of coding and modulation parameters, splitter Two different MPEG-TSs can be transmitted at the same time, using a technique called Hierarchical Transmission. It may be used to transmit, for example a standard definition SDTV signal, generally, the SDTV signal is more robust than the HDTV one. At the receiver, depending on the quality of the received signal, MUX adaptation and energy dispersal The MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length. With a technique called energy dispersal, the sequence is decorrelated. External interleaver Convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, Internal encoder A second level of error correction is given by a punctured convolutional code, which is often denoted in STBs menus as FEC. There are five valid coding rates, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, Internal interleaver Data sequence is rearranged again, aiming to reduce the influence of burst errors
32.
DVB-C
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DVB-C stands for Digital Video Broadcasting - Cable and it is the DVB European consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital television over cable. This system transmits an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 family digital audio/digital video stream, the standard was first published by the ETSI in 1994, and subsequently became the most widely used transmission system for digital cable television in Europe, Asia and South America. It is deployed worldwide in systems ranging from the cable television networks down to smaller satellite master antenna TV systems. On February 18,2008 it was announced that a new standard – DVB-C2 – would be developed during 2008, proposals including simulation programs and information on patent rights could be submitted until June 16,2008. The final DVB-C2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in April 2009, modes and features of DVB-C2 in comparison to DVB-C, With reference to the figure, a short description of the single processing blocks follows. Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing, video, audio, and data streams are multiplexed into an MPEG program stream, one or more MPEG-PSs are joined together into an MPEG transport stream. This is the digital stream which is being transmitted and received by home set top boxes or relevant integrable decoder module. Allowed bitrates for the transported MPEG-2 depend on a number of modulation parameters, MUX adaptation and energy dispersal, the MPEG-TS is identified as a sequence of data packets, of fixed length. With a technique called energy dispersal, the sequence is decorrelated. External interleaver, convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the transmitted data sequence, byte/m-tuple conversion, data bytes are encoded into bit m-tuples. Differential coding, In order to get a rotation-invariant constellation, this unit shall apply a differential encoding of the two Most Significant Bits of each symbol, QAM Mapper, the bit sequence is mapped into a base-band digital sequence of complex symbols. There are 5 allowed modulation modes, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM, base-band shaping, the QAM signal is filtered with a raised-cosine shaped filter, in order to remove mutual signal interference at the receiving side. DAC and front-end, the signal is transformed into an analog signal, with a digital-to-analog converter. The receiving STB adopts techniques which are dual to those used in the transmission
33.
.fi
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. fi is the Internet country code top-level domain for Finland. It is operated by FICORA, the Finnish Communications Regulatory Authority, on 4 December 1986, an application to register top level domain for Finland was sent by Finnish Unix Users Group from Tampere. The application was accepted and the administration of. fi TLD was granted to Tampere University of Technology, later the administration was transferred first to FICIX and later to FICORA. In the past FICORA regulated. fi domains very strictly, Domain names were only admitted to company names or companies that owned trademarks. This policy led to Finnish companies applying for domains under other top-level domains, the policy was changed on 1st September 2003. Since September 2016 anyone worldwide is permitted to register domain names under the. fi TLD, since 1st September 2005. fi domains may contain Scandinavian letters, though they are not recommended to be used as the primary domain. Since 1st March 2006, private persons have also been able to apply for a domain name, some restrictions still apply, for example, company names or trademarks can only be applied for by the companies concerned. FICORA began supporting Domain Name System Security on. fi domain names in late 2010. ax, IANA. fi whois information FICORA. fi Ficora domains. fi top-level domain registration application Miten Internet tuli Suomeen - Nic. funet. fi
34.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
35.
History of Finland
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The land area that now makes up Finland was settled immediately after the last ice age, which ended in 9000 BC. Finnish nationalism emerged, focused on Finnish cultural traditions, including music and—especially—the highly distinctive language, the catastrophic Finnish famine of 1866–1868 was followed by eased economic regulations and extensive emigration. A civil war between the Finnish Red Guards and the White Guard ensued a few later, with the Whites gaining the upper hand during the springtime of 1918. After the internal affairs stabilized, the mainly agrarian economy grew relatively quickly. Relations with the West, especially Sweden and Britain, were strong, however, Finland remained an independent democracy in North Europe. In the latter half of its independent history, Finland has maintained a mixed economy, since its post-World War II economic boom in the 1970s, Finlands GDP per capita has been among the worlds highest. The expanded welfare state of Finland from 1970 and 1990 increased the public employees and spending. In 1992, Finland simultaneously faced economic overheating and depressed Western, Russian, Finland joined the European Union in 1995, and replaced the Finnish markka with the euro in 2002. According to a 2005 poll, most Finns at that point were reluctant to join NATO, if confirmed, the oldest archeological site in Finland would be the Wolf Cave in Kristinestad, in Ostrobothnia. The last ice age in the area of the modern-day Finland ended c.9000 BC, starting about that time, people migrated to the area of Finland from the Kunda and—possibly—Swiderian cultures, and they are believed to be ancestors of todays Finnish and Sami people in Finland. The oldest confirmed evidence of the human settlements in Finland are from the area of Ristola in Lahti and from Orimattila. Finland has been inhabited at least since the end of the last ice age. The earliest post-glacial inhabitants of the area of Finland were probably mainly seasonal hunter-gatherers. Their artifacts discovered are known to represent the Suomusjärvi and the Kunda cultures, among finds is the net of Antrea, the oldest fishing net known ever to have been excavated. By 5300 BC pottery was present in Finland, the earliest samples belong to the Comb Ceramic Cultures, known for their distinctive decorating patterns. This marks the beginning of the period for Finland, although subsistence was still based on hunting and fishing. Extensive networks of exchange existed across Finland and northeastern Europe during the 5th millennium BC, rock paintings — apparently related to shamanistic and totemistic belief systems — have been found, especially in Eastern Finland, e. g. Astuvansalmi. Between 3500 and 2000 BC, monumental stone enclosures colloquially known as Giants Churches were constructed in the Ostrobothnia region, the purpose of the enclosures is unknown
36.
Early Finnish wars
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Early Finnish wars are scattered descriptions of conflicts involving Finnish tribes or Finland prior to the gradual Swedish conquest of Finland in 13th and 14th centuries. The most important sources are Novgorod First Chronicle, Primary Chronicle, fortifications are known from Finland already from the Stone Age onwards. In Yli-Ii by the Iijoki river is located the Kierikki Stone Age fortress, also the approximately 40 Giants Churches from the Neolithic period found from the northwest coast of Finland may have served as fortifications. Bronze Age hillforts have also found from Finland, such as Hautvuori in Laitila. In the Merovingian period belligerence and military hierarchy has been emphasized, hillforts get more common from Iron Age forward. According to the earliest historical documents in the Middle Ages Finnic tribes around the Baltic Sea were often in conflict with other as well as against other entities in the area. Ynglingasaga tells about the first known expedition to Finland. It happened one summer that King Agne went with his army to Finland, the Finland people gathered a large army, and proceeded to the strife under a chief called Froste. There was a battle, in which King Agne gained the victory. King Agne proceeded with armed hand through Finland, subdued it, norna-Gests þáttr saga tells that Kvens were raiding in Sweden in the mid-8th century. Sigurd Ring was not there, since he had to defend his land, Sweden, in the late 9th century, king Eric Anundsson was said to have conquered Finland, with several other eastern countries. Finland was probably the same as Terra Feminarum which was attacked by Sweden in the 1050s, according to the source, the attack ended in the Swedish defeat, and led to the death of the kings son who was in charge of the campaign. Information on the conflict is however convoluted, the best-known Swedish war against Finland presumably took place in the 1150s known as the legendary First Swedish Crusade. Whether it ever happened, is however not certain as the information is based on the late 13th century legends. Sweden eventually took over Finland during the so-called Second Swedish Crusade around 1249, by the end of the century, records of independent Finnish military activities ceased to surface. And there are many fresh water lakes beyond the moors. Legendary Orkneyinga saga tells about Nor who travelled from Kvenland to Norway, based on sagas internal chronologies, the war would have taken place on the 6th or 7th century. Another version of the saga, Hversu Noregr byggdist, however omits the Kvenland part completely, saga of Olaf Haraldson tells how the Saint Olaf himself, the King of Norway, plundered in Finland around 1007 and almost got killed at the Battle at Herdaler
37.
Finland under Swedish rule
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Finland under Swedish rule refers to the period in the history of Finland when it was a part of Sweden. It has traditionally been considered as starting from 1150, when according to the legend of St. Erik the king Eric IX of Sweden, the actual starting point of the Swedish rule is however under a large amount of uncertainty and controversy. Clear historical evidence of the establishing of Swedish rule in Finland exist from 1249 onwards, the period of Swedish rule ended in the Finnish war in 1808–1809. Swedish-ruled Finland has in the 20th century also referred to as Sweden-Finland. The term has been used to refer to the realm consisting of the parts of current Sweden. Finland was the frontier of the realm, which brought many wars. The Finnish language, dating from prehistoric times, and some parts of folklore religion and culture remained under Swedish rule, for example, in this period Finnish adopted the Latin alphabet as its writing system and a huge amount of Swedish loanwords. The written history of Finland is said to have begun at the 12th century, up until the 14th century, information about Finland has been incomplete and unreliable. The latter part of the 12th century and the 13th century are sometimes called Finlands protohistory, according to the legend of Eric the Holy, the King of Sweden Eric the Holy began the conquest of Finland by making the first crusade to Finland to southwest Finland in the 1150s. According to the chronicle and other sources, the bishop Henry was converting people to Christianity in the areas of Finland Proper. There has been controversy over the factualness of this information, establishing the Christian church as an institution in Finland has probably caused some resistance in the native Finnish population, as told in the legend of the peasant Lalli. It is however probable that the western or eastern Christianity had spread to Finland already during Finlands prehistory, there have been hints about this for example in graves found during archaeological diggings. The old-fashioned romantic nationalist view of a quick conquest of Finland, the Kingdom of Sweden was only starting to form in the 12th century. The area what is now Finland moved to or formed as a part of the Swedish realm gradually during the 12th or 13th century, most native people in the area spoke Finnish or Sami dialects. The Finnish-speaking population probably did not have a common identity, in the 13th century, Sweden made crusades to Western Finland or Tavastia and to Karelia. Apparently this caused the Swedish rule to be finally established, by approximately 1300, what is now Western and Southern Finland, up to the Karelian isthmus, had become part of Sweden and the Uppsala diocese, which was ruled from castles. The Käkisalmi area and the Ladoga Karelia retained their ties to the Orthodox southwest Russia, the collision between the Catholic and the Orthodox cultures happened in the area that is now Finland. The Treaty of Nöteborg, made in 1323, was the first peace treaty between Sweden and Novgorod and it also defined the eastern boundary of the Swedish realm and Finland at least for Karelia
38.
Cudgel War
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The Cudgel War was a 1596/97 peasant uprising in the kingdom of Sweden. The yeomen also had swords, some firearms and two cannons at their disposal and their opponents, the troops of Clas Eriksson Fleming, were professional, heavily armed and armoured men-at-arms. An uprising began on Christmas Eve 1595 and was initially successful, in December 1596, the Cudgel War began. The peasants won a number of encounters with infantry, klaus Fleming began negotiating a truce that required the surrender of peasant leader Jaakko Ilkka. Ilkka fled to avoid being handed over and the peasant army scattered, pursued by the soldiers, at least 1500 were killed within the next two months. Along with Jaakko Ilkka, five other leaders were executed on January 27,1597. Israel Laurinpoika was named as the new governor of central and northern Ostrobothnia, however, he fled rather than face Fleming. Leaderless, the peasants opened battle with Fleming on February 24,1597, over 1000 were killed and 500 captured. The insurgents were mostly Finnish peasants from Ostrobothnia, Northern Tavastia, the events can also be seen as a part of a larger power struggle between King Sigismund and Duke Charles. In his work Nuijasota, sen syyt ja tapaukset, historian and fennoman Yrjö Koskinen saw the peasants as fighting for freedom, fredrika Runebergs Sigrid Liljeholm, one of the first historical novels in Finland, depicts womens fates during the war. Albert Edelfelts painting Poltettu kylä depicts a woman, a child, the poet Kaarlo Kramsu praised the insurgents and lamented their defeat in patriotic poems such as Ilkka, Hannu Krankka, and Santavuoren tappelu, published in Runoelmia. A historical reenactment of the Cudgel War is conducted yearly in the Kavalahti scout camp, Jaakko Ilkka took the 75th place in the Great Finns TV show. A commemorative silver coin was minted to mark the occasion
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Great Northern War
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The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway. George I of Great Britain and of Brunswick-Lüneburg joined the coalition in 1714 for and for Hanover in 1717, Charles XII led the Swedish army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanisław I Leszczyński, the Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I. The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, the Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian-Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russias position. After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it, the remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Riga, falling in 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg, Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front, but was killed in Fredriksten in 1718. The war ended with Swedens defeat, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region, by these treaties Sweden ceded her exemption from the Sound Dues, and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended her alliance with Holstein-Gottorp, Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary, Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened her position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII. Between the years of 1560 and 1658, Sweden created a Baltic empire centred on the Gulf of Finland and comprising the provinces of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia. During the Thirty Years War Sweden gained tracts in Germany as well, including Western Pomerania, Wismar, the Duchy of Bremen, during the same period Sweden conquered Danish and Norwegian provinces north of the Sound. However, the Swedish state ultimately proved unable to support and maintain its army in a prolonged war. The cost of the proved to be much higher than the occupied countries could fund, and Swedens coffers. The foreign interventions in Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in Swedish gains in the Treaty of Stolbovo, the treaty deprived Russia of direct access to the Baltic Sea. In the late 1690s, the adventurer Johann Patkul managed to ally Russia with Denmark and Saxony by the secret Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, Charles XII of Sweden succeeded Charles XI of Sweden in 1697, aged 14. From his predecessor, he took over the Swedish Empire as an absolute monarch, Charles XI had tried to keep the empire out of wars, and concentrated on inner reforms such as reduction and allotment, which had strengthened the monarchs status and the empires military abilities
40.
Finnish War
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The Finnish War was fought between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Russian Empire from February 1808 to September 1809. As a result of the war, the third of Sweden was established as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian Empire. Other notable effects were the Swedish parliaments adoption of a new constitution and the establishment of the House of Bernadotte, the king, who viewed Napoleon as the Antichrist and Britain as his ally against Napoleons France, was apprehensive of the systems ruinous consequences for Swedens maritime commerce. He instead entered into negotiations with Britain in order to prepare a joint attack against Denmark, in the meantime, the Royal Navy attacked Copenhagen and the Anglo-Russian War was declared. Referring to the treaties of 1780 and 1800, the emperor demanded that Gustav Adolf close the Baltic Sea to all foreign warships, King Gustav Adolf did this after securing an alliance with England on 8 February 1808. Meanwhile, on 30 December 1807 Russia announced that should Sweden not give a clear reply Russia would be forced to act, the situation was problematic for Sweden, since it once again faced both Denmark and Russia as potential enemies requiring the Swedes to split their forces. The king had thought it impossible to defend Finland should the attack during the winter. Most of the Swedish plans assumed that warfare would be impossible during winter, in addition, several new good roads had been built into Finland greatly reducing the earlier dependency on naval support for any large operation in Finland. Russia had gathered a wealth of information from Finland using spies, the level of detail was so great that Russian maps of Finland were in many respects more accurate than their Swedish counterparts. The Russians used the services of General Georg Magnus Sprengtporten when forming their plans, Sprengtporten suggested going on to an offensive during the winter since Finland would be mostly isolated when seas were frozen. His ideas were developed by General Jan Pieter van Suchtelen before General Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden was appointed as the commander of the Russian army in Finland in December 1807. The plan involved using the series of fortifications built after 1790 as staging grounds for the Russian advances into Finland, in southern Finland, armies were to isolate the fortifications and first take control of the whole of southern Finland before advancing further to the north. Forces in Savolax were to press hard against the Swedes and reach the Gulf of Bothnia towards Uleåborg, on February 21,1808,24,000 Russian troops under Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoevden crossed the border. Since Klingspor had not arrived Lieutenant General Karl Nathanael af Klercker acted as Swedish commander in Finland, before the engagement started Klingspor finally arrived on 2 March and assumed command. Instead of facing the Russians at Tavastehus he ordered the army to withdraw, in Savolax the Russians also forced the Swedes to withdraw. The king was quite unprepared for the attack, especially as war was not declared until April, about 21,000 Swedish troops were stationed in various fortresses in Finland, while the rest of his army was unable to leave southern Sweden for fear of Danish attack. On the first day of the war they had captured the town of Lovisa, borgå was captured on 24 February and Helsingfors on 2 March. Abandoned Swedish fortifications Hangö Peninsula were taken and manned on 21 March, before the end of March 1808 even Vasa was taken
41.
Grand Duchy of Finland
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The Grand Duchy of Finland was the predecessor state of modern Finland. It existed between 1809 and 1917 as an part of the Russian Empire and was ruled by the Russian Emperor as Grand Duke. The new title Grand Duke of Finland did not result in any Finnish autonomy, during the next two centuries, the title was used by some of Johns successors on the throne, but not all. Usually it was just a title of the king, used only on very formal occasions. The title Grand Duke of Finland was added to the long list of titles of the Russian Tsar, after his return to Finland in 1812, the Finnish-born Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt became counsellor to the Russian emperor. The formation of the Grand Duchy stems from the Treaty of Tilsit between Czar Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon Bonaparte of France, the treaty mediated peace between Russia and France and allied the two countries against Napoleons remaining threats, Great Britain and Sweden. Russia invaded Finland in February of 1808, claimed as an effort to impose sanctions against Sweden, but not a war of conquest. The oath also dubbed anyone person who gave aid to the Swedish or Finnish armies a rebel, the Finns complied, bitter over Sweden abandoning the country for their war against Denmark and France, and begrudgingly embraced Russian conquest. The Diet of Finland was now to only meet whenever requested, further on, Alexander I requested a deputation of the four Finnish estates, as he expressed concern over continued Finnish resistance. The deputation refused to act without the Diet, to which Alexander agreed with, by 1809, all of Finland had been conquered and The Diet was summoned in March. Finland was then united through Russia via crown, and Finland was able to keep the majority of its own laws, the earlier years of the Grand Duchy can be seen as uneventful. In 1812, the area of Old Finland, known as the Viipuri Province was returned to Finland after being annexed by Russia in the Great Northern War, despite the outcry, the borders remained set until 1940. Moreover, Alexander moved the capital from Turku to Helsinki, a fortified town protected by Suomenlinna. Finlands main university also transferred to Helsinki after a fire out in Turku. Alexander went a step further to demand a Finnish House of Nobles, the house was designed to register all noble families in Finland, so that the highest Finnish estate would be representative of the next Finnish diet. As for Sweden, the majority did not think too much about Finlands conquest, as Sweden itself annexed Norway from Denmark in 1814, despite this, Alexander I ceased to give in to Finnish affairs and returned to governing Russia. In 1823, Arseny Zakrevsky was made general of Finland and quickly became unpopular by the Finns. Zakrevsky abolished the Committee for Finnish Affairs and managed to obtain the right to submit Finnish affairs to the Czar, bypassing the Finnish Secretary of State
42.
Russification of Finland
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The two Russification campaigns evoked widespread Finnish resistance, starting with petitions and escalating to strikes, passive resistance and eventually active resistance. Finnish opposition to Russification was one of the factors that ultimately led to Finlands declaration of independence in 1917. Russia attacked Sweden in 1808, in what became known as the War of Finland. In 1809 the lost territory of Sweden became the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, in 1809 the Finnish Diet recognized Tsar Alexander I as Grand Duke. We promise to all these benefits and laws firm and unshaken in their full force. This promise was maintained, indeed, Alexander II amplified the powers of the Finnish diet in 1869, the Language Manifesto of 1900, the decree by Emperor Nicholas II which made Russian the language of administration of Finland. The conscription law, signed by Nicholas II in July 1901 incorporating the Finnish army into the imperial army, from April 1903 until the Russian Revolution of 1905, the governor-general was granted dictatorial powers. In June 1904 Eugen Schauman assassinated Bobrikov, the incumbent, the imperial government responded with a purge of opponents of Russification within the Finnish administration and more stringent censorship. However the resistance also had some successes, notably a de facto reversal of the new conscription law. The Russification campaign was suspended and partially reversed in 1905–07 during a period of civil unrest throughout the Russian empire following Russian defeats in the Russo-Japanese War. The program was reintroduced in 1908 on, costing Finland much of its autonomy and again causing further Finnish resistance, including the Jäger movement. During the Russo–Japanese War with the aid from Japan the rebels bought a shipment of thousands of rifles with the aim of creating an uprising and forming an independent state. However, the ship was wrecked off the coast of Finland, during the First World War when Russia and Japan were allies fighting against Germany, the Japanese handed to the Russian government a list of leading men in the freedom movement. Russification Kagal Russophobia Sergeevskii, N. D. Finland, the question of autonomy and fundamental laws Alenius, Russification in Estonia and Finland Before 1917, Faravid,2004, Vol.28, pp 181–194 Huxley, Steven. Constitutionalist insurgency in Finland, Finnish passive resistance against Russification as a case of nonmilitary struggle in the European resistance tradition Polvinen, Imperial Borderland, Bobrikov and the Attempted Russification of Finland, 1898–1904 Thaden, Edward C. Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, the Era of Russification The Gracious Manifesto of the Imperial Majesty, text of the February Manifesto of 1899 Nicholass Decree Limiting Finnish Autonomy, March 20,1903
43.
October Revolution
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It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd on 25 October 1917. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils wherein revolutionaries criticized the provisional government and this immediately initiated the establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first self-proclaimed socialist state. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces, Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October 1917. The following day, the Winter Palace, was captured, the long-awaited Constituent Assembly elections were held on 12 November 1917. The Bolsheviks only won 175 seats in the 715-seat legislative body, coming in second behind the Socialist Revolutionary party, the Constituent Assembly was to first meet on 28 November 1917, but its convocation was delayed until 5 January 1918 by the Bolsheviks. On its first and only day in session, the body rejected Soviet decrees on peace and land, as the revolution was not universally recognized, there followed the struggles of the Russian Civil War and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. At first, the event was referred to as the October coup or the Uprising of 25th, in Russian, however, переворот has a similar meaning to revolution and also means upheaval or overturn, so coup is not necessarily the correct translation. With time, the term October Revolution came into use and it is also known as the November Revolution having occurred in November according to the Gregorian Calendar. The Great October Socialist Revolution was the name for the October Revolution in the Soviet Union after the 10th anniversary of the Revolution in 1927. The February Revolution had toppled Tsar Nicolas II of Russia, however, the provisional government was weak and riven by internal dissension. It continued to wage World War I, which became increasingly unpopular, a nationwide crisis developed in Russia, affecting social, economic, and political relations. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased, gross industrial production in 1917 had decreased by over 36% from what it had been in 1914. In the autumn, as much as 50% of all enterprises were closed down in the Urals, the Donbas, at the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. Real wages fell about 50% from what they had been in 1913, russias national debt in October 1917 had risen to 50 billion rubles. Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion rubles, the country faced the threat of financial bankruptcy. In these months alone, more than a million took part in strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants in a social revolution, by October 1917, there had been over 4,000 peasant uprisings against landowners. When the Provisional Government sent punitive detachments, it only enraged the peasants
