1.
Telephone exchange
–
A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
Telephone exchange
–
A
telephone operator manually connecting calls with cord pairs at a telephone switchboard.
Telephone exchange
–
A modern exchange, equipped not just for voice communication but also for
broadband data.
Telephone exchange
–
Tivadar Puskás, inventor of the telephone exchange.
Telephone exchange
–
Exchange in Miskolc, Hungary
2.
Fiber-optic
–
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
Fiber-optic
–
A bundle of optical fibers
Fiber-optic
–
Fiber crew installing a 432-count fiber cable underneath the streets of Midtown Manhattan, New York City
Fiber-optic
–
A
TOSLINK fiber optic audio cable with red light being shone in one end transmits the light to the other end
Fiber-optic
–
A
wall-mount cabinet containing optical fiber interconnects. The yellow cables are
single mode fibers; the orange and aqua cables are
multi-mode fibers: 50/125 µm OM2 and 50/125 µm OM3 fibers respectively.
3.
Coaxial cable
–
Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network connections, digital audio and this allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference, the cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor, the advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from interfering with signals inside the cable, larger diameter cables and cables with multiple shields have less leakage. Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, the characteristic impedance of the cable is determined by the dielectric constant of the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should be matched to ensure maximum power transfer, other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality. Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, the inner conductor might be solid or stranded, stranded is more flexible. To get better performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry. The insulator surrounding the conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic. The properties of control some electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene insulator, used in lower-loss cables, solid Teflon is also used as an insulator. Some coaxial lines use air and have spacers to keep the conductor from touching the shield. Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield and this allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat
Coaxial cable
–
Outer plastic sheath
Coaxial cable
–
A male
F-type connector used with common RG-6 cable
Coaxial cable
–
A male
N-type connector
4.
Microwave radio relay
–
Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are measured in small numbers of centimetre, these are called microwaves. This part of the spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz to 300 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 0.1 cm, communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, a disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation, they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can. Microwave radio transmission is used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications. Other parts of the radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. Wireless transmission of power Proposed systems e. g, in microwave radio relay, microwaves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed radio connection between the two points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the distance between stations to 30 or 40 miles. Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the U. S. carried long distance telephone calls. The first system, dubbed TD-2 and built by AT&T, connected New York and these included long daisy-chained series of such links that traversed mountain ranges and spanned continents. Much of the traffic is now carried by cheaper optical fibers and communication satellites. Antennas must be highly directional, these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances. Because of the frequencies used, a line-of-sight path between the stations is required. Additionally, in order to avoid attenuation of the beam an area around the beam called the first Fresnel zone must be free from obstacles, obstacles in the signal field cause unwanted attenuation. In the planning process, it is essential that path profiles are produced, multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency band, so space and/or frequency diversity schemes can be applied to mitigate these effects. Rare events of temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may produce large deviations and distortion of the propagation and affect transmission quality
Microwave radio relay
–
A parabolic satellite antenna for Erdfunkstelle Raisting, based in
Raisting,
Bavaria,
Germany.
Microwave radio relay
–
The atmospheric attenuation of
microwaves in dry air with a precipitable water vapor level of 0.001 mm. The downward spikes in the graph correspond to frequencies at which microwaves are absorbed more strongly, such as by
oxygen molecules
Microwave radio relay
–
C band horn-reflector antennas on the roof of a telephone switching center in
Seattle, Washington, part of the U.S.
AT&T Long Lines microwave relay network.
Microwave radio relay
–
Dozens of microwave dishes on the
Heinrich-Hertz-Turm in Germany.
5.
Roaming
–
To roam is to wander around, to go from place to place without a certain direction or purpose. In the context of mobile networks the word is used when a mobile phone is used outside of the range of its home network. Roaming ensures that a wireless device is kept connected to a network without breaking the connection. For example, should a subscriber travel beyond their cell phone companys transmitter range, their cell phone would automatically hop onto another phone companys service, Using another phone companys service can be done by using the subscriber identity in the visited network. Roaming is technically supported by mobility management, authentication, authorization, device equipment and functionality, such as SIM card capability, antenna and network interfaces, and power management, determine the access possibilities. Username/password based roaming, GSM subscriber roams onto a Public WLAN operated by, although these user/network scenarios focus on roaming from GSM Network Operators network, clearly roaming can be bi-directional, i. e. from Public WLAN Operators to GSM Networks. Traditional roaming in networks of the standard, e. g. In the case of session continuity, seamless access to these services across different access types is provided, the differentiation between home network and visited network is technically given by the type of subscriber entry in a specific network. The visiting subscriber acquires an entry in a database of the visited network. Thus, the term roaming is not linked to a specific network standard, if a subscriber can use their personal service profile, which they use in the home network, in the visited network as well, this is also referred to as Global Service Roaming Capability. The legal roaming business aspects negotiated between the partners for billing of the services obtained are usually stipulated in so called roaming agreements. The GSM Association broadly outlines the content of such roaming agreements in standardized form for its members, if there is no roaming agreement between the two networks, maintenance of service is impossible, and service is denied by the visited network. The visited network contacts the home network and requests information about the roaming device using the IMSI number. If successful, the visited network begins to maintain a temporary subscriber record for the device, likewise, the home network updates its information to indicate that the cell phone is on the host network so that any information sent to that device can be correctly routed. It occurs for example when a call is made to a cell phone. Signaling process, The calling subscriber dials the mobile subscribers MSISDN of the cell phone. Based on the contained in the MSISDN, the call is routed to the mobile network gateway MSC. Its done with an ISUP IAM message, to locate the MS, the GMSC sends to the HLR a MAP SRI message
Roaming
–
An
SMS welcome to
Proximus (
Belgium) customers who have roamed onto
T-Mobile in the UK
Roaming
–
Roaming sign shown in notification bar on an
Android powered
smartphone.
6.
Media gateway
–
Media gateways enable multimedia communications across packet networks using transport protocols such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode and Internet Protocol. Because the media gateway connects different types of networks, one of its functions is to convert between different transmission and coding techniques. Media streaming functions such as echo cancellation, DTMF, and tone sender are also located in the media gateway, Media gateways are often controlled by a separate Media Gateway Controller which provides the call control and signaling functionality. Communication between media gateways and Call Agents is achieved by means of such as MGCP or Megaco or Session Initiation Protocol. Modern media gateways used with SIP are often stand-alone units with their own call and signaling control integrated, mobile access media gateways connect the radio access networks of a public land mobile network PLMN to a next-generation core network. 3GPP standards define the functionality of CS-MGW and IMS-MGW for UTRAN and GERAN based PLMNs
Media gateway
–
Media Gateways are used for transcoding media between PSTN and IP networks
7.
Fibre-optics
–
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
Fibre-optics
–
A bundle of optical fibers
Fibre-optics
–
Fiber crew installing a 432-count fiber cable underneath the streets of Midtown Manhattan, New York City
Fibre-optics
–
A
TOSLINK fiber optic audio cable with red light being shone in one end transmits the light to the other end
Fibre-optics
–
A
wall-mount cabinet containing optical fiber interconnects. The yellow cables are
single mode fibers; the orange and aqua cables are
multi-mode fibers: 50/125 µm OM2 and 50/125 µm OM3 fibers respectively.
8.
Microwave transmission
–
Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are measured in small numbers of centimetre, these are called microwaves. This part of the spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz to 300 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 0.1 cm, communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, a disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation, they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can. Microwave radio transmission is used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications. Other parts of the radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. Wireless transmission of power Proposed systems e. g, in microwave radio relay, microwaves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed radio connection between the two points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the distance between stations to 30 or 40 miles. Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the U. S. carried long distance telephone calls. The first system, dubbed TD-2 and built by AT&T, connected New York and these included long daisy-chained series of such links that traversed mountain ranges and spanned continents. Much of the traffic is now carried by cheaper optical fibers and communication satellites. Antennas must be highly directional, these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances. Because of the frequencies used, a line-of-sight path between the stations is required. Additionally, in order to avoid attenuation of the beam an area around the beam called the first Fresnel zone must be free from obstacles, obstacles in the signal field cause unwanted attenuation. In the planning process, it is essential that path profiles are produced, multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency band, so space and/or frequency diversity schemes can be applied to mitigate these effects. Rare events of temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may produce large deviations and distortion of the propagation and affect transmission quality
Microwave transmission
–
A parabolic satellite antenna for Erdfunkstelle Raisting, based in
Raisting,
Bavaria,
Germany.
Microwave transmission
–
The atmospheric attenuation of
microwaves in dry air with a precipitable water vapor level of 0.001 mm. The downward spikes in the graph correspond to frequencies at which microwaves are absorbed more strongly, such as by
oxygen molecules
Microwave transmission
–
C band horn-reflector antennas on the roof of a telephone switching center in
Seattle, Washington, part of the U.S.
AT&T Long Lines microwave relay network.
Microwave transmission
–
Dozens of microwave dishes on the
Heinrich-Hertz-Turm in Germany.
9.
Access network
–
An access network is a type of telecommunications network which connects subscribers to their immediate service provider. It is contrasted with the network, which connects local providers to each other. The access network may be divided between feeder plant or distribution network, and drop plant or edge network. An access network or outside plant refers to the series of wires, cables, the local exchange contains banks of automated switching equipment to direct a call or connection to the consumer. The access network is one of the oldest assets a telecoms operator owns, and is constantly evolving, growing as new customers are connected. This makes the network one of the most complex networks in the world to maintain. In 2007–2008 many telecommunication operators experienced increasing problems maintaining the quality of the records which describe the network, in 2006, according to an independent Yankee Group report, globally operators experience profit leakage in excess of €15 Billion each year. The access network is perhaps the most valuable asset an operator owns. Access networks consist largely of pairs of wires, each traveling in a direct path between the exchange and the customer. In some instances, these wires may even be aluminum, the use of which was common in the 1960s and 1970s following an increase in the cost of copper. As it happened, the increase was temporary, but the effect of this decision is still felt today because the aluminum wires oxidize. Operators offered additional services such as xDSL based broadband and IPTV to guarantee profit, the access network is again the main barrier to achieving these profits since operators worldwide have accurate records of only 40% to 60% of the network. Access networks around the world evolved to more and more optical fiber technology. The process of communicating with a network begins with an access attempt, an access attempt itself begins with an issuance of an access request by an access originator. Access failure can be the result of access outage, user blocking, incorrect access, Access denial can include, Access failure caused by the issuing of a system blocking signal by a communications system that does not have a call-originator camp-on feature. Access failure caused by exceeding the maximum time and nominal system access time fraction during an access attempt. Although some access charges are billed directly to interexchange carriers, a significant percentage of all charges are paid by the local end users. Faster PON standards generally support a split ratio of users per PON
Access network
–
Access Network Authentication High-Level Example
10.
France Telecom
–
Orange S. A. formerly France Télécom S. A. is a French multinational telecommunications corporation. It has 256 million customers worldwide and employs 95,000 people in France, in 2015, the group had revenue of €40 billion. The companys head office is located in the 15th arrondissement of Paris, the current CEO is Stéphane Richard. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, Orange has been the companys main brand for mobile, landline, internet and IPTV services since 2006. It originated in 1994 when Hutchison Whampoa acquired a stake in Microtel Communications during the early 1990s. It became a subsidiary of Mannesmann in 1999 and was acquired by France Télécom in 2000, the company was rebranded as Orange in July 2013. In 1792, under the French Revolution, the first communication network was developed to enable the rapid transmission of information in a warring and that was the optical telegraphy network of Claude Chappe. In 1878, after the invention of the telegraph and then the invention of the telephone. Telephone Services were added to the ministry when they were nationalised in 1889, however, it was not until 1923 that the second T appeared and the department of P&T became PTT. In 1941, a General Direction of Telecommunications was created within this ministry, then, in 1944, the National Centre of Telecommunications Studies was created to develop the telecommunications industry in France. In the 1970s, France tried extra hard to make up its delay on other countries with the programme delta LP and it was at the time when the majority of the local loop was built, that is all the cables linking the users to the operator. Moreover, with the help of French manufacturers, digital switching, the Minitel, until 1988, France Télécom was known as the Direction Générale des Télécommunications, a division of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. This was in response to a European directive, aimed at making competition mandatory in public services from 1 January 1998, the 2 July 1990 Bill changed France Télécom into an operator of public law, with Marcel Roulet the first Chairman. Since then, the company has had a body corporate from the State. It was privatised by Lionel Jospins Plural Left government starting on 1 January 1998, the French government, both directly and through its holding company ERAP, continues to hold a stake of almost 27% in the company. In addition, the government Conseil of Ministers names the CEO, in 1982 Telecom introduced Minitel online ordering for its customers. In September 1995, Michel Bon was appointed to run France Télécom Group, in 1997, the capital of the new public company was successfully floated whereas the dot-com bubble phenomenon made the stock exchanges bullish. A second share offering occurred in 1998, Hutchison renamed Microtel to Orange Personal Communications Services Ltd, and on 28 April 1994 the Orange brand was launched in the UK mobile phone market
France Telecom
–
Orange Marine operates
cable-laying ships
France Telecom
–
Orange S.A.
France Telecom
–
As a result of
deregulation, Orange operates phone booth in Wellington, New Zealand.
France Telecom
–
Orange's former head office in Paris at 6, Place d'Alleray.
11.
Telephone
–
A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice and this instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households, the essential elements of a telephone are a microphone to speak into and an earphone which reproduces the voice in a distant location. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a dial, which was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial. The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear, the dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the network to the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The first telephones were connected to each other from one customers office or residence to another customers location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. For greater mobility, various systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the middle 20th century. Hand-held mobile phone]s was introduced for personal service starting in 1973, by the late 1970s several mobile telephone networks operated around the world. In 1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System was launched, offering a standardized technology providing portability for users far beyond the residence or office. These analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with better security, greater capacity, better regional coverage, the public switched telephone network, with its hierarchical system of many switching centers, interconnects telephones around the world for communication with each other. With the standardized international numbering system, E.164, each line has an identifying telephone number. Although originally designed for voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional capabilities. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile communication, a traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service, commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair of insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial, the ringer, or beeper, light or other device, alerts the user to incoming calls
Telephone
–
A
rotary dial telephone, c.1940s
Telephone
–
Bell placing the first New York to Chicago telephone call in 1892
Telephone
–
Reis' telephone
Telephone
–
1896 Telephone from
Sweden
12.
Ground station
–
For stations controlling unmanned aerial vehicles, see Ground control station. Ground stations may be located either on the surface of the Earth, Earth stations communicate with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving radio waves in the super high frequency or extremely high frequency bands. When a ground station successfully transmits radio waves to a spacecraft, a principal telecommunications device of the ground station is the parabolic antenna. Ground stations may have either a fixed or itinerant position, article 1 § III of the ITU Radio Regulations describes various types of stationary and mobile ground stations, and their interrelationships. Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with satellites—chiefly communications satellites, other ground stations communicate with manned space stations or unmanned space probes. A ground station that primarily receives telemetry data, or that follows a satellite not in geostationary orbit, is called a tracking station, when a satellite is within a ground stations line of sight, the station is said to have a view of the satellite. It is possible for a satellite to communicate with more than one station at a time. A pair of stations are said to have a satellite in mutual view when the stations share simultaneous, unobstructed. Teleports may provide various broadcasting services among other functions, such as uploading computer programs or issuing commands over an uplink to a satellite. In May 1984, the Dallas/Fort Worth Teleport became the first American teleport to commence operation, the Telecommunications Industry Association also acknowledges this definition. The ITU Radiocommunication Sector, a division of the International Telecommunication Union, from 1927 to 1932, standards and regulations now governed by the ITU-R were administered by the International Consultative Committee for Radio. Eutelsat publishes similar standards and requirements, such as the Eutelsat Earth Station Standards, uplinkStation. com, a corporate directory of commercial teleports, satellite television operators, et al. World Teleport Association Accessed on 22 April 2009
Ground station
–
The Raisting Satellite Earth Station is the largest satellite communications facility in Germany.
Ground station
–
A
tier-1 satellite dish (manufactured by
Level 3 Communications) in
Boise, Idaho.
13.
Intelsat
–
Intelsat, S. A. is a communications satellite services provider. As of March 2017, Intelsat is to merge with Softbank backed OneWeb, the agreement is to merge in a share-for-share deal. SoftBank will buy voting and non-voting shares in the company for $1.7 billion in cash. Shares that Softbank-OneWeb will buy in the company will be bought for $5 per share. As of March 2011, Intelsat operates a fleet of 52 communications satellites and they claim to serve around 1,500 customers and employ a staff of approximately 1,100 people. The intergovernmental organization began on 20 August 1964, with 11 participating countries, on 6 April 1965, Intelsat’s first satellite, the Intelsat I, was placed in geostationary orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket. In 1973, the name was changed and there were 80 signatories, Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies. By 2001, INTELSAT had over 100 members and it was also this year that INTELSAT privatized and changed its name to Intelsat. Since its inception, Intelsat has used versions of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. Intelsat completes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years, Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is Space Systems/Loral, having built 31 spacecraft, or nearly half of the fleet. The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. Fortunately, during the Apollo 11 moonwalk, the moon was over the Pacific Ocean, and so other antennas were used, as well as INTELSAT III, to avert the US governments interference with Intelsat, Intelsats senior management unsuccessfully considered relocating the IGO to another country. On 18 July 2001, Intelsat became a company,37 years after formation. Prior to Intelsats privatization in 2001, ownership and investment in INTELSAT was distributed among INTELSAT members according to their use of services, investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. Satellite services were available to any organization, and all paid the same rates. Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, modern satellites are more robust, lasting longer with much larger capacity. Intelsat Americas-7 experienced a power failure on 29 November 2004. The satellite returned to service with reduced capacity, Intelsat was sold for U. S. $3. 1bn in January 2005 to four private equity firms, Madison Dearborn Partners, Apax Partners, Permira and Apollo Global Management
Intelsat
–
INTELSAT I Early Bird
Intelsat
–
An Intelsat IVA Satellite
Intelsat
–
The former
Intelsat administrative headquarters in
Washington, D.C.
14.
Indian Ocean
–
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
Indian Ocean
–
The economically important
Silk Road (red) and spice
trade routes (blue) were blocked by the
Ottoman Empire in ca. 1453 with the fall of the
Byzantine Empire. This spurred exploration, and a new sea route around Africa was found, triggering the
Age of Discovery.
Indian Ocean
–
Extent of the Indian Ocean according to the
CIA World Factbook
Indian Ocean
–
British heavy cruisers
Dorsetshire and
Cornwall under Japanese air attack and heavily damaged on 5 April 1942
Indian Ocean
–
A
dhow off the coast of Kenya
15.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of
Portugal
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean, not including
Arctic and
Antarctic regions
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Atlantic Ocean
–
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina view of the Atlantic Ocean.
16.
Eutelsat
–
Eutelsat S. A. is a French-based satellite provider. Eutelsats satellites are used for broadcasting 6,000 television stations, of which 600 are in HD, Eutelsat Communications Chief Executive Officer is currently Rodolphe Belmer. Its main craft have traditionally operated from four positions, each separated by three degrees at Geostationary orbit,7,10,13 and 16°E, although more positions are now operated, in December 2016, Eutelsat made a four-year agreement to lease AsiaSat 8s Ku-band. In 1982 Eutelsat decided to start operations of its first TV-channel on the Orbital Test Satellite in cooperation with ESA and this was the first satellite based direct-to-home TV-channel launched in Europe. Eutelsat was the first satellite operator in Europe to broadcast television channels direct-to-home, with the general liberalisation of the telecommunications sector in Europe, the IGO’s operations and activities were transferred to a private company called Eutelsat S. A. in July 2001. In April 2005, the shareholders of Eutelsat S. A. grouped their investment in a new entity. Currently it owns 96. 0% of Eutelsat S. A, the transaction was finalized on January 2,2014. Based in Mexico, Satmex operates three satellites at contiguous positions, 113° West,114. 9° West and 116. 8° West that cover 90% of the population of the Americas. Eutelsat commercializes capacity on 40 satellites located in orbit between 116 degrees West and 172 degrees East. On 1 March 2012, Eutelsat changed the names of its satellites, the groups satellites mostly take the Eutelsat name, with the relevant figure for their orbital position and a letter indicating their order of arrival at that position. On 21 May 2014, Eutelsat Americas aligned its satellite names with the Eutelsat brand, guy Lebègue, « Eutelsat II, OK For West-to-East Service. », in Revue aerospatiale, n°73, November 1990, official Website Tooway, Eutelsats consumer broadband service
Eutelsat
–
1/10 scale mockup of an Eutelsat W3 satellite, a Spacebus 4000C3 Image does NOT show W3B (for comparison actual W3B photo)
17.
Inmarsat
–
Inmarsat plc is a British satellite telecommunications company, offering global mobile services. It provides telephone and data services to users worldwide, via portable or mobile terminals which communicate with ground stations through twelve geostationary telecommunications satellites. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index, the organisation was created to establish and operate a satellite communications network for the maritime community. The member states owned varying shares of the operational business, the main offices were originally located in the Euston Tower, Euston Road, London. The IMSO and Inmarsat Ltd. signed an agreement imposing public safety obligations on the new company, Inmarsat was the first international satellite organization that was privatized. In 2005, Apax Partners and Permira bought shares in the company, the company was also first listed on the London Stock Exchange in that year. In March 2008, it was disclosed that U. S. hedge fund Harbinger Capital owned 28% of the company, Inmarsat won the 2010 MacRobert Award for its Broadband Global Area Network service. In March 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappeared with 239 passengers, after turning away from its planned path and disappearing from radar coverage, the aircrafts satellite data unit remained in contact with Inmarsats ground station in Perth via the IOR satellite. The aircraft used Inmarsats Classic Aero service, which does not provide information about the aircrafts location. Analysis of these communications by Inmarsat and independently by other agencies determined that the aircraft flew into the southern Indian Ocean and was used to guide the search for the aircraft, the Inmarsat head office is at Old Street Roundabout in the London Borough of Islington. Aside from its services, Inmarsat provides global maritime distress and safety services to ships and aircraft at no charge. Services include traditional voice calls, low-level data tracking systems, and high-speed Internet and other services as well as distress. The most recent of these provides GPRS-type services at up to 492 kbit/s via the Broadband Global Area Network IP satellite modem the size of a notebook computer, other services provide mobile Integrated Services Digital Network services used by the media for live reporting on world events via videophone. The price of a call via Inmarsat has now dropped to a level where they are comparable to, voice call charges are the same for any location in the world where the service is used. Tariffs for calls to Inmarsat country codes vary, depending on the country in which they are placed, Inmarsat primarily uses country code 870. In addition to its own satellites, Inmarsat has an agreement with ACeS regarding handheld voice services. There are three types of related to each Inmarsat I-4 satellite. Global beam coverage Each satellite is equipped with a single beam that covers up to one-third of the Earths surface
Inmarsat
–
Inmarsat
satellite telephone in use after a
natural disaster in
Nias, Indonesia. The unit depicted was manufactured by
Thrane & Thrane A/S of Denmark. (April 2005)
Inmarsat
–
Inmarsat-3 satellite
Inmarsat
–
Inmarsat Global HQ at 99 City Road, London. (January 2006)
18.
Radio
–
When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
Radio
–
The
Alexandra Palace radio transmitter mast
Radio
–
Classic radio
receiver dial
Radio
–
Rooftop
television antennas.
Yagi-Uda antennas like these six are widely used at
VHF and
UHF frequencies.
Radio
–
Bakelite radio at the Bakelite Museum, Orchard Mill, Williton, Somerset, UK.
19.
Television
–
Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
Television
–
Flat-screen televisions for sale at a consumer electronics store
Television
–
The first known photograph of a moving image produced by Baird's "televisor", circa 1926 (The subject is Baird's business partner Oliver Hutchinson)
Television
–
Vladimir Zworykin demonstrates electronic television (1929)
Television
–
Ad for the beginning of experimental television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939
20.
Internet service provider
–
An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
Internet service provider
–
Local ISP in Manhattan installing fiber for provisioning Internet access
21.
Orange S.A.
–
Orange S. A. formerly France Télécom S. A. is a French multinational telecommunications corporation. It has 256 million customers worldwide and employs 95,000 people in France, in 2015, the group had revenue of €40 billion. The companys head office is located in the 15th arrondissement of Paris, the current CEO is Stéphane Richard. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, Orange has been the companys main brand for mobile, landline, internet and IPTV services since 2006. It originated in 1994 when Hutchison Whampoa acquired a stake in Microtel Communications during the early 1990s. It became a subsidiary of Mannesmann in 1999 and was acquired by France Télécom in 2000, the company was rebranded as Orange in July 2013. In 1792, under the French Revolution, the first communication network was developed to enable the rapid transmission of information in a warring and that was the optical telegraphy network of Claude Chappe. In 1878, after the invention of the telegraph and then the invention of the telephone. Telephone Services were added to the ministry when they were nationalised in 1889, however, it was not until 1923 that the second T appeared and the department of P&T became PTT. In 1941, a General Direction of Telecommunications was created within this ministry, then, in 1944, the National Centre of Telecommunications Studies was created to develop the telecommunications industry in France. In the 1970s, France tried extra hard to make up its delay on other countries with the programme delta LP and it was at the time when the majority of the local loop was built, that is all the cables linking the users to the operator. Moreover, with the help of French manufacturers, digital switching, the Minitel, until 1988, France Télécom was known as the Direction Générale des Télécommunications, a division of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. This was in response to a European directive, aimed at making competition mandatory in public services from 1 January 1998, the 2 July 1990 Bill changed France Télécom into an operator of public law, with Marcel Roulet the first Chairman. Since then, the company has had a body corporate from the State. It was privatised by Lionel Jospins Plural Left government starting on 1 January 1998, the French government, both directly and through its holding company ERAP, continues to hold a stake of almost 27% in the company. In addition, the government Conseil of Ministers names the CEO, in 1982 Telecom introduced Minitel online ordering for its customers. In September 1995, Michel Bon was appointed to run France Télécom Group, in 1997, the capital of the new public company was successfully floated whereas the dot-com bubble phenomenon made the stock exchanges bullish. A second share offering occurred in 1998, Hutchison renamed Microtel to Orange Personal Communications Services Ltd, and on 28 April 1994 the Orange brand was launched in the UK mobile phone market
Orange S.A.
–
Orange Marine operates
cable-laying ships
Orange S.A.
–
Orange S.A.
Orange S.A.
–
As a result of
deregulation, Orange operates phone booth in Wellington, New Zealand.
Orange S.A.
–
Orange's former head office in Paris at 6, Place d'Alleray.
22.
SFR
–
SFR is a French telecommunications company that provides voice, video, data, and Internet telecommunications and professional services to consumers and businesses. As of December 2015, it has 21.9 million customers in Metropolitan France for mobile services, SFR is owned by Altice and French conglomerate Vivendi. Vodafone had a 44% share in SFR until April 2011 when it sold the share back to Vivendi. SFR is the network of Vodafone in France. SFR operated in Belgium as an operator and MVNO in some communes of Brussels Region. The division was sold to rival Telenet in December 2016, Vivendi announced sometime about March 2014 that it planned to sell its SFR division. On 14 March it announced that it would enter negotiations with Altice/Numericable, to the exclusion of Bouygues. Arnaud Montebourg, the French Minister for Industrial Renewal, provoked a storm when he stated that the Numericable/SFR deal was a certainty, in February 2016 Orange, SFR and Free announced the purchase of their competitor Bouygues Telecom. However, negotiations for the agreement fell through a few months later
SFR
–
SFR
23.
Bouygues Telecom
–
Bouygues Telecom is a French mobile phone, Internet service provider and IPTV company, part of the Bouygues group. Its headquarters, designed by Arquitectonica, are located at the border of Paris, in January 2016 Bouygues Telecom were subject to negotiations regarding an acquisition from mobile carrier Orange. The three companies were collectively fined €535 million in total, in November 2007 Bouygues Telecom went to court seeking cancellation on its edition. In February 2009 the company was ordered to take down a phone mast due to uncertainty about its effect on health. Residents in the commune Charbonnières in the Rhône department had sued the company claiming adverse health effects from the emitted by the 19 meter tall antenna. In October 2012 the company charged Solenne San Jose 11,721,000,000,000,000 euros for her phone usage. The company initially offered Solenne San Jose that she could repay in installments, before admitting that the bill was wrong. They sponsored the bicycle racing team Bbox Bouygues Telecom from 2005 to 2010, Official website Official Website for International Visitors
Bouygues Telecom
–
Bouygues Telecom
24.
Free Mobile
–
Free Mobile is a French wireless service provider, part of the Iliad group. It was the mobile network operator to obtain a metropolitan French 3G license in 2009. It also obtained a 4G license in 2011, Free Mobile provides wireless services to 12.7 million subscribers as of December 2016. The first 3G licenses were awarded to France Telecom in 2000, SFR in 2000, Free Mobile application has been agreed by French regulatory authority ARCEP on 17 December 2009. The license price is 240 million euros for two 5 MHz duplex bands in the 2100 MHz and 900 MHz frequency bands, Free Mobile signed a 2G and 3G roaming agreement with Orange on 3 March 2011. It will run until the end of 2020, 100% of the 2G traffic will go through Oranges network as Free Mobile has no 2G license. Free Mobile has for legal obligation to cover 27% of the French population by January 2012, 75% by January 2015, Free Mobile was already covering 30% of the French population in November 2011. A 3G roaming agreement with Orange enables communications channeled through Oranges network, Free Mobile was covering 37. 3% of the French population in July 2012. Xavier Niel announced its network was covering 50% in January 2013, ARCEP confirmed that Free Mobile covered 78% of the population in January 2015. An estimated 16,000 antennas, depending on the frequencies, are required to cover the whole French metropolitan area, Free Mobile operates roughly 8,800 antennas as of March 2017. ARCEP confirmed that Free covers enough of the country to open commercially, for the few first years Free will pay Orange to get a full national coverage, for the roaming license agreement as it arrived late to the mobile market. Free Mobile launched its two offers on 10 January 2012, both offers are without commitment and without subsidized phones. Free Mobile obtained a 4G license on 22 September 2011 for 271 million euros for a duplex 20 MHz band in the 2600 MHz frequency band and it failed to obtain further bands in the 800 MHz frequency band. Xavier Niel announced on his Twitter account the availability of the 4G on 3 December 2013, 4G was added, at no additional cost, to the current commercial packages. Free Mobile has been granted 15 MHz duplex bands in the 1800 MHz frequency band to balance with the licenses offered for free in this band to the operators back in early 2000s. 5 MHz have been available between January and June 2015 and the remaining 10 MHz will be on the 25 May 2016, the auction for the 700 MHz frequency band started on 16 November 2015. Initial bidding price was set at 416 million euros per 5 MHz duplex band, the auction ended on 17 November 2015. Free mobile bought two bands at 466 million euros, Free Mobile announced covering 85% of the population in 3G as of 1st July 2016
Free Mobile
–
Free Mobile
25.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
26.
List of newspapers in France
–
Below is a list of newspapers in France. Paris Newspapers and the American Civil War, Press and politics in pre-revolutionary France Chalaby, Jean K. Twenty years of contrast, The French and British press during the inter-war period, european Journal of Sociology 37.01, 143-159. The government and the press in France, 1814-1881 Collins, Ross F. and E. M. Palmegiano. The Rise of Western Journalism 1815-1914, Essays on the Press in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, the Failings of Popular News Censorship in Nineteenth-Century France. La Feuille villageoise, the Revolutionary Press, and the Question of Rural Political Participation, columbia Journalism Review 18.1, 58-61 Freiberg, J. W. The French press, class, state, and ideology Goldstein, the newspaper press in the French Revolution (Taylor & Francis,19880 Isser, Natalie. The national daily press of France, 370pp Trinkle, Dennis A, the Napoleonic press, the public sphere and oppositionary journalism Weigle, Clifford. The Paris Press from 1920 to 1940 Journalism Quarterly 18, 376-84, the Rise and Fall of the Havas News Agency Journalism Quarterly 19, 277-86 Williams, Roger Lawrence. Henri Rochefort, prince of the gutter press Zerner, Elisabeth H
List of newspapers in France
–
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (September 2012) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
27.
List of mobile network operators of Europe
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A mobile network operator or MNO is a provider of wireless communications services. The main MNOs in Europe are listed below, Albania had in 20154.9 million subscribers, out of which there were 3,3 million active users. An active user is the number of users that communicated in the last three months, the regulatory authority for telecommunication in Albania is the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority. Andorra has 65.000 mobile subscribers or about 76. 4% mobile penetration, as of June 2014, Armenia has 3,3 million subscribers in total, and a 120% penetration rate. Austria has 13,0 million assigned numbers, or a 151. 0% penetration rate, the Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in Austria is the Austrian Regulatory Authority for Broadcasting and Telecommunications. In December 2005, Azerbaijan had 2 million subscribers in total, in 2014, Azerbaijan has over 10 million subscribers in total and 130% penetration rate 1. Fintur Holdings B. V. owners are Telia Company 58. 5% and Turkcell 41. 45% Belarus has 10.7 million subscribers in total, or a 113% penetration rate. The Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in Belarus is the Ministry of Communications and Informatization Belgium has 13.89 million subscribers in total, the Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in Belgium is the Belgian Institute for Postal services and Telecommunications. The Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in Bulgaria is the Communications Regulation Commission Croatia has 4.454.917 subscribers in total, the Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in Croatia is the Hrvatska agencija za poštu i elektronicke komunikacije. The Czech Republic has 14.244 million subscribers in total, the Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in the Czech Republic is the Český telekomunikační úřad. Denmark has 8.208 million subscribers in total, or a 146% penetration rate, the regulator is the Danish Business Authority. Estonia has 2.524 million subscribers in total, or a 188% penetration rate, the Faroe Islands have 0,061 million subscribers in total, or a 126. 2% penetration rate. Finland has 7.700 million subscribers in total, or a 144. 59% penetration rate, see also the Finnish Communications Regulatory Authority at https, //www. viestintavirasto. fi/en/ France has 75.5 million subscribers in total, or a 115. 2% penetration rate. The Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in France is ARCEP, as of 2015, Georgia has 5.6 million subscribers in total. Germany has 114.124 million subscribers in total, or a 140% penetration rate, the Regulatory Authority for telecommunication in Germany is the Bundesnetzagentur. Gibraltar, the British overseas territory has 0.028 million subscribers in total, Greece has 16.443 million subscribers in total, or a 140% penetration rate. The Regulatory Authority for telecommunications in Greece is EETT, greenland has 0.053 million subscribers in total, or a 93. 32% penetration rate. The British Crown dependency Guernsey has 0.055 million subscribers in total, Hungary has 11.545 million subscribers in total, or a 116. 9% penetration rate
List of mobile network operators of Europe
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> 140%
28.
Outline of France
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The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide of France, France – country in Western Europe with several overseas regions and territories. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, from its shape, it is often referred to in French as l’Hexagone. The 5 overseas regions are untouched, French departments are roughly analogous to English counties, French culture Contemporary French Civilization, journal, University of Illinois. Radio France Internationale in English culture pages Radio France Internationale in English Visiting France page
Outline of France
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An enlargeable satellite image of
Metropolitan France
Outline of France
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The
Flag of France
Outline of France
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The Seine as seen from the
Pont Royal
Outline of France
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The
Eiffel Tower, with the skyline of
Paris in the background
29.
History of France
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The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age. The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language, over the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands. Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire, in the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration, most importantly by the Germanic Franks. The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul under his rule in the late 5th century, Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne. The war formally began in 1337 following Philip VIs attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its holder, Edward III of England. Despite early Plantagenet victories, including the capture and ransom of John II of France, among the notable figures of the war was Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl who led French forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453, victory in the Hundred Years War had the effect of strengthening French nationalism and vastly increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the period known as the Ancien Régime, France transformed into an absolute monarchy. During the next centuries, France experienced the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, Henry, King of Navarre, scion of the Bourbon family, would be victorious in the conflict and establish the French Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century, French political power reached a zenith under the rule of Louis XIV, The Sun King, builder of Versailles Palace. In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the French Revolution, the country was governed for a period as a Republic, until the French Empire was declared by Napoleon Bonaparte. France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I, fighting alongside the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, the United States and smaller allies against Germany and the Central Powers. France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II, the Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany while the south was controlled until 1942 by the collaborationist Vichy government. Living conditions were harsh as Germany drained away food and manpower, Charles de Gaulle led the Free France movement that one-by-one took over the colonial empire, and coordinated the wartime Resistance. Following liberation in summer 1944, a Fourth Republic was established, France slowly recovered economically, and enjoyed a baby boom that reversed its very low fertility rate. Long wars in Indochina and Algeria drained French resources and ended in political defeat, in the wake of the Algerian Crisis of 1958, Charles de Gaulle set up the French Fifth Republic. Into the 1960s decolonization saw most of the French colonial empire become independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as overseas departments, since World War II France has been a permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO. It played a role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union
History of France
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Cave painting in
Lascaux
History of France
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Massalia (modern
Marseille) silver coin with Greek legend, a testimony to
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul, 5th–1st century BC.
History of France
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Vercingetorix surrenders to
Julius Caesar after
Alesia. Painting by Lionel-Noël Royer, 1899.
History of France
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Gaulish soldiers
30.
Timeline of French history
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This is a timeline of French history, comprising important legal and changes and political events in France and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of France, see also the list of Frankish kings, French monarchs, and presidents of the French Republic and list of years in France. Category, Timelines of cities in France France Profile, Timeline, archived from the original on March 2009 – via University of North Carolina in Greensboro
Timeline of French history
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18th century
